Doic Modified

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES
A composite material is formed by integrating one or more discontinuous components,
such as particles or fibers, into a continuous medium known as the matrix. In fiber
composites, the matrix serves to unite the fibers, distribute loads among them, and shield
them from external factors like environmental hazards and physical damage. Composites,
whether on a microscopic or macroscopic scale, involve the amalgamation of two or more
distinct engineered materials, each with its own unique physical and/or chemical
properties, clearly discernible at the interface within the final product. Specifically for
structural purposes, composites can be defined as materials comprising a reinforcing phase,
like fibers or particles, held within a binder or matrix phase. Examples of composite
materials are abundant in everyday life, with wood composites being particularly
prevalent. Additionally, notable characteristics of composites include:
The arrangement of elements within the composite is manipulated through mechanical

processes.
1) The term "composite" typically refers to materials where different phases are
distinctly separated on a scale larger than atomic, leading to significant alterations
in the mechanical properties compared to the individual components.
2) A composite can be seen as a blend of two or more materials utilized together to
address weaknesses in one material by leveraging the strengths of another.
3) A modern understanding of composites emphasizes that they shouldn't merely
combine two materials, but rather, the combination should yield unique properties
of its own. Whether it's enhanced strength, heat resistance, or any other desired
characteristic, the composite must surpass the individual components in
performance.
4) Composites were conceived to address the limitations of single, uniform materials
in meeting all desired characteristics for specific applications. Initially, fiber-
reinforced composites emerged as substitutes for aluminum alloys, which offer
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 1

strength and stiffness at a low weight but are prone to corrosion and fatigue. An
illustrative instance of a composite material is a fishing rod made of glass-
reinforced plastic, wherein glass fibers are embedded within an epoxy matrix.
While individual glass fibers exhibit exceptional tensile stiffness and strength, their
small diameters result in minimal bending stiffness.
5) Conversely, an epoxy plastic rod would possess satisfactory bending stiffness but
lackluster tensile properties. However, combining the fibers with the epoxy plastic
yields a composite structure with superior tensile stiffness, strength, and bending
stiffness.
Commercial production of particle reinforced metal matrix composites is now underway.

This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current state of these materials, delving
into various aspects such as types of reinforcement and alternative processing techniques.
Depending on the initial processing method employed, different considerations come into
play to ensure the production of high-quality billets.
In powder metallurgy processing, the composition of the matrix and the choice of
reinforcement are independent variables. However, in molten metal processing, they are
intricately linked due to the reactive interactions that take place between the reinforcement
and matrix in the molten state. The distribution of reinforcement is also influenced by the
initial processing method.
Secondary fabrication methods like extrusion and rolling play a crucial role in
consolidating composites produced via powder metallurgy. Conversely, techniques such as
spray casting, molten metal infiltration, and molten metal mixing yield fully consolidated
products directly. However, further enhancements in properties can be achieved through
processes like extrusion, which modify the distribution of reinforcement.
The mechanical properties of metal matrix composites are influenced by numerous factors,
prompting discussion on current understanding and areas necessitating further research.
Ultimately, the commercial viability of these composites hinges on their cost-effectiveness
across different applications. This entails optimizing processing, machining, and recycling
methods, with ongoing developments in these areas being explored.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES:
• 1.2.1Matrices:
 Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs)

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
 carbon‐carbon composites (CCCs)
 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
• 1.2.2 Reinforcements:
 Fibers reinforced composites

 Laminar composites
 Particulate composites
Figure 1.1: Classification of Composites Based on the type of matrix material
1.3 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

Resin systems, while not typically used independently due to their comparatively low
mechanical strength compared to metals, possess valuable characteristics, notably their
capacity to be shaped into intricate forms with ease. Materials like glass, aramid, and boron
boast impressive tensile and compressive strength, yet these qualities aren't readily
apparent in solid form due to surface flaws leading to premature failure under stress. To

address this, these materials are transformed into fibers, where flaws are confined to a few
strands, allowing the rest to demonstrate their theoretical strength. However, fibers alone
can only exhibit tensile strength along their length, akin to those in a rope. It's the
combination of resin systems with reinforcing fibers like glass, carbon, and aramid that
unlocks exceptional properties. The resin matrix distributes the load across individual
fibers and safeguards them from abrasion and impact, resulting in a composite with high
strength, stiffness, mold ability, environmental resistance, and low density, surpassing
metals in numerous applications. By merging resin systems with reinforcing fibers, the
resulting composite inherits qualities from both components, enhancing overall
performance.
OVERALL, THE PROPERTIES OF THE COMPOSITE ARE DETERMINED BY:
i) Characteristics of the fiber

ii) Attributes of the resin
iii) The proportion of fiber to resin in the composite (Fiber Volume Fraction)
iv) The configuration and alignment of the fibers within the composite
1.4 TYPES OF FIBERS

Fibers are elongated, slender structures known for their flexibility and thread-like
appearance. They can be spun into yarns, which are subsequently used in fabric
production. Fibers encompass various types, categorized primarily by their source into
natural and synthetic fibers. Synthetic fibers, crafted in laboratories, often offer cost
advantages over natural fibers, yet the latter are generally prized for their superior comfort.
Figure 1.2 Classification of fibers

1.5 NATURAL FIBRES
Natural fibers are derived from plants, animals, or minerals. Examples include cotton, silk,
and wool. These fibers can be categorized into two main types: those sourced from plants
and those from animals.
Figure 1.3: Natural fibers
Examples of Natural Fibers:
1.5.1 Animal fibers:
These fibers are sourced from animals, such as wool and silk.
- Wool, derived from sheep, goats, and camels, is a natural textile fiber that possesses
excellent insulation properties due to its ability to trap air, making it ideal for winter
clothing.
- Silk, obtained from silkworms through a process known as sericulture, is primarily

used in textile manufacturing. Woven silk fibers find applications in various products
including parachutes and bicycle tires.

