ANTIQUE NATIONAL SCHOOL

T.A. Fornier St., San Jose, Antique

Senior High School

PHYSICAL
SCIENCE
Learning Activity Sheets
SECOND SEMESTER
QUARTER 2

CONTENT:

LAS 1: ANCIENT ASTRONOMY & EXAMPLES OF ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA

BEFORE THE ADVENT OF TELESCOPES
LAS 2: MODERN ASTRONOMY & THE ARISTOTELIAN AND GALILEAN
CONCEPTIONS OF VERTICAL, HORIZONTAL AND PROJECTILE MOTIONS
LAS 3: HOW GALILEO INFERRED THAT OBJECTS IN VACUUM FALL IN UNIFORM
ACCELERATION & UNDERSTANDING NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
LAS 4: PROPAGATION OF LIGHT & PHOTON CONCEPT AND ITS PRACTICAL
APPLICATION

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LAS 1: ANCIENT ASTRONOMY & EXAMPLES OF ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA BEFORE THE ADVENT OF TELESCOPES
Most Essential Learning Competencies:
1. Explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical (S11/12PS-IVa-38)
2. Cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the advent of telescopes
(S11/12PS-IVa-4)

Lesson 1: Ancient Astronomy

It was in Greece that the Golden Age of early astronomy was centered. Being philosophers, the Greeks
used philosophical arguments to explain the natural events happening around them including the movements
of the stars and other heavenly bodies. But they were also observers. They made use of their observational data
to explain certain events. They were the ones who measured the sizes and the distances of the sun and the moon
using the basics of geometry and trigonometry which they also developed.
The early Greeks had a geocentric view of the earth. For them, it was the center of the universe; hence,
a motionless sphere. The sun, moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn orbited the Earth. The Greeks also
believed that stars traveled daily around the earth. However, they all stayed in a transparent, hollow sphere
located beyond the planets. They called this sphere as the celestial sphere.
Philosophers in ancient astronomy thought about the shape of the Earth:
500 B.C. Most Greeks believed that the Earth was round, not flat. It was Pythagoras and his pupils who
were first to propose a spherical Earth.
500 to 430 B.C Anaxagoras further supported Pythagoras' proposal through his observations of the shadows
that the Earth cast on the Moon during a lunar eclipse. He observed that during a lunar eclipse,
the Earth's shadow was reflected on the Moon's surface. The shadow reflected was circular.
Around 340 Aristotle listed several arguments for a spherical Earth which included the positions of the North
B.C. Star, the shape of the Moon and the Sun, and the disappearance of the ships when they sail
over the horizon.

Aristotle Arguments for a Spherical Earth

1. North Star- was believed to be at a
fixed position in the sky. However,
when the Greeks traveled to
places nearer the equator, like
Egypt, they noticed that the North
Star is closer to the horizon.
2. The Shape of the Sun and the
Moon- Aristotle argued that if the
Moon and the Sun were both
spherical, then perhaps, the Earth
was also spherical.
3. Disappearing Ships- if the Earth
was flat, then a ship traveling away
from an observer should become
smaller and smaller until it
disappeared. However, the
Greeks observed that the ship
became smaller and then its hull
disappeared first before the sail as
if it was being enveloped by the water until it completely disappeared.

The Size of the Spherical Earth

Eratosthenes gave the most accurate size during their time. While he was working at the Library of
Alexandria in Northern Egypt, he received correspondence from Syene in Southern Egypt which stated that a
vertical object did not cast any shadow at noontime during the summer solstice. But this was not the case in
Alexandria where, at noon time during the summer solstice, a vertical object still casts a shadow. These
observations could only mean that the Sun, during this time in Alexandria, was not directly overhead.
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 Eratosthenes then determined the angle the Sun made with the vertical direction by measuring the
shadow that a vertical stick cast. He found out that in Alexandria, the Sun makes an angle of 7.2° from the vertical
while 0° in Syene. To explain the difference, he hypothesized that the light rays coming from the sun are parallel,
and the Earth is curved.
From his measurements, he computed the circumference of the Earth to be approximately 250 000 stadia
(a stadium is a unit of measurement used to describe the size of a typical stadium at the time), about 40 000
kilometers.

Aristotle’s Conclusion
decided he could understand the world through observation and by using logic and reason.
scientists called Aristotle the Father of Natural Science because his methods formed the basis of the
scientific method.
most people in Aristotle’s time believed the earth was flat, but he did not agree. He studied and used
scientific methods to prove that his conclusion was correct.
1. Aristotle considered the position of the North Star. The farther north you journeyed, the closer the North
Star seemed to move to the middle of the sky. But if someone were to travel south of what we now
call the equator, the North Star could not be seen at all.
2. He also watched ships sailing into port. He noticed that at a distance, he could see the tops of their
sails before he saw the rest of the ship. Aristotle deduced that this was because of the curvature of
the earth.
3. He observed the shadow cast during eclipses.
Key Points:
The following observations led the Greeks to conclude that the Earth is sphere or round:
1. The Earth casts a round shadow on the Moon during lunar eclipse;
2. Based on the location of the observer, the Northern Star has different positions;
3. Both Moon and the Sun are in spherical or round shape;
4. A sailing ship diminished as it reaches the very edge of the earth as if it is being covered by the water
until it completely disappears; and
5. The angle of the sun with the vertical direction at noon time during a summer solstice vary from place to
place.

ACTIVITY 1
Materials: Two plastic balls of different sizes and flashlight.
Procedure:
1. In a dark room, align the flashlight and the balls horizontally.
2. Illuminate one ball with the flashlight and observe the shadow it casts on the ball behind it. Answer the
guide questions below.

Guide Questions:
1. What is the shape of the shadow?
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 ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How is the result of the experiment related to Aristotle's arguments about the shape of the Earth?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. If you use a different object, like two Rubik’s cubes instead of ping pong balls, will it cast the same
shape of shadow? Explain.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Lesson 2: Examples of Astronomical Phenomena Before the Advent of Telescopes

Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were able to observe the following:
1. rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west, respectively,
2. point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,
3. phases of the moon,
4. lunar eclipse,
5. solar eclipse,
6. daily and annual motion of the stars, and
7. planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

1. Rising and Setting of the Sun

Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a sundial, called gnomon, in
systematically observing the motion of the sun. By looking at the shadows that the gnomon casts,
they were able to observe that the sun rises in the eastern part of the sky, reaches its highest
point in midday, and sets in the western part of the sky.

Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the
horizon varies over a year and these variations happen periodically. They observed that these
variations are related to weather and so concluded that seasonal changes in climate happen
during a course of one year.

Earth's orbit around the Sun is slightly elliptical. This means that the Sun travels across the sky at
slightly different speeds from day to day depending upon where Earth is in its orbit.

Earth is tilted on its axis approximately 23.4°. This is what gives us our seasons here on Earth. When
the North Pole is tilted toward the Sun, the Northern Hemisphere experiences summer, and the
Sun is high in the sky at noon. During the winter, the North Pole is tilted away from the Sun, and at
noon the Sun doesn't get nearly as high in the sky. Earth's tilt also explains why the longest day of
the year occurs on the summer solstice (usually around June 21). Likewise, the shortest day of the
year occurs on the winter solstice (usually around December 21).

The combination of Earth's elliptical orbit and the tilt of its axis results in the Sun taking different
paths across the sky at slightly different speeds each day. This gives us different sunrise and sunset
times each day.

The sun changes position gradually on the celestial sphere, moving each day about 1° to the
east relative to the stars. Very reasonably, the ancients thought this meant the Sun was slowly
moving around Earth, taking a period of time we call 1 year to make a full circle. The path the
Sun appears to take around the celestial sphere each year is called the ecliptic. Because of its
motion on the ecliptic, the Sun rises about 4 minutes later each day with respect to the stars.
Earth must make just a bit more than one complete rotation (with respect to the stars) to bring
the Sun up again.

