MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 2024 ALUMINUM ALLOY

WITH AND WITHOUT RARE-EARTH AND THERMOMECHANICAL TREATMENT AFTER

MULTI-PASS STIR FRICTION PROCESSING

Rania M. El-Shorbagy
Mining, Petroleum and Metallurgy Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt

Z. M. El-Baradie
Central Metallurgical Research and Development Institute (CMRDI), Helwan, Cairo, Egypt

Ahmed I. Abdel-Aziz
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt

Copyright Ó 2023 The Author(s)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40962-023-01191-7

Abstract
Friction stir processing (FSP) is the most effective severe
plastic deformation process for creating materials with
very fine grains and good properties. The target of the
present research is to investigate the influence of FSP on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of homoge-
nized 2024 aluminum alloy with and without rare-earth
(RE) and thermomechanically treated conditions (TMT).
The rare-earth elements used were Ce and La in the form
of a master alloy containing (50% Ce ? 50% La). The
casting of 2024 aluminum alloys, both with and without
(Ce ? La), was carried out using the conventional stir cast
technique. Part of the obtained alloys was homogenized,
whereas the other part was thermomechanically treated
(TMT). The homogenized 2024 material was exposed to
FSP with multiple passes (one, two, and three) to obtain
the suitable pass number. After that, the best pass number
was performed on the 2024 aluminum alloy refined with RE
(Ce ? La) and TMT materials. The microstructures in
different conditions (homogenized and stir friction) were
examined by optical and scan microscopes attached with
EDS and Map analyzer. At the same time, a tensile test was
conducted to assess the mechanical properties. The find-
ings indicated that the microstructures were significantly
refined after adding RE (Ce ? La) or applying the TMT
technique. Whereas, the microstructures were greatly
improved after applying FSP to both conditions. Ultra-fine
grains were observed for both TMT and RE-containing
alloys after FSP. On the other hand, the results of
mechanical properties were significantly increased after
applying multiple passes of FSP. The optimum results were
obtained when two passes of stir friction were applied to
the TMT alloy condition.
Keywords: friction stir processing, aluminum alloy,
casting, microstructure, tensile properties

Introduction and free of any thermal damage. As an eco-friendly and

Friction Stir Processing has become an increasingly pop-
ular method of surface modification for enhancing the
surface and mechanical properties of metals.1 It is con-
sidered a severe plastic deformation technique that evolved
from Friction Stir Welding.2–4 Being a cold-forming pro-
cess, the enhancement of strength using FSP will be better
Received: 09 August 2023 / Accepted: 16 October 2023
solid-state surface technique, FSP is used in a wide range
of industries such as automotive, energy, aerospace, avia-
tion, and shipping.5 Also, it has been established as a grain
refining approach that produces microstructures with
extremely fine grains and high grain boundary (GB)
misorientations.6–8 In FSP, a workpiece is inserted, and a
rapidly rotating headpin is then moved across the work-
piece directly on the top surface.9–11 Contact between the
revolving tool and the sample causes heat to be gener-
ated.11–13 The resulting heat decreases the workpiece