1.5.2 Plant fibers:
These fibers derive from plants and are extracted for fabric production.
- Cotton: This plant fiber is a soft staple found in clusters around cotton seeds.
Known for its breathability and durability, cotton is widely utilized in clothing
manufacturing.
- Jute: A vegetable fiber known for its softness and shine, jute is spun into sturdy
threads suitable for various agricultural and industrial packaging needs such as
bags, sacks, and wraps.
1.6 SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Synthetic fibers, crafted from man-made polymers, are engineered to create fabrics.
Polymers form when numerous small units chemically bond together. Several examples of
synthetic fibers include:
1.6.1. Rayon: Derived from wood pulp, rayon, also dubbed artificial silk, shares
characteristics with silk. It finds applications in clothing, carpets, medical dressings, and
insulation.
1.6.2. Nylon: Pioneering the realm of synthetic fibers, nylon stands out for its strength.
It finds utility in ropes, sleeping bags, parachutes, various apparel, and more.
Figure: 1.4 Synthetic fibers

1.7 ANIMAL FIBERS
Animal fibers, comprised of proteins, constitute the fundamental building blocks of many
animal bodies. These fibers, sourced from the hair or fur of animals, play a crucial role in
textile manufacturing, facilitating the creation of various products including garments,
carpets, and upholstery. Wool, alpaca, mohair, cashmere, camel hair, llama, angora, yak,
qiviut, and vicuna are among the most prevalent animal fibers utilized in textile
production.
These fibers typically exist either as hair, such as wool, or as filament, exemplified by silk.
Interestingly, human hair also falls within this category. However, due to its distinct
thickness and surface properties, it lacks the ability to cohere with neighboring fibers,
preventing its formation into rope-like structures despite its inherent strength.
1.8 TYPES OF ANIMAL FIBERS
Various types of animal fibers exist, each with distinct characteristics. These fibers
include:
1.8.1 Wool: Derived from the hair of sheep, goats, and other animals, wool is
renowned for its warmth, elasticity, and durability. Serving as a natural insulator, it
retains body heat and possesses innate flame resistance. The inherent crimp in wool
fibers imparts resilience and elasticity, facilitating the creation of robust and flexible
yarns.
Figure :1.5 Sheep flock with fleece

1.8.2 Alpaca Fiber: Derived from the fleece of the alpaca, a mammal indigenous to
South America, alpaca fiber boasts exceptional softness, warmth, and hypoallergenic
qualities. Finer and stronger than traditional sheep’s wool, alpaca fibers contain
minimal lanolin, rendering them ideal for those with sensitivities. Additionally, their
natural water-repellent and insulating properties make them an excellent option for
outdoor apparel and accessories.
1.8.3 Mohair: Harvested from the hair of the Angora goat, mohair is celebrated for
its lustrous texture and sheen. Naturally robust and moisture-wicking, mohair fibers
are prized for their strength, resilience, and versatility, making them a preferred choice
for both clothing and home decor.
1.8.4 Cashmere: Sourced from the undercoat of the Cashmere goat, cashmere is
renowned for its unparalleled softness, warmth, and durability. Finer, stronger, and
lighter than traditional sheep’s wool, cashmere fibers epitomize luxury in clothing and
accessories.
1.8.5 Camel Hair: Derived from camels, camel hair is esteemed for its inherent
warmth, softness, and water-resistant properties. Naturally insulating and adept at
wicking away moisture, camel hair fibers excel in crafting outdoor attire and
accessories.
1.8.6 Angora Fiber: Obtained from the Angora rabbit, angora fiber is esteemed for
its unmatched softness, warmth, and exceptional insulating capabilities. Lightweight
and fluffy, angora fibers are a prime choice for crafting cozy clothing and accessories.
1.8.7 Yak Fiber: Harvested from yaks, yak fiber is prized for its warmth, strength,
and water-resistance. With natural insulating properties and a unique moisture-
wicking ability, yak fibers are ideal for outdoor wear and accessories.

1.8.8 Qiviut Fiber: Derived from the under wool of the muskox, qiviut fiber is
renowned for its superior warmth and softness. Remarkably, it is eight times warmer
than sheep’s wool, making it one of the softest and most luxurious natural fibers
available.
1.8.9 Llama Fiber: Obtained from llamas, llama fiber is valued for its warmth,
strength, and durability. Naturally insulating and proficient at wicking away
moisture, llama fibers are a superb choice for crafting outdoor apparel and
accessories.
Figure 1.6: Llama fibers
1.8.10 Vicuna fiber: Vicuna fiber, sourced from the delicate hair of the vicuna,
boasts exceptional warmth, softness, and rarity, establishing itself as one of the
most exquisite natural fibers globally. Each strand possesses unique qualities,
rendering it ideal for various clothing, accessories, and home décor applications.
These fibers can be skillfully spun into yarns, allowing for the creation of
intricately knitted or woven fabrics, which can then be embellished through dyeing,
printing, or embroidery techniques.
1.9 PROPERTIES
Animal fibers possess a diverse range of attributes that render them valuable in textile
production and various other industries. Among the primary characteristics of animal
fibers are:
1.9.1 Insulation: Certain animal fibers, such as wool and cashmere, exhibit exceptional
insulating properties, retaining warmth even when wet. This renders them perfect for
crafting clothing and textiles intended for cold climates.
1.9.2 Softness: Varieties like cashmere and alpaca are renowned for their luxurious
softness, making them ideal for garments and fabrics intended for direct contact with
the skin.
1.9.3 Moisture Management: Animal fibers like alpaca and mohair excel in wicking
moisture away from the body, ensuring a dry and comfortable experience for the
wearer.
1.9.4 Robustness: Many animal fibers, including wool and cashmere, are prized for
their durability, making them well-suited for textiles subjected to frequent wear and
tear.
1.9.5. Elasticity: Wool and similar fibers naturally possess elasticity, enabling them to
stretch and regain their shape, thus proving invaluable in knitwear and other flexible
textiles.