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2. Phases of the Moon
A moon, also called a satellite, is a relatively small
object that is orbiting around a planet.
As the moon orbits the Earth, we see a different
phase of the moon. It takes 27 days, 7 hours, and
43 minutes for our Moon to complete one full orbit
around Earth. This is called the sidereal month, and
is measured by our Moon's position relative to
distant “fixed” stars.
Ancient people have observed that the moon
changes its path and its appearance within 29.5
days. They observed that the moon changes its
phase from thin semi-circular disk to full circular
disk. These phases of the moon is the basis of
primitive calendars.

3. Eclipses
There are two types of eclipses, lunar eclipse and solar eclipse.
A. Lunar Eclipse
Lunar eclipse occurs when Earth positions between the Sun
and the Moon.

The lining up of the earth, moon, and sun produces a lunar

eclipse when the moon passes into the shadow of the earth.

Usually a lunar eclipse either precedes or follows a solar

eclipse by two weeks.

B. Solar Eclipse
Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in between the Sun and
the Earth and the Moon is either partially or totally blocks out
the Sun causing the Moon to cast its shadow towards Earth.

Because of the large size of the sun, rays of sunlight taper to

provide an umbra and a surrounding penumbra.

4. Motion of the Stars

It was observed that the stars appear to be attached to a

celestial sphere that rotates around an axis in one day. This
axis intersects the celestial sphere at a point in the northern
sky and is presently close to the northern star, Polaris.

The constellations’ positions in the night sky vary depending

on the time of the year.

The movement of different celestial bodies can be described

as diurnal motion, annual motion, and precession of the
equinoxes.

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 Diurnal Motion Annual Motion Precession of the Equinoxes

The apparent daily revolution of
the celestial sphere around the
celestial poles as a direct effect of
the Earth’s rotation on its axis. In
other words, it refers to the
apparent movement of stars and
other celestial bodies around
Earth.
The apparent motion of celestial
bodies viewed from Earth is east
to west. If you observe the night
sky, the stars seem to move in a
counter-clockwise direction (from
east to west) with respect to
Polaris or North Star.
Annual motion is the apparent
yearly movement of the stars as
observed from Earth as a direct
effect of the Earth’s revolution
around the sun.
The sun revolves 360 degrees a
year around a path on the
celestial sphere called the
ecliptic. The sun moves eastward
with respect to the stars on the
celestial sphere.
As the sun revolves around the
ecliptic, it intersects the celestial
equator twice during a year at
two points. These points are
called the equinoxes: vernal and
autumnal. During an equinox, the
length of daytime is almost equal
to the length of nighttime. Vernal
or spring equinox happens every
March 20 while autumnal
equinox occurs every September
22. The gravitational force of the
sun and the moon on Earth
causes the cyclic precession or
“wobbling” of the Earth’s axis of
rotation.

5. Planets Discovered Before the Invention of Telescope

Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were classified as planets
because they have noticed that the stars are in a fixed position with respect to each other. However, these bright
stars changed positions periodically. But these “bright stars” do not belong to any group of stars in the sky.
Therefore, these cosmic bodies are called “wanderers” or planetes in Greek terms.

A. Mercury
planet smallest and closest to the sun

appears to have either a very thin atmosphere or none at all

surface temperatures on the sunlit side are extremely high, hot enough to melt lead.
fastest planet, taking only 88 earth days to make one revolution. Thus one year on Mercury
lasts only 88 earthdays.

B. Venus

brighter than Mercury in the sky and is easily seen near the sun at either sunup or sunset.

the first star-like object to appear after the sun goes down, it is often called the evening star during
March and April or a morning star during September and October.

has the distinction of spinning backwards. It rotates clockwise on its axis, while all the other planets
rotate counter clockwise.

it rotates very slowly. A day on Venus represents 243 of our days.

has no ocean

covered with thick, rapidly spinning clouds that trap surface heat, creating a scorched
greenhouse-like world with intense temperature and pressure.

clouds reflect sunlight in addition to trapping heat.

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 C. Mars

reddish planet
only other known body whose surface conditions seemed suitable for life of some kind

days and nights are about the same lengths as ours and its seasons are about 6 months long

landscape is extremely varied; regions of huge crater, irregular short ridges and depressions, vast
lava flows and areas which appear to have been carved by running water.

small rocky body and has polar ice caps that grow and recede with the change of seasons.

tectonics seem to be vertical, with hot lava pushing upwards through the crust to the surface.

great dust storms engulf the entire planet

far from the sun as the earth and is not too cold for human habitation

has two small moons – Phobos, the inner and Deimos.

D. Jupiter
huge planet
shrouded in thick clouds that its surface cannot be seen

must consist primarily of hydrogen and helium, the two lightest elements.

average diameter of Jupiter is about 11 times greater than the earth’s.

most massive planet in our solar system.

resembles a star in composition

E. Saturn
has rings – two bright ones and a fainter inner one – surround the planet in the plane of its equator.
brighter than all but two stars and is second among the planets in mass and size
has some 23 moons beyond its rings
largest is Titan
made mostly of hydrogen and helium
super-fast winds, combined with heat rising from within the planet's interior, cause the yellow and
gold bands visible in the atmosphere.

ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Complete the statements below and choose your answer inside the box. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

Venus Mars Jupiter Saturn horizon

moon sun stars eclipse solar

Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were able to observe the following:
rising and setting of the ____1____ in the east and the west, respectively,
point where the Sun rises and sets in the ____2____ varies in a year,
phases of the ____3____,

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 lunar ____4____, • ____5____ eclipse, •
daily and annual motion of the _____6____, and
planets Mercury, ____7____, ____8____, ____9____, and ____10___.
Assessment in Physical Science, LAS 1
4TH Quarter, 2nd Semester
Multiple Choice. Read the statement carefully and write the letter of the correct answer.
I. Ancient Astronomy
1. Which of the following is the shape of the
Earth according to ancient Greeks?
a. Cylinder c. octagon
b. sphere d. flat disc
2. Which of the following is the shape of the
Earth according to ancient Greeks?
a. ellipsoid c. hyperboloid
b. oblate spheroid d. oblate paraloid
3. In which of the following events can the circular
shadow of the Earth be observed most notably?
a. solar eclipse c. lunar eclipse
b. summer solstice d. winter solstice
4. Which of the following describes the position of
the North Star if you go nearer the equator?
a. Closer to the horizon
b. Farther away from the horizon.
c. The North Star is fixed wherever you are
on the Earth.
d. It disappears completely.
5. Which of the following can be observed of a
cruising ship if the Earth is a flat disc?
a. It will shrink then only the sail will be
visible
b. until it completely disappears.
b. It will become bigger and bigger.
c. It will not change its size.
d. It will become smaller and smaller until it
disappears.
6. Greek philosopher who gave the most accurate
size of the spherical earth during their time?
a. Eratosthenes c. Claudius Ptolemy
b. Anaxagoras d. Hipparchus
7. It is an astronomical model in which the Earth
and planets revolve around the Sun.
a. Geocentrism c. Heliocentrism
b. Solstice d. Eclipse
8. Any theory of the structure of the solar system
(or the universe) in which Earth is assumed to be
at the center of it all.
a. Geocentrism c. Heliocentrism
b. Solstice d. Eclipse
9. An obscuring of the light from one celestial
body by the passage of another between it
and the observer or between it and its source of
illumination.
a. Geocentrism c. Heliocentrism
b. Solstice d. Eclipse
10. According to Eratosthenes, which of the
following explains why a vertical stick casts a
shadow in Alexandria but not in Syene?
I. The Sun is directly overhead in Syene
while in Alexandria, it is only almost
directly overhead.
II. The light rays coming from the sun are
parallel, and the Earth is curved.
III. The light rays coming from the sun are
curved, and the Earth is flat.
IV. The Sun is directly overhead in
Alexandria while in Syene, it is only
almost directly overhead.
V.
a. I only c. I and II
b. III and IV d. II and IV
II. Examples of Astronomical Phenomena
Before the Advent of Telescopes
1. What practical value did astronomy offer to
ancient civilizations?
A. It helped them understand our cosmic
origins.
B. It allowed them to predict eclipses with
great accuracy.
C. It helped them find uses for ancient
structures like Stonehenge.
D. It helped them keep track of time and
seasons, and it was used by some cultures
for navigation.
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 2. Lunar eclipses can occur only during a
_________.
A. first quarter moon C. full moon 7. Which one of the following planets is also
B. new moon D. third quarter moon called morning star or evening star?
A. Earth C. Mars
3. What is the other name for the star Polaris? B. Mercury D. Venus
A. Andromeda c. Antares
B. North Star D. South Star 8. In which direction does the Sun rise?
A. East C. North
4. A(n) ____________ eclipse occurs when the B. South D. West
Moon casts its shadow on Earth.
A. lunar C. sidereal 9. Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a
B. solar D. umbral primitive version of a sundial, called ___________,
in systematically observing the motion of the
5. Which of the following is the brightest planet? sun.
A. Earth C. Mars A. gnocchi C. gnomon
B. Mercury D. Venus B. pelekinon D. pelekanos

