12.11.

ZENER DIODES

Zener diode, also sometimes called

ANODE
the breakdown diode, is a P-N
junction diode specially designed for BAND
operation in the breakdown region in
reverse bias condition. The diode ANODE

may use either zener breakdown CATHODE

mechanism or avalanche breakdown ZENER
DIODES
mechanism, already discussed in
detail in Art. 12.2. Despite the fact CATHODE
that avalanche and zener constitute
two types of breakdown diodes, the
ANODE
name zener is commonly applied to
both types of diodes. The breakdown ZENER DIODE
SYMBOL CATHODE
diode may be silicon or germanium
one but silicon is preferred over
germanium because of higher Fig. 12.30 Zener Diode
operating temperature and current
capability. The knee point is also more sharp in case of a silicon diode. These diodes are analogous to gas
discharge tubes in which large current appears on reaching the breekdown potential.
Zener diodes are connected into circuits with their cathodes as the positive terminal because they
operate in the reverse-bias mode. Zener diodes are packaged in the same way as conventional semiconductor
 P 2
diodes. Small zener diodes
are marked the
conventional diodes with a cathode band.
same way as
diode symbol shown in the illustration (Fig. 12.30). In additionThe laroas
diodes are marked with the zener
voltage rating (reverse breakdown), zener diodes have a haveIe a
to
power rating that must not be exceeded.
The symbol of a zener diode is
given in Fig. 12.30. This is similar to that of a normal diode
the line representing the cathode is bent at both ends except tha
i.e., the bar is turned into Z-shape; stands for
zener,
12.11.1. Volt-Ampere Characteristiccs
It has already been discussed in Art. 12.2 that
when the reverse bias on a
point is reached when the junction breaks down and a reverse current crystal
diode is gradually
a increased
increases abruptly, as
Fig. 12.31. The breakdown region is the knee of the reverse illustrated in
breakdown of junction was first characteristic, as illustrated in
Fig. 12.31. Thi
explained by the American scientist, C. Zener. So, the breakdown
sometimes called, zener voltage
V, and the sharply increased current is called the zener current voltage i Iz
30

25

20

15

10

REVERSE BIAS IN vOLTS -

VAS) Vz(Ge) .7
0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
V
Io(Si) 10nA Io(Ge)= 2 pA FORWARD BIAS IN VOLTS

-8

Fig. 12.31 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Typical Silicon and

Germanium Zener Diodes
Volt-ampere characteristics of typical silicon and
Breakdown diode is operated over the breakdown germanium diodes are illustrated in Fig. 12.31.
The breakdown or zener region and the current is limited
by an external resistance.
voltage Vz depends upon the amount of
very thin depletion layer, so zener doping. A heavily doped diode will have
and doping concentration it is
voltage will be very low. By
controlling the thickness of depletion layer
the zener voltage
possible to make the zener diode to
break down
(ranging from 2.4 V to 200 V). The forward characteristics ofata a specified voltage, caledt
those of an ordinary P-N zener diode are similar
junction diode, as illustrated.
During the operation in the breakdown
region, it does not burn out
through the diode is limited by the external
circuit within immediately. As long as the curre
permissible values, it does not burn out.
12.11.2. Zener impedance
This is very important parameter of a zener diode.
Zener impedance Z, is
zener diode (similar to dynamic resistance of an essentially the dynamic resistance o
ordinary P-N diode). It is defined as the
the zener curve reciprocal of the slope
 i.e z AVz
Alz ..12.21)

and Alz are the small variations in

where AVz
voltage and current respectively.
measured just above the knee
It is usually
When meas-
in zener region and is named Zzx.
as

It decreases
ured at test point, it is designated Zzr.
this reason,
with increase in zener current. For
the diode should be operated with as much re-
- REVERSE BIAS
verse current as possible, consistent with rating y -+ V
ls -FORWARD BIAS
limitations. ZK
Small value of zener impedance is usually
desirable as it indicates steep curve where rela-
tively large change in current, Al, occurs with a
small change in voltage AVz

Ideally the breakdown curve should be a

should be zero. In Alz
perfect vertical line and rz
practice, however, rz has a small value ranging
from a few ohms to several hundred ohms. There aVz
is also a variation in impedance of zener diodes
Fig. 12.32 Zener Diode Characteristic With Enlarged
among those having different values Vz. Zener View of Breakdown Region
diodes with breakdown voltage near 7 V have
the smallest impedances.

12.11.3. Equivalent Circuit

Circuit symbol and the equivalent circuit of a
zenerdiode are given in Fig. 12.33. The complete
equivalent circuit of a zener diode in the zener CATHODE
region includes a small dynamic resistance rz
Vz z
and a battery of Vz volts, as illustrated in ANODE
Vz
Fig. 12.33 (b).
Assuming that breakdown curve is a perfect
vertical line i.e., zener dynamic resistance is negli- (a) Zener Diode Symbol (b) Complete (c) Approximate
gible in comparison to external resistance, the
equivalent circuit becomes asillustrated in Fig. 12.33 Equivalent Circuits of Zener Diode
Fig. 12.33 (c)ie, it appears like a de battery of Vz
volts.