1.9.6. Flame Resistance: Certain animal fibers, notably wool, possess inherent flame-
retardant properties, making them essential for textiles intended for high-risk
environments.
1.9.7. Dye Affinity: Many animal fibers readily accept dyes and retain color vibrancy,
offering versatility in creating textiles with specific hues or patterns.
1.9.8. Hypoallergenic Qualities: Varieties like alpaca and cashmere are

hypoallergenic, minimizing skin irritation and allergic reactions, hence suitable for skin-
contact textiles.
1.10 ADVANTAGES
Animal fibers find extensive applications across various industries, particularly in textile
production. Here's a breakdown of their diverse uses:
1.10.1 Apparel: Wool, cashmere, alpaca, and mohair are employed in crafting an
array of clothing items including sweaters, coats, pants, dresses, and suits. Wool,
being a natural insulator, is favored for winter wear, while cashmere is renowned for
its luxurious softness and warmth, making it a preferred choice for sweaters. Alpaca
and mohair fibers, prized for their softness, warmth, and moisture-wicking qualities,
are ideal for outdoor apparel.
1.10.2 Home Furnishings: Animal fibers contribute to the creation of home decor
essentials like carpets, rugs, blankets, and upholstery. Wool's durability and resilience
make it perfect for carpets and rugs, while cashmere's softness and warmth enhance
the coziness of blankets and other home furnishings.
1.10.3 Footwear: Wool and alpaca fibers are utilized in crafting footwear such as
woolen socks, slippers, and boots due to their exceptional warmth and moisture-
wicking properties, ensuring comfort and dryness.

1.10.4 Accessories: Scarves, hats, gloves, and other accessories benefit from the
warmth and softness of wool and cashmere fibers, adding both style and functionality
to these items.
1.10.5Technical Textiles: Wool and cashmere find applications in technical textiles

like flame-retardant and moisture-wicking clothing. Wool's inherent flame-retardant
properties and cashmere's natural moisture-wicking ability make them valuable
materials for technical textiles.
1.10.6Industrial Applications: Animal fibers play a role in industrial products such

as rope, twine, and insulation. Wool's strength and elasticity make it well-suited for
rope and twine production, while its insulating properties contribute to its use in
building insulation.
1.11APPLICATIONS
1.11.1 AUTOMOBILE/TRANSPORTATION:
Fibers are integral to the automotive and transportation sectors, playing pivotal
roles in enhancing performance, safety, and efficiency. They are widely
employed in various applications:
Carbon fiber, glass fiber, and aramid fiber are frequently integrated into
composite materials for automobile parts. These materials boast impressive
strength-to-weight ratios, thus enhancing fuel efficiency and reducing the overall
weight of vehicles. Composite materials find application in body panels, chassis
components, and interior parts, resulting in lighter vehicles with superior
performance. In essence, fibers are essential in elevating the performance,
safety, comfort, and efficiency of automobiles and transportation systems,
thereby driving advancements in the industry.

Figure 1.7 Micro Synthetic Fibers in transportation
1.11.2 SPORTS:
Fibers play a pivotal role across diverse facets of sports, impacting performance, safety,
and comfort significantly. Here's a breakdown of how fibers are harnessed within the
realm of sports: Cutting-edge fiber technologies are often integrated into high-
performance sportswear to elevate both comfort and functionality. Fabrics crafted from
synthetic fibers such as polyester, nylon, and elastane offer key attributes like moisture-
wicking capabilities, breathability, and stretchiness, ensuring athletes remain dry and at
ease during rigorous physical exertion. Moreover, specialized fibers like carbon fiber are
ingeniously woven into footwear designs to deliver lightweight rigidity and energy
restitution, thereby amplifying performance levels in activities such as running and
cycling.
In the domain of sports medicine and rehabilitation, fibers serve diverse roles in aiding
recovery from injuries. Compression attire fashioned from elastic fibers like spandex
is employed to bolster blood circulation, mitigate muscle fatigue, and expedite
recuperation post-intense exercise sessions or injuries. Additionally, carbon fiber
emerges as a staple material in crafting lightweight and durable components for
various sporting equipment such as bicycles, tennis rackets, and hockey sticks.