6. The largest planet discovered before the 10. The phase of the Moon that follows the
invention of telescope is __________ . waning crescent is called the:
A. Jupiter C. Neptune A. Full Moon C. New Moon
B. Uranus D. Venus B. First Quarter D. Third Quarte

Prepared by: Darlene S. del Rosario

Subject Teacher
________________________________________________________________________________
LAS 2: MODERN ASTRONOMY & THE ARISTOTELIAN AND GALILEAN CONCEPTIONS OF VERTICAL, HORIZONTAL AND
PROJECTILE MOTIONS
Most Essential Learning Competencies:
1. Explain how Brahe’s innovations and extensive collection of data in observational astronomy paved the
way for Kepler’s discovery of his laws of planetary motion
2. Compare and contrast the Aristotelian and Galilean conceptions of vertical motion, horizontal motion,
and projectile motion.

Lesson 1: Modern Astronomy

Throughout human history, scientists have struggled to understand what they see in the night sky. Famous
astronomers — many of them great scientists who mastered many fields — explained the heavens with varying
degrees of accuracy. Over the centuries, a geocentric view of the universe — with Earth at the center of
everything — gave way to the proper understanding we have today of an expanding universe in which our
galaxy is but one of billions. On this list are some of the most famous scientists from the early days of astronomy
through the modern era, and a summary of some of their achievements.

After 14 centuries since Ptolemy, five noted scientists made important discoveries that gave rise to the
birth of modern astronomy. These were Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei and
Isaac Newton.

Tycho Brahe
• Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer and nobleman who made accurate observations of the movement of
celestial bodies in an observatory built for him by King Frederick II of Denmark in 1576. He was able to invent
different astronomical instruments, with the help of his assistants, and made an extensive study of the solar
system. He was able to determine the position of 777 fixed stars accurately.
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Johannes Kepler

• When King Frederick II died, and the successor did not fully support Brahe’s work, he moved to Prague in 1599
where he was supported by Emperor Rudolf II and worked as an imperial mathematician. Emperor Rudolf II
recommended Johannes Kepler to work for him as an assistant. Kepler was
born to a poor German family and studied as a scholar at the University of Tübingen in 1589.

Brahe and Kepler's Work

• Brahe and Kepler had an unsteady working relationship. Kepler was Brahe's assistant. However, Brahe
mistrusted Kepler with his astronomical data in fear of being shadowed by his assistant.

• Brahe assigned to Kepler the interpretation of his observations of Mars, whose movement did not match
Brahe’s calculations. Kepler was tasked to figure out what path Mars followed as it revolved around the Sun. It
was believed by many scientists that Brahe gave this task to Kepler to keep him occupied and left Brahe to
develop his laws of planetary motion.

Kepler's Discoveries from Brahe's Data

Kepler postulated that there must be a force from the Sun that moves the planets. He was able to conclude
that this force would explain the orbit of Mars and the Earth, including all the other planets, moved fastest when
it is nearest from the Sun and moved slowest when it is farthest from the Sun.

Eventually, Brahe decided to give all his data to Kepler hoping that he would be able to prove his Tychonic
system and put together new tables of astronomical data. This table was known as Rudolphine Tables, named
after the Roman emperor and was useful in determining the positions of the planets for the past 1000 years and
the future 1000 years. This table was the most accurate table that is known to the astronomical world.

After Brahe died in 1601, Emperor Rudolf II assigned Kepler as the new imperial mathematician, and all of
Brahe’s writings, instruments, and the Rudolphine tables were passed on to him. From Brahe’s data, Kepler was
able to formulate his laws of planetary motion: the law of ellipses, the law of equal areas, and the law of
harmonies.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

First Law - The Law of Ellipses

When Kepler tried to figure out Mars’ orbit, it did not fit the then-famous theory that a planet follows a circular
path. He then postulated that instead of a circular path, planets follow an oval or an ellipse orbit.

This orbit matched his calculations and explained the

“irregularities” in the movement of Mars. He was able to
formulate his first law of planetary motion, the law of ellipses
which describes that the actual path followed by the planets
was elliptical, not circular, with the Sun at one focus of the
ellipse.

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Second Law - The Law of Equal Areas

The second law, which is the law of equal areas states that when an imaginary line is drawn from the center of
the Sun to the center of a planet, the line will sweep out an equal area of space in equal time intervals.

The law describes how fast a planet moves in its orbit. A planet moves fastest when it is nearest the Sun and
slowest when it is farthest from the Sun, and still, the
same area is swept out by the line in equal amounts of time.

Third Law - The Law of Harmonies

The law of harmonies, which is the third law, describes that the square of a planet’s orbital period (T2) is
proportional to the cube of a planet’s average distance from the Sun (R3). It states that that the ratio of the
squares of the periods of two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of the average distances of these two
planets from the Sun or:

where the subscript 1 indicates planet 1 and subscript 2 indicates planet 2.

Figure 4: The figure shows the Kepler’s 3rd Law or The Law of Harmonies

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Lesson 2: The Aristotelian and Galilean Conceptions of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and
Projectile Motion

Motion is the action of changing location or position. Life is motion. From the coordination of the muscles
of our body which enables us to walk, run, and dance to the pumping of our hearts to deliver blood to the
different parts of our bodies are motion.

The first evidence of the study of the motion of heavenly bodies can be traced back to the people of
Sumeria and Egypt. While the Greeks were the first ones to study systematically and in detail the heavenly bodies.
They regarded the Earth as the center of the universe, geocentric. This idea of geocentric earth was replaced
by the heliocentric model of Nicolaus Copernicus, where earth and other planets revolve in circular orbits around
the Sun.

These early studies were the foundations of Galileo Galilei, an Italian physicist to revolutionized Science.

I. Aristotle’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

1. Vertical Motion

Vertical motion is referred to as natural motion. In a natural motion, the object will move and will return
to its natural state based on the object's material or composition - earth, water, air, and fire.

• For example, Aristotle believed that because a ball fell when thrown upward, its
element was earth.
• Smoke goes up the air because it seeks its natural place in the atmosphere.
• Aristotelian concept of natural motion is largely vertical motion which is falling or rising.

2. Horizontal Motion

An object moving in a violent motion requires push or pull to maintain horizontal motion. Motion
continues only so long as there is an applied force to an object. When the force is removed, motion stops.

• The example at the right shows piled boxes of food donations. The boxes will remain on the floor unless a push
or a pull force is applied.
• Violent motion is imposed motion caused by pushing or pulling.
• Aristotle classified any motion
that required a force as a "violent motion". (He did not mean violent in the sense that it is marked by the use of
harmful or destructive physical force.)