International Journal of Metalcasting

deformation resistance and transforms the metal near the
tool to a softened state.11 Depending on processing con-
ditions, tool geometry, and processed material, the rotating
headpin’s mechanical stirring action severely plastically
deforms the softened workpiece by causing it to travel in
quite intricate pathways around the tool.6,12,14 Then,
dynamic recrystallization (DRX) resulting from severe
plastic deformation causes a grain refinement in workpiece
material.6,10,12 FSP has the ability to produce fine,
equiaxed, completely recrystallized grains with sizes
ranging from nano to micro.6 According to the Hall–Petch
relation, the effective way to increase mechanical proper-
ties is grain refining. In addition, UFG materials display the
superplasticity needed to produce parts with intricate
designs.12
2024 alloy is among the greatest significant damage-tol-
erant aluminum alloys frequently utilized in the aerospace
industry to make fuselage panels, tanks, and tiny structural
components.15–17 Therefore, fabricating complex shapes
from this alloy will be facilitated by achieving UFG,
especially at high strain rates.18 It was reported that at a
similar temperature and strain rate, the FSP material had a
higher ductility value than those of the parent one, and its
stir zone grain size was 3.9 lm.2,18 Also, it was claimed
that FSP produced a 20% increase in tensile strength, with
a slight loss in the yield strength relative to the raw alloy.2
Meanwhile, many researchers14 used a bottom-up tech-
nique to optimize the parameters of the process in order to
produce material that was free of defects and had a strength
of 93% of the base material. Their findings included
analyses of the size of grains and precipitates using SEM,
mechanical characteristics, and residual stress analysis.
They also investigated the texture evolution and
microstructure through single and multiple-pass FSP.
According to their findings, DRX was the predominant
mechanism that provided an average 4-5 lm equiaxed
grain size at the stirred area. At the same time, particle-
stimulated nucleation was an implicated mechanism of
nucleation.
Thus, understanding the effect of FSP on microstructure
features and its impact on the mechanical properties of
aluminum alloys. It was focused great attention in this
research on investigating the influence of applied FSP with
multiple passes on the microstructure and mechanical
characteristics of 2024 in different conditions (homoge-
nized alloy with and without RE (Ce and La), and TMT).
Experimental Procedure
Casting Procedure
Al–Cu–Mg (Type 2024) alloy with and without RE ele-
ments was cast using a conventional stir-casting procedure.
2 Kg of commercial materials were Melted in an electrical
resistance furnace. The melting process was operated in a
crucible fabricated from silicon carbide at 720 °C while
using argon as a protective atmosphere. Rare earth ele-
ments (50% Ce-50% La) were added in the form of master
alloy slices (about 1 mm thick) at the bottom of the cru-
cible. To ensure the complete dissolution of necessary
alloying elements, the melt was stirred using a mechanical
stirrer (EUROSTAR digital IKA-WERKE) that was pre-
viously heated to 300 °C. The velocity of the stirrer
increased gradually from 0 to 900 rpm for 10 min. A
photograph of the stir-casting setup is shown in Figure 1.
The melt temperature was maintained at 720 °C. The
molten alloy was periodically skimmed before being
poured into a 240*200*20 mm ductile cast iron mold that
was already preheated to 250 °C. The pouring temperature
was approximately 720 °C. The chemical analysis of
obtained alloys is reported in Table 1. Finally, the obtained

Grain refinement is often used to improve the strength and

plasticity of the aluminum alloys and for grain sizes of the
product above the nano-level. Refining the grains can
improve the dislocation density and increase the strength of
the material.19 In general, grain refinement plays a major
role in improving the castability, mechanical properties,
and corrosion behavior of the cast and wrought Al-alloys.
Grain refinement can be achieved by one of these tech-
niques: (i) thermal methods such as increasing cooling rate;
(ii) chemical methods such as the addition of some ele-
ments that work as grain-size refiners promoting nucleation
and obstructing growth; (iii) mechanical methods that
include mechanical methods performed during the casting
process, or mechanical methods implemented after casting
process.20
Figure 1. Photograph of the stir casting setup.