Figure 1.8: Animal gut and synthetic fibers are used in making fibers in badminton racket strings
1.11.3 MEDICAL:
Medical fibers play a crucial role in the production of surgical sutures, requiring them to
meet specific criteria including biocompatibility, flexibility, and ample tensile strength to
support tissue healing. Furthermore, these fibers are integral in crafting implantable
medical devices like vascular grafts, stents, and artificial ligaments. To ensure
effectiveness, these fibers must exhibit exceptional biocompatibility, durability, and
mechanical resilience to endure the body's physiological demands. Common materials
utilized for these purposes include polypropylene, polyethylene, and silk.
Figure 1.9(a) : Bio prostheses used to substitude heart valve

Figure 1.9(b) : Dental crown made of glass fiber composite materials

Figure 1.9(c) : Implanted artificial hip joint made with synthtic fiber
1.11.4 CIVIL /INFRA STRUCTURE:

Durable yet lightweight fibers boasting remarkable tensile strength and stiffness are
frequently employed in structural reinforcement tasks were minimizing weight and
achieving a superior strength-to-weight ratio are paramount. These applications encompass
a spectrum ranging from bridge components to seismic retrofitting and the creation of
advanced composites for aerospace and automotive sectors. Additionally, synthetic fibers
renowned for their exceptional tensile strength and capacity for energy absorption are
indispensable in scenarios demanding robust impact resistance and blast protection. Such
applications include the construction of blast-resistant structures, protective barriers, and
seismic retrofitting projects.
Figure 1.10 :Fibers used in concrete to control crackingdue to plastic shrinkage

in civil works
1.11.5 MARINE:
Lightweight materials such as closed-cell foam or hollow fibers are integrated into marine
apparatus such as life rafts, buoys, and floating barriers to ensure buoyancy and flotation
functionalities. Shipbuilders are investigating the integration of natural fibers such as
hemp, flax, or jute as reinforcement components in composite structures. Although not as

robust as synthetic fibers, natural fibers provide ecological advantages and can be utilized
in non-structural elements or as core materials within sandwich structures.
Figure 1.11: Usage of CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced plastics) in marine industry
1.12 LIMITATIONS
1. Raw materials and fabrication expenses are prohibitively high.
2. Composites possess brittleness, rendering them susceptible to damage.
3. Weakness in transverse properties may be observed.
4. The matrix exhibits low toughness, contributing to overall weakness.
5. Difficulty arises in the reuse and disposal processes.
6. Health risks are present throughout manufacturing, as well as during and post-use.
7. Challenges are encountered in joining composite parts.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO LIERATURE REVIEW
Animal fibers have been utilized by humans for millennia, playing a crucial role in the
development of civilizations and economies across the globe. From the luxurious softness
of cashmere to the durable warmth of wool, animal fibers have served as essential
materials for clothing, textiles, and various industrial applications. This literature review
explores the rich history, diverse characteristics, and contemporary significance of animal
fibers, examining their production, properties, and ecological impact.
Throughout history, animal fibers have been prized for their unique qualities, ranging from
insulating warmth to exceptional strength. Among the most renowned animal fibers are
wool, silk, cashmere, and mohair, each originating from distinct species and possessing
distinct characteristics. Wool, sourced primarily from sheep but also from other animals
such as goats and rabbits, stands out for its versatility, resilience, and natural elasticity.
Silk, famously produced by silkworms, is celebrated for its lustrous sheen, lightweight
feel, and remarkable strength. Cashmere, derived from the soft undercoat of cashmere
goats, is cherished for its incomparable softness, warmth, and luxuriousness. Mohair,
obtained from the fleece of Angora goats, boasts a distinctive luster, durability, and
insulating properties.
The production of animal fibers involves intricate processes that vary depending on the
species, breed, and geographical location. Sheep, for example, are sheared annually to
obtain wool, which undergoes cleaning, spinning, and weaving to create a wide array of
textiles. Similarly, silkworms are cultivated for silk production, with their cocoons
harvested and processed to extract the fine threads used in fabric manufacturing. Cashmere
and mohair, on the other hand, require meticulous combing or shearing to gather the
downy fibers, which are subsequently sorted, cleaned, and spun into yarn.
Beyond their commercial value, animal fibers play a significant cultural and
socioeconomic role in many communities worldwide. For centuries, the production of
wool, silk, cashmere, and mohair has sustained livelihoods, fostered traditions, and shaped

local economies. In regions such as the Scottish Highlands, the Mongolian steppes, and the
Himalayan foothills, the cultivation of animal fibers forms an integral part of the cultural
heritage and identity.
In recent years, growing awareness of sustainability and animal welfare issues has
prompted scrutiny of the animal fiber industry. Concerns regarding environmental impact,
ethical treatment of animals, and labor practices have led to calls for greater transparency
and accountability throughout the supply chain. Efforts to promote responsible sourcing,
fair trade practices, and eco-friendly production methods are underway to address these
concerns and ensure the long-term viability of the animal fiber sector.
This literature review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of
knowledge regarding animal fibers, drawing upon a diverse range of scholarly sources,
industry reports, and empirical studies. By synthesizing existing research and highlighting
key findings, it seeks to deepen understanding of the multifaceted dimensions of animal
fibers, from their biological origins to their socio-economic implications. Through critical
analysis and synthesis, this review endeavors to shed light on the opportunities and
challenges facing the animal fiber industry in the 21st century.
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

A good amount of research is reported in the area of composite but in this paper we
reviewed journal papers related to natural fiber reinforced composites only due to its light
weight, low price, wide availability, renewability, low density & satisfactory mechanical
properties . A composite of polyethylene matrix with keratin fiber reinforcement was
prepared by Justin and Walter where fiber were of same diameter and varying aspect ratio
mixed into the matrix. It was found that the density of the composite is not increased rather
reduced by 2% due to keratin feather fiber [1]
Tensile and flexural strength of coconut spathe-fiber reinforced composite specimen were
determined using INSTRON material testing system. From the test Sapuan et al concluded
that tensile strength of the composite ranged from 7.9 to 11.6 MPa. The higher strength is
due to coconut fiber reinforcement [2].