12.11.4. Temperature Effects

The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is a function of the width of its depletion region*, which is
controlled during manufacturing by the degree of impurity doping. As discussed in Art. 12.2, the mechanism
by which breakdown occurs depends on the breakdown voltage itself. For V, less than 5 V, the high electric
field inteusity across narrow depletion region (about 3 x 10 V/m) strips carriers directly from their bonds,a
phenomenon usually known as zener breakdown. For Vz exceeding 8 V, breakdown occurs as a result ot

Heavy doping increases conductivity, which narrows the depletion region and, therefore, reduces the voltage ar "which
*

breakdown occurs.
 collision between high-energy carriers, the mechanism known as avalanching. Between 5 V and 8 V, both
the avalanching and zener mechanisms contribute to breakdown. The practical significance of these facts is
that the breakdown mechanism determines how temperature variations affect the value of zener voltage V
Low-voltage zener diodes that break down by zener mechanism have negative temperature coefficient i.e,,
Vz decreases with the increase in temperature. Higher-voltage avalanche zeners have positive temperature
coefficients.
The effect of temperature on zener voltage is given in terms of temperature coefficient, which is defined
as the percentage change in nominal zener voltage for each degree Celsius of change in junction tempera
AVz
ture. Mathematically it is given as v, (t- ta) x 100 where AVz is the change ini zener voltage due to
temperature variation of (t - ) . The zener coefficient may be positive or negative, depending on current
becoming more positive with the increase in current.

12.11.5. Zener Diode Specifications

A zener diode is specified by its breakdown voltage Vz breakdown current, Izx» the maximum power
dissipation Pz (max) and zener impedance measured at test point, ZzT
Zener diodes are available for zener voltages of 2.4 to 200 V with accuracies between 5 and 20%. The
preferred values are 3.3, 4.7, 5.1. 6.1,9.1, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, to 200 V.
Power dissipation is the product of Vz and Iz. The maximum power rating varies from 150 mW to
250 W. Commonly available power ratings are 0.4, 1, 3, 10, and 50 watts.

12.11.6. Zener Diode As a Voltage Regulator

Voltage regulation is a measure of a circuit's ability to maintain a
Rs
constant output voltage even when either input voltage or load www
current varies.
Figure 12.34 shows how a zener diode can be used as a voltage YoUT
regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source whose voltage
may vary appreciably. A resistor Rs is necessary to limit the reverse
current through the diode to safer value. The voltage source Vs and Fig. 12.34
the resistor Rs are so selected that the diode operates in the
breakdown region. The diode voltagein this region, which is also the voltage across the load R, is called zener
volage Vz and the diode current is called the zener current1 The series resistor R_ absorbs the output voltage
fluctuations so as to maintain voltage across the load constant. Zener diode is reverse connected across the
input voltage whose variations are to be regulated.
As long as voltage across the load resistorR is less than the breakdown voltage V, the zener diode does not
conduct. the esistors Rs and R; constitute a potential divider across Vs At an increased supply voltage Vs, the
voltage drop across load resistor (or zener diode) becomes greater than the zener breakdown voltage. It then
operates in its breakdown region. The series resistor R_ limits the zener current 1, from exceeding its rated
maximum Iz max. Current through resistor Rs is given as

..12.22)
Rs
The current from the power supply splits at the junction of zener diode and the load resistor R.
So Is =+h .(12.23)
When the zener diode operates in its breakdown region, the voltage across it, V, remains fairly constant
even though the current Iz flowing through it may vary considerably.
 supply voltltage Vs increases, the current through both the zener diode and load resistance R
hen the
wAt the same time, however. the zener diode resistance decreases and the current through the diode
increases. Att
increascore than
increases more proportionately. As a result, a greater
voltage drop will occur across the series resistor Rs
(Voltage the load resistance R,) will become
output voltage VOUT
across
diodeor
very close to the
nd theT h e reverse is also true. Thus a zener diode can maintain the output voltage Votr within a
original value. T
C valt when the supply or input voltage V_ may vary over a range of several volts. The zener diode
fraction o f a vo

fractioin a constant voltage acros: the load as long as the supply voltage is more than the zener voltage.
amine the other cause of the output voltage variation. When the load resistance R, decreases for
ant input voltage Vs, load current I1 increases. This additional current is not supplied from the source of
he
supply but the demand of additional load current is met by decrease in zener current I7. This keeps the voltage
across
esistance Rs constant and so the output voltage VoUT The worst case occurs for minimum
series resis
drop
e o l t a g e and maximum load current because the zener current reduces to a minimum. In such a case.

ls min
Vz
VSminVz
Rsmax
VSminVz
or Rs max .(12.24)
ISmin
From Eq. (12.23)
In worst case, this may be written as

Z minls minL ma
The critical point occurs when IL max = Is min: At this point, the zener current, I7 reduces to zero, and
in
regulation is lost.
By substituting I max for Is min in Eq. (12.24), we have
VSmin Vz
Rs max .(12.25)
lLmax
where Rs max is the critical value of series resistance, Vs min is the minimum source voltage, Vz is zener voltage
and max 1s maximum load current.

The critical resistance, Rs max is the maximum allowable series resistance. The series resistance Rs must
always be less than the critical value; otherwise; breakdown operation is lost, and the regulator stops its
operation.
Ihe advantages of zener diode voltage regulators over other voltage regulators are that they are smaller,
gnier, more
rugged and have a longer life. They are also simpler and inherently cheaper.
Suchregulators have the following drawbacks:
Their eftficiency is low for heavy load currents because there is a considerable power loss in series
resistor Rs and the diode.
2T h e output voltage varies slightly due to zener impedance
rz
n e output voltage cannot be choosen independently but depends upon the breakdown voltage of
the zener diode.
s
regulator is employed when there are small variations in load current and supply voltage.