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 Table 1. Chemical Analysis of 2024 Obtained and Standard Materials (wt.%)
Materials Cu Mg Mn
2024 alloy 4.28 1.5 0.59
Alloy refined with (Ce ? La) 4.19 1.52 0.57
Standard 2024 3.8–4.9 1.2–1.8 0.3–0.9
alloys were subjected to homogenization treatment at 500
°C for 4 hours and then, cooled in air.
Friction Stir Process
Part of the homogenized 2024 Al alloy was thermome-
chanically treated. At the same time, the other part was
subjected to FSP in the air with different passes (one, two,
and three passes) to obtain a suitable pass number condi-
tion. After that, the obtained pass condition was performed
on the 2024 aluminum alloy modified with (Ce and La) rare
earth elements and also on the TMT alloy condition. The
homogenized plates were sectioned into 150 mm x 100 mm
x 4 mm plates for FSP using a wire-cutting machine. The
plates were processed using a vertical milling machine at a
fixed distance. The cylindrical pin profile of the H13 (52
HRC) steel processing tool had a flat surface. The pin has
dimensions of 4 mm diameter, 5 mm height, and 18 mm
diameter shoulder, Figure 2a. A shoulder with a zero-tilt
angle was used. 80 mm/min tool’s travel speed and 1000
rpm rotational speed were used in this work. The headpin
was inserted into the workpiece until the sheet’s top surface
was in contact with the shoulder of the headpin. The
rotation axis of the tool was perpendicular to the work-
piece’s top surface. A linear path was followed by the tool.
Each pass was carried out with 100% overlap. During FSP,
the multi-pass technique was employed to introduce uni-
form deformation to the stir zone. In the first pass, the pin
was rotated clockwise, and anticlockwise in return pass.
The linear path of the tool was carried out along the whole
length of the plate, and the second pass was subjected
completely to all the stir zone area. Then, the plate was
cooled to room temperature in the air. Figure 2b revised the
schematic of the FSP used in this study, Figure 2c shows
the FSP equipment with a sample, and Figure 2d shows the
sample prepared.
Microstructure Characterization
For microstructural observations, specimens from homog-
enized plates 2024 with and without RE (Ce and La) ele-
ments and TMT were subjected to a metallographic
procedure. Meanwhile, cutting was applied on FSP samples
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Fe Si Cr Ti RE (Ce ? La) Al
0.27 0.4 0.09 0.04 – Bal.
0.23 0.3 0.11 0.02 1 Bal.
0.5 0.5 0.1 0.15 Bal.
Max. Max. Max. Max.
perpendicular to the traverse direction of the tool. The
specimens were polished and ground according to stan-
dard metallographic procedures. Then, the samples in dif-
ferent conditions (homogenized, TMT, and stir friction)
were etched with Kroll’s reagent (192 ml H2O, 6 ml HNO3,
and 2 ml HF). The metallographic studies were executed
using optical and scan microscopes, and phase analyzer
EDS spectroscopy. The average grain size of each sample
was measured by the linear intercept method. X-ray
diffraction analysis for 2024 alloys with and without RE
elements was carried out using an ‘‘X, PERT PRO’’
machine with a Cu Ka target.
Tensile Testing
Tensile samples were taken away from homogenized alloys
with and without RE (Ce and La) addition and TMT alloy.
The FSP tensile samples, however, were taken from the
processed zone parallel to its longitudinal axis. So, the
specimen gauge length must be from the stir zone. Wire-
cutting machine was used to fabricate these specimens.
Figure 3a and b provides the tensile specimen’s dimensions
and schematic of the longitudinal tensile test specimen.
Figure 3c represents the position of a tensile sample on the
stir zone. The tensile tests were performed at room tem-
perature. A testing apparatus with a 10 KN capacity and a
constant cross-head speed of 0.3 mm/min was used in this
work.
Results and Discussion
Microstructure Examination
Microstructure of Base Metal
The surface of homogenized plates 2024 with and without
RE (Ce and La) was prepared for microstructure exami-
nations. Optical and SEM micrographs of homogenized
plate surface 2024 aluminum alloy are shown in Figure 4.
The microstructure mainly displays coarse grains of a-solid
solution matrix (the bright contrast) along with inter-
metallic phases. These intermetallic phases are precipitated
at grain boundaries (GB) and have different morphologies
(the dark contrast). Some of these intermetallic phases
 Figure 2. (a) Tool of FSP, (b) FSP schematic, (c) FSP equipment with a sample, and (d) sample
prepared.
(Al2Cu and Al2CuMg) have a coarse plate-like morphol-
ogy. Meanwhile, Chinese script morphology is recognized
in the phase containing Fe. The average grain size is about
55 lm. A fine microstructure is observed by adding Ce and
La RE elements. Also, as shown in Figure 5, fine precipi-
tates at GB are indicated. At the same time, the AlCuM-
gRE-containing phase is recognized in the shape of plates.
The typical grain size is approximately 30 lm. On the other
hand, the microstructure of the TMT, Figure 6, appears as
elongated grains parallel to the direction of rolling. While
the morphology of plate-like precipitates was completely
changed to fine particles. The XRD analysis of this alloy
indicates the presence of these intermetallic phases,
Figure 7.
Macro- and Microstructure After FSP
Figure 8 shows the surface of the processed sample After
FSP passes. After processing, samples are extracted from
the surface of the stir-processed zone for microstructure
examination (Figure 8a at location 1). Figure 8b shows the
macrostructure of the cross section perpendicular to the
tool traverse direction of the specimen. It was observed that
the processed zone is clearly visible. A confined boundary
of the processed zone distinguishes it from other regions. It
can be shown that the depth of the stir zone is approxi-
mately 1.5 mm.
The microstructure underwent a significant change during
the FSP, as shown by Figures 9, 10, and 11. As seen in
Figure 9, the parent material’s coarse grains have been
replaced by nearly equiaxed fine grains after the first pass
of the FSP. The tool pin rotates at the material surface
during FSP. The mixture has to flow around the tool pin as
a result of the stirring action. During the action of the
traverse tool, the materials move to the back of the pin and
cause plastic deformation. As the tool moves across the
surface of the workpiece, the alloy is subjected to severe
breaking, and the precipitates are redistributed beneath the
tool.21 While, compared to the base metal, the
microstructure after the second pass, Figure 10, reveals an
increased number of small recrystallized grains and a sig-
nificant amount of GB precipitations. These findings
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 Figure 3. Schematic illustration of (a) tensile specimen used in this work, (b) specimen preparation
from friction stir processed zone, and (c) the position of a tensile test specimen on stir zone.