In bio-based jute epoxy composites rate of water absorption and swelling depends on
volume fraction of fiber. With 40% fiber Masoodi and Pillai measured epoxy matrix
swelling capacity was 19% & for bio-epoxy matrix it was 24% [3].
A study is carried out on the behavior of polymer composites reinforced with short fiber
obtained from poultry feather fabricated by hanging-up technique by Anandrao et al [4]
Bartels, T. studied that traditional disposal strategies of chicken feathers are difficult.
however, these disposal methods are restricted or generate greenhouse gases that pose
danger to the environment. Chicken feather is deliberated as an unwanted product from the
poultry production. Large amount of waste feathers generated and disposed each year by
the poultry processing plants results in severe solid waste trouble [5].
Barone and Schmidt worked on composites of polyethylene reinforced with keratin fibers
obtained from chicken feathers. In the experiment fibers of similar diameter but varying
aspect ratio were mixed into low-density polyethylene (LDPE) using a Brabender mixing
head. Scanning electron microscopy revealed some interaction between the fiber and
polymer without the need for coupling agents or chemical treatment of the fibers. The
density of the composite upon introduction of keratin feather fiber is not increased, but
reduced by 2%. The results obtained from mechanical testing are compared to theoretical
predictions based on a simple composite material micromechanical model [6].
Several studies have been published on the use of chicken feathers, fish scales, and other
waste residues as reinforcing and biodegradable agents for thermoplastic composites,
including horse hair, sheep wool, rice husk, jute fiber, and Sisal fiber [7]
Antaryami Mishra worked on epoxy composites reinforced with wood dust and chicken
feather using hand lay-up technique to prepare Composites of teak wood dust composites
of (10, 15, and 20%) weight, as well as 5% chopped chicken feather combined with epoxy,
to evaluate the mechanical behavior of the composites [8].
Chinta et al. examined the application of chicken feather in technical textiles. Feathers of
chicken possessing properties like- good thermal insulation, porosity and light weight used

in production of erosion control fabrics utilizing latex bonding were found to be suitable
for fabricating technical textiles. [9]
Kiew et al. Worked on comparative study of dielectric properties of chicken feather-Kenaf

fiber reinforced unsaturated polyester composites It was judged that the chicken feather
fiber composites would be suitable for application as high speed printed circuit board
material basing on the result that the dielectric value increments were high at low
frequencies and they gradually reached significantly lower values at higher frequencies.
The chicken feather fiber unsaturated polyester composite exhibited an overall lower
dielectric constant, dissipation factor and loss factor compared to the Kenaf fiber
unsaturated polyester composites [10].
Ganesh and Rekha. [11] made a comparative study on tensile behavior of plant and animal
fiber reinforced composite. Hybrid composite samples were prepared using rice straw,
chicken feather and polyester resin matrix with different volume proportions. It was
observed that tensile property of hybrid composite exhibited higher value than individual.
Further proper orientation of fiber yielded better tensile strength. It was concluded that
increase in tensile strength of the order of 28% and 85% of hybrid composites made it
suitable in manufacture of automobile components.
Kock and Jeffery studied the physical and mechanical properties of chicken feather
materials and recommended that materials derived from chicken feather could be used
advantageously in composite building material application. Results describing the moisture
content, aspect ratio, apparent specific gravity, chemical durability, Young's modulus and
tensile strength for processed CFM specifically their fiber and quill component was studied
and presented by them. Fiber fraction has greater Young's Modulus than quill fraction. It is
comparable to that of other fibres such as jute and flax. Quill fraction has lower tensile
strength than fibre fraction [12].
B.H. ABED and Ali A. Battawi. Studied the creep behavior of polystyrene composites
reinforced with natural fiber in varying weight fractions, constant load, and different
temperatures. The fabrication setup for composite materials was created using the hand
layup process. Using curve-fitting methods, the Maxwell techniques was used to extract

the stress and modulus of elasticity from the strain–time curve. Numerous studies have
found that, the fabrication of bio-composites can employ chicken feather and fish scale
powder as biodegradable reinforcing materials because they have little to no economic
value. Yet, little studies had been done on how the creep feature affects polyester
composites reinforced with the aforementioned fillers[13].
Natural fiber are reinforced in matrix for engineering application by Cheun et al by mixing
of natural fiber with biodegradable and bio reasonable polymer for joints and fixtures [14].
Sheep wool as fiber reinforcement as concrete admixture gave good percentage of

increment in both compressive strength and flexural strength of concrete, but as the grade
of cement increases the percentage of increment in strength gradually reduces. By using
wool dipped in salt water as an admixture, withstands more compressive and flexural
strength than ordinary Portland cement [15].
Wood and specialty fibres: Wood fibres are sourced from a wide variety of trees. Hence,
they are in abundant supply across the world. Wood fibres are broadly divided into two
groups, softwood and hardwood. The major difference between these two groups is that
while softwood fibres are generally longer than hardwood fibres [16].
Natural fibres can be obtained from plant fibres such as sisal, hemp, bamboo, coir, flax,
kenaf, jute, ramie, oil palm, pineapple, banana, cotton etc., as well as from animal source,
e.g., wool, silk and chicken feather fibres [17].
Clothes made from fibres with more moisture regain were easy to process and comfortable
to wear suggesting that products made from chicken feather barbs would provide better
comfort than that those made from cotton. According to Tesfaye et al., (2017) chicken
feather fractions used for several types of applications that required liquid retention. For
example, in the medical industry, drugs could be inserted into these micro fibrous materials
for release in the body by means of body temperature [18].
SabithAhamedManegar, Chennakeshava R , Amruth M Acharya , Jevil Clement