3. Projectile Motion

Aristotle believed that the projectile motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it is the object's
time to fall back into the ground. An impetus will be kept by the object until such time that the initial force is
forgotten, and the object returns to its natural state to stop moving and fall to the ground.
He viewed projectile motion as natural and violent motion. He said that heavy objects fall faster than
light ones.

The illustration shows an example of cannon fired which gives the cannonball an impetus.

• A notorious problem for the Aristotelian view was why arrows shot from a bow continued to fly through the air
after they had left the bow and the string was no longer applying force to them.

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Aristotle's Explanation:

• Initial motive force transfers to the medium initially surrounding the object a "power" to act as a motive force.

• Medium then forces object into new region, which is then imparted with the "power" to act.

II. Galileo’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

1. Vertical Motion

In the absence of a resistance, objects would fall not depending on their weight, but in the time of fall.
Also, if the object encountered a resistive force from a fluid equal or greater than its weight, it will slow down
and reaches a uniform motion until it reaches the bottom and stops.

• For example, without any resistance, a 1-kg object will be as fast as a 10-kg object when falling because they
fall with the same amount of time, given that they are released from the same height.
• Also, a stone dropped in the ocean will sooner or later travel at constant speed.

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2. Horizontal Motion

An object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion, and an external force is not necessary
to maintain the motion. If the Earth’s surface is very flat and extended infinitely, objects that are pushed will not
be impeded. Thus, the objects will continue to move. This kind of motion, however, is not evident in nature.

For example, if a ball is pushed on an infinitely flat plane, the ball will continue to roll if unimpeded.

3. Projectile Motion

Galileo performed experiments on uniformly accelerated motion using an inclined plane, and used the same
apparatus to study projectile motion.
• Galileo was credited for quantifying the “rate of fall” by measurement of distance and time and plotting it
graphically. He was able to slow down the “fall” using ramps rather than viscous materials as Aristotle did
resulting to significantly different conclusions related to the “rate of fall”.
• He correctly measured motion in two independent directions (horizontal and vertical) and deduced that the
“rate of fall” is better measured in terms of downward acceleration.
• He used geometry to provide better description (kinematics) of projectile motion whereby horizontal motion
has zero acceleration (constant speed horizontally) and content vertical
acceleration.
• By varying the ball's horizontal velocity and vertical drop, Galileo was able to
determine that the path of a projectile is parabolic.
• He believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the
horizontal direction and uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction. If
it is not impeded, it will continue to move even without an applied force.
• For example, when you shoot a ball in a basketball ring, the ball does not need
a force to keep it moving.

Activity 1

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Activity 2

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 Assessment in Physical Science, LAS 2
4TH Quarter, 2nd Semester

Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. Who determined the positions of 777 fixed stars accurately from his observatory in Denmark?
A. Galileo Galilei. B. Johannes Kepler C. Nicolaus Copernicus D. Tycho Brahe

2. Johannes Kepler is best known for the:

A. Invention of the first telescope B. Laws of planetary motion
C. Principle of stellar parallax D. Sun-centered Universe

3. As one of his three axioms of planetary motion, ____________ demonstrated that the planets move in elliptical
orbits around the sun.
A. Galileo Galilei. B. Johannes Kepler
C. Nicolaus Copernicus D. Tycho Brahe

4. Who was Brahe's most famous student?

A. Galileo Galilei B. Isaac Newton
C. Johannes Kepler. D. Nicolaus Copernicus

5. The great contribution of Tycho Brahe was to _________.

A. offer the first detailed model of a Sun-centered solar system, thereby beginning the process of
overturning the Earth-centered model of the Greeks
B. observe planetary positions with sufficient accuracy so that Kepler could later use the data to discover
the laws of planetary motion
C. discover four moons orbiting Jupiter, thereby lending strong support to the idea that the Earth is not the
center of the universe
D. discover that planets orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits with varying speed

Modified True or False. Read each statement carefully. Write True if the statement is correct and if FALSE,
change the italicized word or group of words to make the statement correct.

___________ 1. Aristotle claimed that violent motion is an imposed motion.

____________2. In natural motion, an object will move and will eventually return to its natural state depending on
the composition that the object is made of.
____________3. According to Galileo, heavy objects will fall faster than light ones.
____________4. Aristotle said that to keep the object moving in horizontal motion, a constant amount of force is
needed.
____________5. Objects dropped simultaneously will reach the ground at thr same time regardless of their
masses and air resistance.
____________ 6. Galileo concluded that the path taken by a projectile is parabolic.
____________ 7. Galileo used an inclined plane to perform his experiments both on uniformly accelerated
motion and to study projectile motion.
____________ 8. Aristotle believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the horizontal direction
and uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction.
____________ 9. A kicked ball is an example of a natural motion.
____________10. Vertical motion does affect the horizontal motion of a projectile.

Prepared by: Dyan Joy M. Elizalde

Subject Teacher

16
 LAS 3 GALILEO’S UNIFORM ACCELERATION AND NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Most Essential Learning Competency:
1. Compare and contrast the Aristotelian and Galilean conceptions of vertical motion, horizontal
motion, and projectile motion.
2. Explain how Galileo inferred that objects in vacuum fall with uniform acceleration, and that force is
not necessary to sustain horizontal motion
3. Explain the subtle distinction between Newton’s 1st Law of Motion (or Law of Inertia) and Galileo’s
assertion that force is not necessary to sustain horizontal motion.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
CONTENT
How Galileo Inferred that Objects in Vacuum fall with Uniform Acceleration

• Motion is defined as the ability of an object to change its position with respect to its
surroundings in given time. Motion is always observed and measured with a point of
reference.

Key Concepts:
Free fall, which is an example of motion with uniform acceleration. Acceleration which means
the change in velocity with a given time. Speed which is the distance travelled of an object in a
specific amount of time.

I. Aristotle's View of Motion

▪ Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher who thought that heavier objects fall faster than
lighter ones.
▪ Force would be needed to have a constant velocity according to Aristotle.
▪ Force is required for violent but not natural motion.

II. Galileo's View of Motion

▪ Italian Mathematician, Father of modern Science
▪ Discredited Aristotelian view of motion
▪ Object in vacuum will fall at the same time because in a vacuum there is nothing. Since there
is no air or anything in space, objects that are heavy or light, will fall at the same time.
▪ Force is not necessarily required for violent motion.
▪ Force is not required for object moving at constant velocity

According to Aristotle, motion is classified as natural or violent motion. He explained that in a natural
motion, a body will move and will return to its natural state based on the body’s nature and
composition. In contrast, a body moving in a violent motion needs an external force for it to move.

However, Galileo disproved Aristotle’s claims and stated that the motion of a body is not due to its
composition. He further asserted that the motion of a body can be described by measurement and the
changes in quantifiable variables such as time and distance.
Lastly, he further asserted that:
1. A body in uniform motion will move a distance that is proportional to the time it will take to travel
2. A uniformly accelerating body will travel at a speed proportional to time; and
3. An object in motion will keep moving; and the external force is not necessary to maintain the
motion.

With regards to the concept of vertical motion, Aristotle pointed out that the velocity of a body is
inversely proportional to the time it covers to travel a certain height. On the other hand, Galileo
emphasized that if two objects of different weights are dropped from a high point, both will hit the
ground at the same time.

17
 In terms of horizontal motion, Aristotle mentioned that bodies require force to maintain horizontal
motion. In the contrary, Galileo asserted that if there is no interference, a body in motion will keep
moving in a straight line forever. He further added that there is no need to apply force for it to
continuously move. The external force will act upon the body not to keep it from moving, but for it to
stop moving.

Lastly, with regards to projectile motion, Aristotle coined the concept of antiperistasis which is the
resistance of a medium in response to the movement of a body; while Galileo explained that projectiles
follow a curved path with a horizontal and vertical component.