Figure 4. Homogenized alloy (a) Optical, (b) SEM.

Figure 5. Homogenized alloy with RE elements (Ce and La) (a) Optical, (b) SEM.

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Figure 6. TMT alloy condition (a) Optical, (b) SEM.

Figure 7. XRD pattern of the (a) 2024 homogenized sample and (b) Alloy refined with
Ce and La RE elements.

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 Figure 8. (a) Friction stir processing of the sample, (b) macrograph of FSP region.

Figure 9. Homogenized alloy after one pass FSP, (a) Optical, (b) SEM.

Figure 10. Homogenized alloy after two passes FSP, (a) Optical, (b) SEM.

Figure 11. Homogenized alloy after three passes FSP, (a) Optical, (b) SEM.

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suggest that severe plastic deformation at the tool-work
interface occurred, which caused DRX in the processed
sample’s stir zone and produced fine grains.22,23 The for-
mation of the equiaxed grain structure after FSP is attrib-
uted to the dissolving and quicker re-precipitation of
second-phase particles and Al2CuMg precipitates in this
alloy, as well as to their homogeneous distribution along
the GBs.14,24 Despite the fact that the temperature created
by FSP is much higher than is required for aberrant grain
growth to occur, this prevents grains from growing any
further.14 After the third pass, Figure 11, the microstructure
still consists of equiaxed and fine recrystallized grains
compared with the homogenized alloy. Little coarsening is
recognized in the microstructure rather than in the two-pass
condition. The relatively high temperature produced as a
result of the contact between the sample and tool shoulder
is the cause for the higher volume fraction of precipitates
that follow FSP.
After applying the optimum two-pass friction stir process
on the alloy modified with RE (Ce and La) and TMT,
Figures 12 and 13, respectively, the microstructures of the
given alloys were significantly improved, and UFG size
was generated through the FSP (grain size ranges from 5 to
8 lm). Following FSP, throughout the matrix, fine sec-
ondary particles are homogeneously distributed. The fine
particle size ranges from 1 to 4 lm for RE and TMT alloys
after FSP. It was reported that FSP breaks down the coarse
secondary phases into ultra-fine particles through severe
plastic deformation. Thus, it recommends FSP as a highly
effective microstructure refinement technique.24
The study led to the conclusion that multi-pass FSP refi-
nes the microstructure with small variations in grain size
and a considerable quantity of GB precipitation. It was
reported that FSP passes significantly affect the distribution
of grain structure and precipitates. DRX in the processed
region, along with the accumulation of heat due to multiple
FSP passes, led to a notable rise in equiaxed grain sizes
featuring high-angle grain boundaries. Grain size
Figure 12. Alloy with RE elements after two passes FSP, (a) Optical, (b) SEM.
improvement is greatly influenced by multi-pass FSP.25
However, the fine-scale particles can still be observed.
Mapping Analysis
Figure 14 displays the mapping analysis results for various
elements, including Al, Cu, Mn, Mg, and Fe, as well as
their distribution in various alloys both before and after the
FSP. These maps showed that these elements were dis-
tributed heterogeneously before the FSP. Following FSP,
there was a noticeable improvement in the distribution of
these alloying elements. The uniform distribution of the
various elements was clearly visible. The FSP tool caused
the matrix to deform plastically and mixed the different
elements, producing their uniformity in the stir region.26
Optimum uniform dissolved elements distribution was
produced through the two-pass FSP of the alloy refined
with (Ce ? La) and the TMT alloy. Iron-contained phases
were clearly dissolved and uniformly distributed through
the alloy.
EDS Analysis
Figure 15 shows the EDS analyses for different alloy
conditions. It was noted that, EDS analysis of the parent
material and stir zone shows that the chemical composition
complies with the requirements of Table 1. As is evident,
coarse S-phase precipitates can be identified as a result of
higher concentration of Al, Cu, Mg and Mn elements in
homogenized alloys. S-phase precipitates in two-pass as
well as three-pass FSP specimens appear finer in the
microstructure. These particles are created as a result of the
Guinier–Preston (GP-zone) dissolving and re-precipitating
in the base alloy during the FSP approach.25 The homog-
enized alloy containing (Ce ? La) has (AlCuMgMnCe, La)