Mendonca, Shashank B C et.al Animal fibers, following vegetable or plant fibers, are
among the most prevalent natural fibers utilized. Predominantly composed of proteins,

they serve as insulation within composites. Wool, sourced from various animals such as
horses, goats, llamas, rabbits, musk oxen, among others, exemplifies this category.
Additionally, silk, feathers, and hair are sourced from diverse origins. Each wool fiber
possesses distinct characteristics. For instance, alpaca fiber, lighter and cooler than sheep's
wool, exhibits an almost white hue. Conversely, Angora fiber, obtained from Angora
rabbits, is notably thin and fluffy. Cashmere, luxurious soft wool, is procured from
cashmere goats, while quiviut wool, derived from musk oxen, is a finer yet pricier fiber.
Despite their contrasting properties, sheep's wool remains the most prevalent due to its
widespread availability and lower cost. Silk, another crucial natural protein fiber, can be
woven into textiles and harvested from various sources, predominantly insects, with
butterflies being a primary source. Chicken feathers, found in vertebrates, boast a complex
integumentary structure, emanating from small follicles on the outer skin layer, rich in
keratin proteins. With distinctive attributes such as low density and exceptional thermal
and acoustic insulation, chicken feathers comprise 91% keratin, 1% lipids, and 8% water,
making them viable reinforcement materials in composites [19]
N. Muralidhar et al. (2019) studied areca nut ask fibre extraction, composite panel casting,
and composite material mechanical characteristics. Because of their low cost and
lightweight, composite materials are widely used in the marine, construction, and
aerospace sectors, according to the authors. They searched for mechanical qualities
including tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact strength in areca nut husk fibres in
their study. The authors discover that a composite sandwich including glass fibre has a
greater elastic modulus than a pure areca nut husk fibre composite and that an epoxy
composite with fine fibres has a better tensile strength than an epoxy composite with
coarse fibres [20].
2.3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Identifying problems with fiber layup in hand layup processes is crucial to ensure the
structural integrity and performance of composite materials. Here are some common
issues:

2.3.1Fiber Misalignment: Fibers not properly aligned according to the desired
orientation can weaken the structure and compromise its strength. Misalignment can
occur due to human error or inadequate tooling.
2.3.2Resin Distribution: Inadequate resin distribution can lead to dry spots or resin-
rich areas within the composite, affecting its mechanical properties and durability.
Proper saturation of fibers is essential for optimal performance.
2.3.3. Air Entrapment: Air trapped between the layers of fiber and resin can form
voids, reducing the material's strength and creating potential weak points. Proper
rolling or compacting techniques are necessary to eliminate air pockets.
2.3.4. Fiber Distortion: Improper handling of fibers during layup can cause distortion
or damage, affecting their ability to carry loads effectively. Careful attention must be
paid to avoid kinks, folds, or twists in the fibers.
2.3.5. Delaminating: Inadequate bonding between layers can result in delamination,

where layers separate from each other. This can occur due to insufficient resin,
contamination, or improper curing conditions.
2.3.6. Fiber Contamination: Contaminants such as dust, oils, or release agents can
interfere with the bonding between fibers and resin, leading to weak spots or
delamination. Cleanliness of tools and work environment is essential to prevent
contamination.
2.3.7. Thickness Variation: Inconsistent thickness across the composite can

compromise its structural integrity and dimensional stability. Proper control of resin
application and fiber compaction is necessary to achieve uniform thickness.
2.3.8. Fiber Wrinkling: Improper handling or excessive resin can cause wrinkles or
buckling in the fibers, reducing their load-bearing capacity and creating stress
concentrations.

2.3.9. Fiber Breakage: Excessive tension during layup or inadequate fiber handling
techniques can result in fiber breakage, weakening the overall structure and
compromising its mechanical properties.
2.3.10 Curing Defects: Incorrect curing temperature, time, or pressure can lead to
curing defects such as incomplete curing, resin pocket formation, or surface defects,
affecting the quality and performance of the composite material.
CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT
3.1 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT
Following are the objectives that have been outlined:
3.1.1 Fabrication of a new class of epoxy-based hybrid composite reinforced with

sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+10 grams of duck
egg shell powder, camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+
sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, sheep fiber+ camel fiber+10 grams of
duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg shell
powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+ sheep fiber with 10 grams of duck egg shell
powder in all compositions
3.1.2 Evaluation of mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural strength,

impact, and hardness.
3.1.3 To study the potential utilization of Sheep fiber, camel and chicken feather fiber
with duck egg shell powder as reinforcement material in epoxy-based composites for
various applications.
3.1.4 To assess whether the fabricated hybrid composite can be used as an animal fiber
based alternate material for synthetic fiber reinforced composites.