Galileo's Experimentation to prove his Ideas about motion

Experiment I
Galileo asserted using his cannonball experiment in the Leaning Tower of Pisa that
when objects are dropped simultaneously at the same height, they will reach the
ground at the same time regardless of mass, size, and air resistance. This experiment
paved the way for the discovery of the principle of uniform acceleration and that,
force is not necessary to sustain the horizontal motion of a body.
Experiment II
Galileo used the inclined ramp in order to measure the
acceleration of an object. He used a rolling ball to measure the
changes. He measured that objects accelerates at the same
time regardless of their size and mass. A ball rolling down an
inclined plane increases its speed by the same value after
every second. Using the law of parabolic fall, he concluded
that bodies fall with constant acceleration on the surface and
that gravity pulling all bodies downward is a constant force. In
this regard, he found out that force is not necessary to sustain horizontal motion.

• Galileo proved with his experiments that when objects are dropped simultaneously, they will reach the
ground at the same time regardless of their masses and air resistance. In another set of experiments, he
discovered that objects fall with uniform acceleration.

• Galileo was fascinated by the behavior of falling objects. He knew that falling objects increase their
speed as they go down. This change in speed is acceleration. However, he did not have any
equipment to measure this change, so he used inclined planes to lessen the acceleration of the moving
bodies. He was then able to investigate the moving bodies carefully.

On his experiment, he had observed the following:

A ball rolling down an inclined plane increases its speed by Time (s) Speed (m/s)
the same value after every second. For example, the speed of a 0 0
rolling ball was found to increase by 2 m/s every second. This
1 2
means that the rolling ball would have the following speeds for
every given second 2 4
3 6
As the inclined plane becomes steeper, the acceleration
of the rolling ball increases. 4 8
5 10
The maximum acceleration of the rolling ball was reached
when the inclined plane was positioned vertically as if the ball is simply falling

These observations lead Galileo to conclude that regardless of the mass of objects and air resistance,
falling objects would always have uniform acceleration.

18
ACTIVITY
1.A Direction. Based on your understanding about Galilean and Aristotelian concept of principles governing
motion, COMPARE and CONTRAST their assertions regarding vertical motion, horizontal motion, and projectile
motion by completing the table below.

Concept Aristotle Similarities Galileo

VERTICAL MOTION
HORIZONTAL MOTION
PROJECTILE MOTION

1.B Direction. Hold a book and a piece of paper at the same height, then drop them simultaneously.

Guide question:
1. Did the objects reach the ground at the same time? If no, which object reached the ground first?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Now, perform the same procedure, but this time, crumple the paper.

Guide question:
2. Did the objects reach the ground at the same time? If no, which object reached the ground first?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion:

What can you conclude in the said activity? Does it conform with Galileo’s findings?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Understanding Newton’s First Law of Motion

• Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist change when in motion or when at rest. Newton’s first law
of motion is also called law of inertia. If an object is moving, inertia will keep it in motion. When it is at
rest, it will continue to be at rest, unless there is a force applied on it.

Key Concepts:
Newton’s first law states that, if a body is at rest or in motion, it will remain at rest or keep in motion unless
an external force is acted upon. This postulate is known as inertia which was proposed by Galileo in his
experiment about horizontal motion wherein, he stated that a body requires an external force to move and
that an external force must be acted upon for a body to rest. On the other hand, the second law states that
the change in momentum of a body is equal to the magnitude and direction of force acting upon it. He further
added that force is the product of the mass of an object and its acceleration. Lastly, the third law also known
as the law of interaction states that when two bodies interact, both will apply equal amount of forces to one
another in the opposite direction.

Galileo Galilei proposed the first accurate principle governing motion and masses in his experiments
wherein, remarkable findings such as bodies accelerate at the same rate regardless of their respective masses
and sizes and that force is not needed to sustain horizontal motion were emphasized.

However, Sir Isaac Newton proposed Laws on Motion anchored on the findings of Galileo and
expounded his assertions. In his first law of motion, he mentioned that an object at rest will remain at rest unless
acted upon by an external force and a body in motion will keep moving unless external force is acted upon it.
Lastly, he stated that a body will only accelerate if an external force is acted upon it.
19
 Galileo and Newton’s View of Inertia

I. Galileo’s View of Inertia

According to Galileo, objects in motion eventually stop because of a force called friction. Friction is a
force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are touching. This is based on his experiment observed in
inclined planes. He said that a difference between initial and final heights was due to the presence of friction.
Galileo hypothesized that if friction could be entirely eliminated, the ball would reach exactly the same height.
Or if the ball rolls horizontally and there’s no friction that acts on it, the ball will never stop.

II. Newton’s View of Inertia

Isaac Newton was born the same year Galileo died. Newton’s law of inertia is based on Galileo’s
idea of inertia. He expanded Galileo’s work and came up with his Three Laws of Motion. Newton’s first
law of motion states that…an object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with
the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

Mass and Inertia

An object’s inertia depends on its mass. Mass is the amount of matter or substance that makes up an
object. It is measured in units called kilogram. An object with a greater mass has a greater inertia and an
object with a lesser mass will also have a lesser inertia.
An object’s tendency to resist change in its motion depends on its mass.
Below is a wooden box and a styrofoam box, which do you think has a greater
mass? lesser? Which has a greater inertia?
*Since wooden box has greater mass than Styrofoam box, it tends to have
greater inertia.

Forces

What causes an object to move, to stop or remain at rest? A force causes an object to move, to stop or
remain at rest. Force is defined as a push or a pull. It unit is referred to as Newton (N). One Newton is the
amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s/s.
Thus, the following unit equivalency can be stated as: 1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s²

1. Friction
A rolling marble on the floor that suddenly stops when it reached a rough surface does not stop because
of the absence of a force, it stops because of the presence of a force called friction.
Friction is a force that opposes motion between any surfaces that are touching. Friction occurs because
no surface is perfectly smooth. Rough surfaces have more friction than smooth surfaces. Heavier objects also
have more friction because they are pressed harder with greater force than lighter objects.
Newton’s first law of motion has always stated that: An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion
stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

2. Balance and Unbalanced Forces

A balanced force is a force in which the net force is equal to zero.

Let’s consider the free body diagram of a flower vase on the table.
There are two forces acting on the flower vase. The force of the table
pushing the flower vase upward also called the normal force and the gravitational force pushing the flower
vase downward.

20
 Since the two forces are equal and in opposite directions, they balanced each other. The net force is
zero, it means the flower vase is at its equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting on it thus it remains at
rest.

An unbalanced force is a force in which the net force is greater than zero.

Unbalanced forces cause acceleration. Only unbalanced force can change the motion and direction
of an object.

ACTIVITY
2A. Directions: Explain the subtle distinction between Newton’s first law of motion and Galileo’s assertions
regarding force and motion by completing the table below:

ISAAC NEWTON CONCEPT GALILEO GALILEI

INERTIA

FORCE

BODY AT REST

BODY IN MOTION

2A. Directions: Answer the questions briefly.

1. State Newton’s first law of motion. What makes the object remain in state of motion or at rest? Explain why?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the difference on Galileo’s idea of inertia and Newton’s first law of motion.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Assessment in Physical Science, LAS 3

4TH Quarter, 2nd Semester

Direction. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
a. The three objects will reach the ground at the
1. Galileo proved that all falling objects fall with the same time.
same b. Object C will reach the ground first.
a. energy c. Object B will reach the ground first.
b. acceleration d. Object A will reach the ground first.
c. speed
d. velocity 3. Three objects A, B, and C with masses 5 kg, 8 kg,
and 15 kg, respectively, were dropped
2. Three objects A, B, and C with mass 5 kg, 8 kg, and simultaneously. Neglecting air resistance, which
15 kg, respectively, were dropped simultaneously. object will have the greatest acceleration upon
Neglecting air resistance, which object will reach reaching the ground?
the ground first? a. Object C will have the greatest acceleration.