and Fe containing phases with Chinese script and plate like
morphologies.
International Journal of Metalcasting
 Figure 13. TMT alloy condition after two passes FSP (a) Optical, (b) SEM.
After FSP, more homogeneity in the distribution of the
alloying elements is clearly evident, especially in alloy
refined with (Ce ? La) after two passes. It can be con-
cluded that the alloying elements dissolute during FSP and
then re-precipitate as one phase with different composition.
Tensile Properties
Figure 16 displays yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) of homogenized and FSP alloys. The FSP
tensile samples were taken from the stir processed zone in
longitudinal direction (Figure 2b). The tensile test results
are the average of three test specimens. For 2024 homog-
enized alloy, the YS and UTS were 92 and 147 MPa,
respectively (Table 2). After FSP, the tensile properties
significantly improved. After one-pass FSP, the YS and
UTS increased with ratio up to 30 % and 72% more than
the homogenized alloy, respectively. Meanwhile, after two
passes of FSP, UTS experienced a twofold increase com-
pared to the homogenized material, whereas the YS
increased by up to 53%. It was demonstrated that the
improvement was occurred due to grain refinement in the
microstructure with increases the passes number. On the
other hand, after three passes of FSP, even though the
tensile properties are significantly improved compared to
they were in the homogenized condition, the UTS
decreased by 13%, while YS decreased by 28% compared
with the two passes condition. The elongation percent of
homogenized and FSP alloys is shown in Figure 17. The
homogenized alloy has 4.5% elongation. The ductility
significantly increased under the FSP conditions. After
one-pass FSP, the elongation increased to 8%. The elon-
gation increased to 16% after two FSP passes, which was
threefold higher than that of homogenized one. On the
other hand, after three passes of FSP, although there is a
significant improvement in the elongation value than the
homogenized alloy, the elongation decreased to 12%
compared with the two-pass FSP condition. The reduced
International Journal of Metalcasting
value of UTS, YS and ductility for homogenized condition
were mainly a result of coarse grains and the grain
boundary secondary phases. It was noted that multi-pass
FSP improved mechanical characteristics. This enhance-
ment was credited to both homogeneous multi-pass pro-
cessed regions and uniformly fine precipitate distribution in
the matrix. It was demonstrated that the tool rotation speed
significantly influences mechanical properties and
microstructure refinement as a result of higher heat input,
causing the rotating tool pin’s softening and intense stirring
action. This causes better grain refinement, leading to
improved mechanical properties.27–30 According to Mishra
et al.31, FSP increases strength and elongation by
decreasing the porosity content of the homogenized sam-
ple. While GP-precipitates dissolution and coarse S-phase
formation are the causes of decreasing UTS, YS, and
ductility in the three-pass sample compared to the two-pass
FSP sample. It should be observed that the three-pass
sample exhibits greater effects of GP-precipitation disso-
lution and coarsening of S-phase particles than two passes
specimen. This may be related to heat input resulting
through FSP in three passes sample. According to Bousqet
et al.32, the reduction in hardness during the FSP of Al
2024 alloy is related to S-phase coarsening. Adding Ce and
La to the 2024 alloy resulted in increasing the tensile
properties. Compared with the conventional alloy, the
UTS, YS and elongation increased by 6, 15 and 33%,
respectively. The grain refinement occurred due to addition
of Ce and La additives can be attributed to the grain growth
restriction by RE additives in solid solution. The RE ele-
ments act as nucleation sites leading to grain growth
inhibiting. The fine precipitates not only affect the diffu-
sion of the atom in the alloy but also restrict the movement
of the interfaces. Thus, it will act as an obstacle for the
grain to grow. Grain boundaries are effective delphinium to
the dislocation motion, and therefore small grained mate-
rials will have higher grain boundaries density per unit
volume.20 Thus, the decreasing of grain size leads to
increasing the tensile strength. After the application of
Figure 14. Mapping of elements, (a) Homogenized 2024, (b) Two pass FSP 2024 alloy,
(c) Homogenized alloy refined with RE, (d) Two pass 2024 alloy with RE, (e) TMT alloy, (f) TMT
alloy after two pass FSP.