3.2 SCOPE OF MATERIALS
This part manages the materials that are chosen to set up the mixture composite material
dependent on the Properties.
The materials chose are
1. Hardener
2. Epoxy
3. Chicken feather fiber, Camel fiber and Sheep wool fiber
4. duck egg shell powder
The duck egg shell powder is treated with NaOH arrangement, dried and is ready for
manufacture measure
3.2.1 EPOXY RESIN

In this study, we employ epoxy LY556 as the foundational material for fabricating fiber
epoxy composites. The selection of epoxy LY556 is deliberate due to its widespread use
and numerous advantageous characteristics. This epoxy demonstrates minimal shrinkage,
elevated mechanical strength, ease of fabrication, excellent chemical and moisture
resistance, as well as superior wetability. Epoxy resins, such as LY556, are prevalent in
polymer matrix composites as they belong to a category of thermoset plastics known for
their absence of reaction by-products during curing, resulting in minimal shrinkage.
Additionally, they exhibit strong adhesion to diverse substrates, exceptional chemical and
environmental resistance, and effective insulating properties.
3.2.2 HARDENER
The current study employs hardener HY951 to initiate gel formation. This hardener is
specifically designed for this purpose. The combination of epoxy LY556 and this hardener
results in a formulation that cures at room temperature, offering excellent adhesive strength
as well as impressive mechanical and electrical properties. The epoxy and hardener are

mixed in a ratio of 10:1, meaning 10 grams of epoxy are combined with 1 gram of
hardener.
Figure 3.1: Combination of epoxy ly556& hardener HY-951
3.2.3 PROPERTIES OF HARDENER HY-951:
This versatile adhesive consists of two segments and effectively relieves at room
temperature. It is a simple-to-use fluid with exceptional strength, suitable for bonding a
wide range of materials including metals, ceramics, glass, rubber, rigid plastics, and many
others commonly used.
Thickness: 0.95gm/cm^3.
3.2.4 CAMEL WOOL FIBER
Camel wool, commonly referred to as camel hair, originates from the coats of Bactrian
camels, a subspecies typically found in the expansive Mongol Steppes region spanning
from Turkey to China and Siberia. Unlike their shorter-haired counterparts, Bactrian
camels boast long, glossy hair and distinctive twin humps. The camel hair comprises two
distinct components: the guard hair and the undercoat. While the guard hair is coarse and
tough, it serves as protection against the harsh winters of the Steppes. During the depths of
winter, Bactrian camels appear thick and fuzzy due to this insulation. However, the guard
hair alone isn't suitable for fabric production; it often requires blending with materials such
as sheep wool to create usable textiles.

Figure 3.2 Application of camel wool fiber in Textile industry
The soft undercoat of Bactrian camels serves a similar purpose to fiberglass insulation in
homes, nestled between the inner and outer walls. While the outer guard coat can be
utilized in specific textile production, it's the undercoat that's primarily employed in
crafting apparel.
Figure3.3: Camel wool fiber
The utilization of camel hair as a textile material has historical roots, often associated with
the final era of the British Empire. However, there has been resurgence in using this
sustainable resource, particularly among those with an eco-conscious mindset. Unlike
other types of wool which require shearing, Bactrian camels naturally shed their winter
coats each spring, making the harvesting of camel hair a cruelty-free and sustainable
practice. Camel wool is typically categorized into three grades. The highest grade consists
of fibers from the undercoat, with only the finest fibers meeting the criteria for true high-

grade quality. These superior fibers are predominantly utilized in crafting consumer
textiles. Medium-grade fibers, derived from the undercoat but not meeting the high-grade
standard, are also used in apparel production. However, garments made from these fibers
tend to have a coarser texture. On the other hand, low-grade camel hair comes from the
guard coat and is primarily suited for rougher textiles like carpets, due to its stiff and
inflexible nature.
Table 1: Came wool fiber properties
PROPERIES OF CAMEL FIBER
Density(Kg/m3) 1310
Poission's Ratio 0.35
Youngs Modulus(Gpa) 1.95
Ultimate Tensile Strength(MPa) 280
3.2.5 SHEEP FIBER
Sheep wool, derived from the fleece of sheep, remains a classic textile cherished for its
warmth, strength, and versatility. Its innate ability to insulate provides unmatched comfort
in chilly climates while still allowing breathability. Resilient and durable, wool fibers
maintain their shape even after repeated bending and stretching, ensuring the longevity of
garments and fabrics. Wool's impressive elasticity enables it to stretch up to 30% of its
length before returning to its original state, offering both comfort and freedom of
movement. Moreover, its moisture-wicking properties make it perfect for regulating body
temperature by absorbing sweat, keeping wearers dry and comfortable. The inherent fire

resistance, biodegradability, and varying softness levels of wool, ranging from rugged to
luxurious, further enhance its appeal. Widely used in apparel, textiles, insulation, bedding,
and industrial applications, sheep wool remains highly valued for its natural attributes and
adaptability across a multitude of industries.
Figure 3.4 Sheep wool fiber
Figure 3.5 Application of sheep wool fiber
Table 2: Sheep wool fiber properties
PROPERIES OF SHEEP FIBER
Density(Kg/m3) 1315
Poission's Ratio 0.3
Youngs Modulus(Mpa) 280
Ultimate Tensile Strength(MPa) 70

3.2.6 CHICKEN FEATHER FIBER
Chicken Feather Fiber (CFF), typically seen as a byproduct in poultry production, presents
a significant waste management challenge due to the substantial volume of feathers
discarded annually by processing plants. Feathers, intricate structures made of keratin, vary
in type and function within the bird's plumage. Down feathers, for instance, are smaller and
lack the hooklets found in contour feathers. These soft, fluffy feathers, situated beneath the
contour feathers, primarily contribute to the insulation of the bird.
Figure 3.6 Chicken feather anatomy
Natal down, exclusive to hatchlings, and powder down, a specialized type producing fine
keratin powder, are subcategories of down feathers. The keratin powder forms a
waterproof barrier for contour feathers, thanks to its unwettable nature. Semi plumes serve
as intermediaries between contour and down feathers. Finally, bristles, the smallest feather
type, are rigid and primarily serve protective functions, such as around the eyes, nostrils,
and base of the beak on a chicken's head.