21
 b. Object B will have the greatest acceleration. 12. What will happen if an external force is acted upon
c. The three objects will have the same a body at rest?
acceleration. a. it will move
d. Object A will have the greatest acceleration. b. nothing will happen
c. it will not move
4. Who proved that all falling objects fall with uniform d. it will remain in motion
acceleration?
a. Newton 13. A force is defined as
b. Aristotle a. A push only
c. Galileo b. A pull only
d. Plato c. A push or a pull
d. None of the above
5. What is the focus of Aristotle and Galileo's ideas?
a. views 14. What unit do scientists use to measure force?
b. motion a. Newton
c. history b. Grams
d. knowledge c. Meters
d. Meter per second per second
6. It is defined as the ability of an object to change its
position with a given time. 15. A piece of paper is at rest on your desk. Which of
a. Inertia the following statements best describes this
b. reference situation?
c. free-fall a. There are no forces acting on the paper.
d. motion b. The paper pushes on the desk only.
c. The desk pushes on the paper only
7. It refers to the change in velocity with time. d. The forces acting on the paper are balanced.
a. free- fall
b. speed 16. A force that opposes motion between two surfaces
c. acceleration that are in contact is called
d. momentum a. friction c. acceleration
b. motion d. velocity
8. These are the ideas of Galileo about motion. Select
all that apply. 17. Which of the following balls has the greatest inertia?
a. objects in vacuum fall in uniform acceleration a. ping pong ball
b. force is not required for violent motion b. a soccer ball
c. heavier object falls faster than lighter object c. a tennis ball
d. heavier and lighter objects fall at the same time d. a bowling ball
provided that there is no air resistance.
18. The inertia of an object is related to its_____
9. What is Galileo's concept of falling objects in his a. mass and speed
experimentation? b. mass and force
a. object falling with changing acceleration c. mass only
b. object falling with changing direction d. speed only
c. object falling with uniform acceleration
d. object falling with changing speed 19. The greater the mass of an object, _____
a. the easier the object starts moving.
10. It causes the object in vacuum fall at the same time b. the more balanced it is.
a. due to air resistance c. the greater its inertia.
b. due to no air resistance d. the more space it takes up.
c. due to air in space
d. due to mass of object 20. A balanced force is a force in which the net force is
greater to zero. Whereas unbalanced force causes
11. The resistance of a medium in response to an object to accelerates.
movement of a body is known as; a. True
a. antiperistasis c. inertia b. False
b. force d. gravity
Prepared by: April Ezra R. Masmela
Subject Teacher

22
LAS 4 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT & PHOTON CONCEPT AND ITS PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Most Essential Learning Competency:
1. Describe how the propagation of light, reflection, and refraction are explained by the wave model
and the particle model of light.
2. Explain how the photon concept and the fact that the energy of a photon is directly proportional
to its frequency can be used to explain why red light is used in photographic dark rooms, why we
get easily sunburned in ultraviolet light but not in visible light, and how we see colors

Lesson 1: Propagation of Light (Reflection and Refraction) as Explained by the Wave and Particle Models
What is true of light, is it a wave or a flow of extremely small particles? This has been the debate of scientists for
so long.
Newton concluded in 1700 that light was a group of particles (corpuscular theory) but at the same time others
thought that it was a wave (wave theory). Light travels in a straight line so Newton believed that it was a flow of
particles coming from a light source. However, it cannot explain wave-like phenomenon such as diffraction and
interference. On the other hand, the wave theory cannot explain why photons fly out of metal that is exposed
to light (known as the photoelectric effect) which was discovered at the end of the 19th century. In this manner,
the great physicists have continued to debate and demonstrate the true nature of light over the centuries.

The views of Rene Descartes and Sir Isaac Newton on the emergence of colors of light.
Rene Descartes was the first who studied and explained the concept of refraction. He used a spherical glass filled
with water and sunlight to produce a rainbow. He explained that refraction brought about the formation of
rainbows. He then used a prism to observe the emergence of colors of light.
He also explained the emergence of colors of light through the concept of the plenum, the invisible substance
that permeated the universe. He visualized that the plenum was made of tiny rotating balls with the same speed.
Light travelled through this plenum. As the plenum reached the edge of a prism, the balls changed their rotational
speeds resulting to the emergence of colors.
Sir Isaac Newton also studied the emergence of colors of light through a prism. He stated that the difference in
refraction was due to the differences in the mass of the colors of light.
Particles of matter also exert equal force to the particles of light. The colors of light with different mass and inertia
will be deflected at varying degrees.

When they passed through an interface of matter, light particles with great mass and inertia are deflected less
when acted upon by the same force of matter.
Source: https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/82-the-emergence-of- light- newton-and-
Descartes/3239968929352643/

Activity 1: Dual Property of Light (A Wave and a Particle)

Analyze the pictures about an experiment showing a beam of monochromatic (single color) light being focused
on a screen with two slits. Two things can happen to the light beam as shown in the pictures, Fig. A and Fig. B.

Figure A. Figure B.

1. Describe what happens to the beam of light as it passes through the slits in both figures.
2. Describe the kind of images formed by light after passing through the two slits.
3. How does the beam of light behave in both cases?
4. What can be concluded about the nature of light as described in the two pictures?
23
Activity 2: Reflection and Refraction of Light
Refer to the figures to explain how reflection and refraction are explained by the wave and particle models of
light. Fill up with the appropriate word/s to give meaning to the paragraphs that follow. Choose from among the
words inside the box to complete each sentence.

refraction force spread changes

bend bounce off slower wavefront
interface reversed particles smooth

Reflection and refraction are phenomena that are well-explained by the behaviors of light. When a source emits
light, its dual property can be observed in different circumstances.

Light, as waves, 1) __________ in all directions when emitted. Upon impacting a smooth, specular surface, such as
a mirror, these waves 2) __________ or reflect according to the arrival angles. The waves turn back to front as they
reflect producing a 3) __________ image.
On the other hand, light can also arrive at the mirror surface as a stream of 4) ____________. Since these are very
tiny, a huge number are involved in a propagating light beam. Upon arriving a 5) __________ surface, the particles
bounce off in different points so their order in the beam is reversed resulting to a reversed image.
A beam of light undergoes 6) __________ when it travels between two media with different refractive indices.
Light, as waves, 7) __________ direction upon passing from first medium to second medium. A small portion of
each angled 8) ___________ should impact the second medium before the rest of the front reaches the 9)
___________. This part will travel along the second medium while the rest of the waves is still travelling in the first
medium. Movement will be 10) __________ through the second medium due to higher refractive index. Since the
wavefronts are travelling at different speeds, light will 11) ___________ into the second medium, thus, changing
the angle of propagation.
Refracting particles of light should also change direction upon passing between two media. It is suggested in this
theory that a special 12) _________ directed perpendicular to the interface acts to change the speed of the
particles as they enter the second medium, resulting to bending of light particles.