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 Figure 15. EDS analysis for (a) and (b) Homogenized alloy, (c) Homogenized alloy after two
pass FSP, (d), (e) and (f) Homogenized alloy with RE elements (g) Alloy with RE elements
after two pass FSP, (h) TMT alloy, (i) TMT alloy after two pass FSP.

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Figure 15. continued

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 Figure 15. continued

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 Figure 16. UTS and YS for different alloy conditions.

Table 2. UTS, YS and % Elongation for Different Meanwhile, the UTS and YS increased by 46 and 58 %,
Specimens respectively, while ductility decreased compared with the
alloy before FSP. The presence of fine-sized particles in the
Specimen YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) % microstructure resulting from FSP is responsible for the
elongation
enhancement in tensile properties.
2024 alloy 92.33±5.86 147.37±8.85 4.53±0.96
Alloy after one 120.33±8.01 253.00±8.54 8.07±1.25
pass Conclusions
Alloy after two 141.00±6.00 329.33±9.50 16.12±0.85
pass
The current investigation carefully examines the multi-pass FSP
effect on microstructure and mechanical characteristics of 2024
Alloy after three 110.30±7.11 290.40±5.61 12.08±1.68
aluminum alloy with and without (Ce ? La) or applying TMT
pass
technique. The conclusions are outlined as follows:
Alloy with (Ce ? 106.00±7.55 156.17±6.39 6.18±1.09
La)
1. Incorporating RE (Ce ? La) elements into the
Alloy with (Ce ? 156.20±5.80 337.33±6.56 14.08±1.39 alloy or employing TMT leads to microstructure
La) after two
refinement and improved mechanical properties.
pass FSP
2. FSP significantly enhances the microstructure, pre-
TMT alloy 120.23±5.96 260.20±6.10 28.49±1.12 cipitate morphologies, and mechanical properties of
TMT alloy after 190.03±8.47 380.00±5.36 25.08±1.05 homogenized aluminum 2024 alloy, regardless of
two pass FSP whether RE addition or TMT alloy is utilized.
3. The microstructure refinement in the processed
zone is prominently observed with two passes of
FSP, a substantial enhancement in tensile properties was FSP, featuring a finer structure and a more even
achieved. YS increased by 47% while UTS and elongation distribution of alloying elements.
increased up to 2 times compared with the alloy before 4. The mechanical properties are improved by two
FSP. This enhancement in mechanical properties is due to passes of FSP. This improvement is a result of the
the maximum refining in microstructure and the modifi- uniform processed region achieved through mul-
cation of the morphological of the Chinese script and plate- ti-pass FSP and the even dispersion of ultra-fine
like phases. On the other hand, TMT condition reveals the precipitates within the matrix.
maximum tensile properties. The UTS and YS increased by 5. The optimum combination of microstructure and
76 and 30%, respectively, and increased more than 6 times mechanical properties is revealed for the TMT
for ductility compared with the conventional alloy. alloy after applying two passes FSP technique.

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 Figure 17. Elongation for different alloy condition.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by CMRDI
Fund, Egypt, Project Grant No. ID: 1/2022-2023. The
authors thank everyone who contributed to conducting
the experiments for this research, Prof. Ahmed Ismail
Plastic Deformation dept., Eng. Ahmed Abdel-Meguid,
and technician Mahmoud Shehata Non-Ferrous dept
CMRDI.
Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technol-
ogy & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in
cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank
(EKB).
Data Availability
On reasonable request, the corresponding author will
provide the information supporting the study’s conclu-
sions.
Conflict of interest There are no conflicts of interest, according to
the authors.
Ethical Approval None of the authors of this article conducted any
studies on animals. Furthermore, none of the authors’ studies
involving human subjects are included.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as
long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
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article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
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use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
hardness and corrosion sensitivity of an AA 2024-T3
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