Dual Property of Light (A Wave and a Particle

Light can behave both as a wave and as a particle. As particles, they travel in straight lines, thus, producing
shadows when they hit an obstruction.
It is also the reason why light bounces off or reflects from mirrors. Refraction is also brought about by light particles
when they traverse through media or materials of different refractive indices. It is thought that opposing forces
pull the particles of light from and into the medium resulting to changes of their direction. The photo-electric
effect is also evidence that light behaves as particles. When light with enough energy falls or hits a metal,
electrons are dislodged or knocked off from it to produce a positive (+) metal surface. The amount of light energy
(known as photon) contains a fixed amount of energy or quantum that depends on the frequency of the light.
Light also acts as a wave. It can diffract or bend around an object. Diffraction involves a change in direction of
waves when they pass from an opening or around obstacles along their path. Refraction happens when light
waves change direction as they travel through materials of different refractive indices, say water and air. Light
waves also undergo interference, the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling along the
same medium.
24
Reflection and Refraction of Light
Reflection and refraction are phenomena that are well-explained by the behaviors of light. When a source emits
light, its dual property can be observed in different circumstances.
Light, as waves, spread in all directions when emitted. Upon impacting a smooth, specular surface, such as a
mirror, these waves bounce off or reflect according to the arrival angles. The waves turn back to front as they
reflect producing a reversed image.
On the other hand, light can also arrive at the mirror surface as a stream of particles. Since these are very tiny, a
huge number are involved in a propagating light beam. Upon arriving a smooth surface, the particles bounce
off in different points so their order in the beam is reversed resulting to a reversed image.
A beam of light undergoes refraction when it travels between two media with different refractive indices.
Light, as waves, changes direction upon passing from first medium to second medium. A small portion of each
angled wavefront should impact the second medium before the rest of the front reaches the interface. This part
will travel along the second medium while the rest of the waves is still travelling in the first medium. Movement will
be slower through the second medium due to higher refractive index. Since the wavefronts are travelling at
different speeds, light will bend into the second medium, thus, changing the angle of propagation.
Refracting particles of light should also change direction upon passing between two media. It is suggested in this
theory that a special force directed perpendicular to the interface acts to change the speed of the particles as
they enter the second medium, resulting to bending of light particles.
Reflection produces different types of images depending on what kind of surface light strikes on. Usually, the
study on images is carried out using mirrors as the reflecting surface. Mirrors can be palnar, concave, or convex.
Plane mirrors consist of perfectly flat surface with no distortions and reflect 100% of the light that strikes them back
at a predictable angle.
Concave and convex mirrors have reflective surfaces that curve inward and outward, respectively.
Concave mirrors are known as converging mirrors because light is focused on a point as it strikes and reflects
back from the reflecting surface.
Convex mirrors are diverging mirrors because as light strikes and bounces back it spreads over a required region.
Plane mirrors produce images that are same size as the object, laterally inverted (left becomes right and right
becomes left), upright, virtual, and as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. Virtual images are formed due
to imaginary intersection of light rays and cannot be formed on the screen.

Concave and convex mirrors are parts of spherical mirrors with reflecting surfaces going inward and outward,
respectively.
Convex mirrors always produce images that are located behind the mirror, virtual, upright, and reduced in size.

As the object distance from the mirror is decreased, the image distance is also decreased, and the image size is
increased.
Concave mirrors produce images that depend on the location of the object. At several locations different
characteristics of images can be observed. The images formed can be located somewhere between the center

25
of curvature (C) and the focal point (F), at C, beyond C, and somewhere on the opposite side of the mirror. At
times, no images are formed by the mirror. Images can be inverted or upright, smaller, bigger, or the same size
as the object, and real or virtual.
Propagation of Light
Light is an electromagnetic radiation that travels through space as vibrating or oscillating waves. It is composed
of alternating electric and magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to each other to the direction of
propagation. It travels at a speed of 3.0x108 𝑚/𝑠 through a vacuum.
The electromagnetic spectrum (EM) is composed of waves with varying frequencies, thus, carrying different
amounts of energy. The figure below shows the EM spectrum and the corresponding wavelengths of each wave.

The wavelength is inversely proportional to the amount of energy or frequency it carries. Longer wavelengths
have lower frequencies than those with shorter wavelengths. The frequency is directly proportional to the amount
of energy carried by a particular wave. Part of this EM is the visible light (known as white light) which is seen by
our naked eye. Light wave travels at a speed of 3.0x108 𝑚𝑠 through a vacuum. The speed of light varies when it
passes and refracts through different media. The index of refraction of a material can be determined by the ratio
𝑐𝑣, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum while v is the speed of light in a particular medium. When light passes
through a material with higher index of refraction, its speed is slower. There is more matter that scatters light in this
material making light moves slower. Water scatters lighter than air, so light energy moves slower in water than in
air.

Once propagated, the colors of white light vibrate at different frequencies and can be dispersed when they
strike water droplets suspended in the air or through a prism. White light is then split into the colors ROY-G-BIV (red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet).

The speed of each color of white light depends on the wavelength of each wave. The waves with longer
wavelengths such as red, orange, and yellow propagate faster than blue, indigo, and violet which have shorter
wavelengths. Due to their speed, refraction and dispersion are affected when they enter a prism or droplet of
water in the air. Red is refracted the least and blue is refracted the most. This is the reason why red is always seen
on top of a rainbow while blue is always at the bottom.

When light is incident on a surface, it can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted. Light rays that fall on smooth
surfaces bounce off with equal angles of incidence and reflection, producing images that our eyes can
perceive. Absorption of light depends on the frequency of the electrons of atoms present in the objects. If the
frequency of a light wave is the same as the frequency of the electrons in the object, light energy will be set in
vibrating motion and eventually be absorbed. During vibration, the electrons interact with neighboring atoms
converting the vibrational energy into heat (thermal) energy, never again to be released as light energy. This
happens during photosynthesis where light energy is absorbed by the leaves and converted into heat energy.
Selective absorption of light by a certain material happens because the frequency of the light wave matches
the frequency at which electrons in the atoms of that material vibrate.

Reflection and transmission happen when the frequencies of the light waves do not match the natural
frequencies of vibration of objects. Upon light incidence, the electrons of the atoms vibrate for a short period of
time with small amplitudes of vibration. Light energy is then reemitted as a light wave.
If the object is transparent, then vibration of the electrons is passed on to neighboring atoms through the material
and reemitted on the opposite side of the object. The light frequencies are then said to be transmitted through
the object.

Light rays are selectively absorbed by materials and the reflected rays reach our eyes as the color of the object.
The object appears black when all the colors of the visible light are absorbed. On the other hand, white is seen

26
when all the colors of light are reflected.

Light waves also experience scattering when they bump mixtures of particles along the path of propagation. The
component wavelengths of light vary in sizes. The size of the particles suspended in the air also varies. If the size
of atmospheric particles is small, only light with smaller wavelengths are scattered while light with longer
wavelengths are scattered by bigger particles in the air. Since the particulates are small, then blue light is
scattered more than red or orange due to its shorter wavelength. This is the reason why the sky is blue during
daytime.

At sunrise and sunset, the sun is low at the horizon. Light travels through more molecules in the air. The dense
atmosphere scatters more blue or violet light out of our line of sight. The rest of the colors travel and reach our
eyes as yellow, orange, and red.

Lesson 2: Photon Concept and Its Practical Application

A. Particle Nature of Light
The concept of light as a quantized form of energy emerged during 1900s when Max Planck postulated the
blackbody radiation. This marks the beginning of quantum theory, which believes that energy comes in discrete
units called quanta. Later, Albert Einstein supported this idea of Planck and suggested that light is composed of
tiny particles called photon and each photon possesses energy.

1. Blackbody Radiation
A blackbody is a surface or object that can absorb all incoming radiation falling on it and reflects no radiation,
thus appears black at room temperature. However, when exposed to certain amount of temperature, the
blackbody radiates certain amount of energy with associated wavelength. For example, a visible light is being
emitted when the blackbody is heated to about 1000K, but the light becomes brighter and orange when the
temperature is increased to 1500K. Increasing the temperature further up to 200K, the light being emitted
becomes white. This phenomenon is known as blackbody radiation.
Based on the above example, we can infer that the nature of spectrum emitted by the blackbody is dependent
on the temperature and not on the material the object is made of. This means that, as the temperature increases,
the average wavelength emitted decreases and radiation becomes invisible. On the other hand, as the
temperature decreases, the wavelength increases, and the radiation becomes visible as red to glowing white.
In order to explain the blackbody radiation, Planck came up with an equation to explain the distribution of
wavelengths that are emitted from a heated blackbody. It is given as E=hf
where E is the energy of radiation.
h is the Planck’s constant (6.626 X 10-34Js)
f is the frequency (in Hertz)

Planck also proposed the Quantum Theory which states that energy is radiated or absorbed in the form of
packets or bundles, called quanta (singular, quantum) and each quantum is equal to hf.

2. Photoelectric Effect
Albert Einstein used the quantized energy idea of Planck to come up with the Photon Theory which proposes
that light is composed of photons. According to this theory, photon has the following characteristics:
a. It has a velocity of light in free space. The velocity of light (c) is equal to 3X108 m/s.
b. It has rest energy.
c. It has zero mass
d. It can carry energy and momentum
e. When radiation is emitted or absorbed, it can be created or destroyed.
f. It can interact with other particles like electrons.

Using his photon theory, Einstein explained the phenomenon called photoelectric effect. In this phenomenon,
when light strikes a metal surface, the electrons would become excited and jump out of the metal. This is
because, according to Einstein, light consists of packets of energy called photons which transfer energy to the
electron causing it to become excited.

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3. Atomic Spectra
In your Grade 9 science, you learned that electrons orbits or energy levels. As long as electron stays in the orbit,
it does not absorb or emit energy and said to be in its ground state. But when the atom is being heated, its
electrons become excited and occupy a higher energy level. At this point the electron is in its excited state. As
electrons leave the excited state and return to its ground state again, they emit energy in the form of photon.
The set of frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum emitted by excited atom is referred to as the atomic emission
spectra. Every element emits a specific energy and wavelength producing a unique set of banding pattern; thus,
we can say that atomic spectra serves as fingerprints of every element. The figure below shows the emission
spectrum of an electrically excited hydrogen atom. The fine lines correspond to the emitted light with a specific
wavelength while the dark bands in between corresponds to the absorbed frequencies.

B. Relationship of Wavelength and Energy

We learned from our previous science subjects that the relationship between frequency and wavelength can
be expressed using the equation c= λf where c is the speed of light, λ is the wavelength and f is the frequency.
Since the speed is constant, using the equation, we can infer that frequency and wavelength are inversely
proportional. Meaning to say, as wavelength increases, the frequency decreases and vice versa.
Previously, we learned that E= hf. Combining the two equations, we will arrive at the formula,

Using the equation above we can say the wavelength is inversely proportional to energy. This means that the
shorter the wavelength (the higher the frequency), the greater the energy.

C. Practical Application of Photon Theory

We can use the knowledge we derived from the relationship between energy and wavelength to answer the
following questions:

a. Why is red light commonly used in dark room?

As you can see in figure below, red light is the region of the visible light with the longest wavelength (620-780 nm)
and with lowest frequency; hence has the lowest energy. Because of its low energy, red light is considered as
“safe light” and ideally used in photographic dark rooms. This is because photosensitive materials used in printing
are not photosensitive to red and does not cause “fogging” in prints which can be seen as blur or dark veil across
the print.

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b. Why do people get easily sunburned by ultraviolet (UV) light but not by visible light?
Ultraviolet (UV) light has shorter wavelength and higher frequency and shorter wavelength than visible light as
shown in the figure 3. Since it has high frequency, we can expect that it also has high energy. Therefore, exposure
to UV light can cause sunburn or even skin cancer (prolonged exposure) faster than exposure to visible light.

c. How do human eyes perceive colors?

The human eye can perceive colors because of its cone’s cells. There are three different cone cells present in
the retina of our eyes, each contains photosensitive pigment to certain wavelength. The L cone is photosensitive
to red (long wavelength), the M cone is photosensitive to green (middle wavelength) and the S cone is
photosensitive to blue (short wavelength). However, the sensitivity ranges of the three cones sometimes overlap
specially when the light that stimulates them are near the middle of the visible light. Refer to figure 4 for the cone
sensitivity curve.
Suppose a 550 nm wavelength of light enters your eye, what color of the light will you perceive? If your answer is
green, you are certainly correct. If you will try to look at the figure 4, the light with 550 nm wavelength will stimulate
the green receptor more strongly than the red receptor and therefore, your eyes will perceive green light.
However, when a light with a 580 nm wavelength enters your eyes, both the red and green receptors will be
strongly stimulated hence your eyes will perceive yellow color based on the additive color mixing as shown figure
5.

Assessment in Physical Science, LAS 4

4TH Quarter, 2nd Semester

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Who proposed that light is composed of particles that are travelling in a straight line?
a. Christiaan Huygens c. Max Planck
b. Louis de Broglie d. Sir Isaac Newton

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2. Which is a disturbance that travels through a medium and carries energy from one location to another
without transporting matter?
a. crest c. trough
b. photon d. wave

3. What evidence tells that light is made up of particles travelling in a straight line?
a. formation of shadows when light hits obstacles
b. inversion of images formed on plane mirrors
c. production of ripples when a penny is dropped to a pond
d. scattering of light rays when they reach a smooth surface

4. What is true of photoelectric effect?

a. Electrons from metals can be dislodged by photons from light.
b. The sun’s light rays travel in waves directly on the electrons of atoms.
c. It proves that light is made up of waves that can remove electrons from metals.
d. Light energy is composed of several colors with their respective amounts of energy.

5. How is the specific quantity of light that can be absorbed by electrons to produce photoelectric effect
called?
a. particle c. wave
b. photon d. wavelength

6. What term refers to the bouncing off of light waves when they hit an obstacle?
a. diffraction c. refraction
b. reflection d. transmission

7. What forms when light waves bounce off a mirrored surface?

a. image c. photon
b. particle d. shadow

8. How is the bending of light waves as they pass from one medium to another medium with different refractive
indices known?
a. diffraction c. refraction
b. reflection d. transmission

9. What is true about the angle of the reflected ray, R?

a. It is equal to the angle of the incidence ray.
b. It is equal to the sum of the angles of incidence and reflected rays.
c. It is equal to the angle between the incident ray, I, and the plane of the mirror.
d. It is equal to the angle between the reflected ray, R, and the plane of the mirror.

10. A student placed a pencil in a glass of water as in the figure at the right.
Why did the pencil appear to be broken?
a. Light always travels in a straight line.
b. Light makes the water evaporate into the air.
c. Light reflects the pencil on the water’s surface.
d. Light bends when it passes through changing medium like air and water.

II. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What color in the visible light spectrum contains the highest amount of energy?
a. red c. green
b. yellow d. violet

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2. Who proposed the Quantum Theory of Light?
a. Lord Rayleigh c. Albert Einstein
b. Max Planck d. Isaac Newton

For numbers 3-5, choose the color of light that would be perceived by our eyes if:
3. Both the green and red receptors are being stimulated.
4. Both the blue and green receptors are being stimulated
5. Both the blue and red receptors are being stimulated.

a. Cyan c. white
b. magenta d. yellow

6. Who proposed the Photon Theory?

a. Max Planck c. Isaac Newton
b. Albert Einstein d. Louis de Broglie

7. Which of the following is the unit of wavelength?

a. hertz c. nanometer
b. joule d. candela

8. The quanta of light is called_____.

a. protons c. photons
b. electrons d. atoms

9. What happens to the energy of photon when the wavelength increases?

a. It decreases. c. Remains the same
b. It also increases. d. Becomes doubled

10. The color of light which is considered safe to use in photographic printing is ____
a. violet c. blue
b. red d. white

True or False: Write T if the statement is true, otherwise write F.

11. The red receptors in the cone of the human eyes are sensitive to short wavelength.
12. Wavelength is inversely proportional to the energy of photon.
13. The speed of light is equivalent to 3 X108 m/s.
14. The sun’s energy enters the atmosphere in the form of UV rays.
15. Photoelectric effect refers to the expulsion of electrons from an illuminated surface of metal.

Prepared by: Ramie Anne L. Tunguia

Subject Teacher
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
This module was prepared by: Approved by:

MS. DARLENE S. DEL ROSARIO SALVADOR J. SEMBRAN,PhD

Asst. Principal II, SHS
MS. DYAN JOY M. ELIZALDE

MS. APRIL EZRA R. MASMELA

MRS. RAMIE ANNE L. TUNGUIA

Science Subject Teachers

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