3.2.7 DUCK EGG SHELL POWDER
Duck eggshell powder refers to the finely pulverized version of duck eggshells. It is
produced through a meticulous process involving thorough cleaning and drying of the
eggshells followed by grinding them into a fine powder. This versatile powder finds
widespread use owing to its potential health advantages and diverse practical applications.
Uses and Benefits:
1. Calcium Supplement: Utilizing duck egg shell powder as a calcium supplement provides
a natural source of calcium carbonate, supporting bone health and preventing calcium
deficiency when included in one's dietary regimen.
2. Gardening: Incorporating duck egg shell powder, rich in calcium, into gardening
practices enriches soil with essential nutrients, fostering healthier plant growth and
mitigating calcium deficiency in plants.
3. Poultry Feed: Enhancing poultry feed with ground duck eggshells serves as a vital
calcium source for laying hens, promoting robust eggshell formation and overall avian
well-being.
4. Soil Amendment: Duck egg shell powder serves as an effective soil amendment, capable
of balancing pH levels by neutralizing acidic soil, thereby enhancing its suitability for a
diverse array of plant cultivation.
5. Household Uses: Harnessing the gentle abrasiveness of eggshell powder renders it an

ideal cleaner for delicate surfaces such as glassware and ceramics, facilitating effective
scrubbing and polishing without causing scratches.
6. Beauty Products: The exfoliating properties of eggshell powder make it a sought-after

ingredient in cosmetic and skincare formulations, aiding in the removal of dead skin cells
to unveil smoother and more radiant skin.

Figure 3.7: Duck egg shell powder processing
CHAPTER 4
HAND LAY-UP PROCESS
Hand-applied resins penetrate fibers that exist in various forms such as woven, knitted,
stitched, or bonded fabrics. This process typically employs rollers or brushes, although
there's a growing preference for roller-type impregnators. These impregnators utilize
rotating rollers and a resin bath to effectively force the resin into the fabrics. Subsequently,
laminates are allowed to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.
4.1 MATERIALS
4.1.1 MOLD
Typically, in the lay-up process, a mold is essential for achieving the desired shape of
the parts by placing layers within or onto it. However, in this laboratory setting, we will
deviate from the conventional approach and utilize a tabletop to support the flat shape
of the layup instead. It's worth noting that in the industry, a 'mold' is often referred to as
a 'tool' in the context of composite processes.

Figure 4.1 Schematic hand layup processes
• Various mold shapes can be attained through machining, casting, or molding materials.
• Additionally, a range of materials such as metal, composites, wood, plaster, and rubber
can serve as molds.
4.1.2 RELEASE AGENT
Preventing resin adhesion to the mold is essential. In this experiment, the tabletop will
be shielded with plastic sheeting to serve as the release agent. Various other release
agents employed in industries include waxes, spray releases, release films, and internal
releases (incorporated into gel coat or resin system). These agents are typically
administered to composite molds or tooling in distinct areas to prevent contamination,
as inadvertent integration into the composite layup could occur.
4.1.3 RESINS
The resin serves as the foundational element within the composite, effectively binding
together the composite materials and facilitating the transfer of stresses within the

component to the fibers within the composite structure. The selection and design of
fibers are specifically tailored to withstand the anticipated stresses. In this experiment, a
two-part epoxy and hardener resin system will be utilized, offering flexibility in choice
with various hardeners available to accommodate specific job requirements. Commonly
employed resins in industrial settings include unsaturated polyesters, specialty and high-
performance thermosets such as vinyl esters, and epoxies.
4.1.4 REINFORCING FIBERS

Numerous types of fibers can comprise a composite, each available in various formats.
These choices, tailored to the design constraints of the end product, play a pivotal role
in the material selection process. In this experiment, we will utilize a standard weave
fiberglass cloth.
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

4.2.1 WORK STATION PREPARATION
Effective preparation of materials and tools is essential when dealing with composites.
This is crucial due to the limited working time once the resin and hardener are
combined, as their chemical reaction triggers an exothermic process. Every student
group must ensure all necessary materials and supplies are gathered and arranged
beforehand. Additionally, as part of the initial setup, the woven cloth should be
precisely cut to fit the shape of the intended part. For this experiment, each student is
required to cut two pieces of fiberglass material into one-foot squares.
4.2.2 MOLD PREPARATION

Prior to commencing the layup process, it is essential to ensure proper preparation of
the mold. This typically involves cleaning the mold thoroughly and applying a release
agent to its surface to prevent resin adhesion. In this particular experiment, mold
preparation involves securing plastic sheeting to the tabletop. However, in a real-world
scenario, the following steps would be undertaken by the student:

1. Clean the mold using a clean cloth.
2. Apply the release agent evenly across the mold's surface.
3. Allow sufficient time for the release agent to set.
4. Buff the surface with a clean cloth to ensure optimal preparation for the layup
process.
4.2.3 LAY-UP PROCESS

After ensuring all necessary materials are prepared and the workstation is set up,
including mold preparation, students can commence the layup process. The initial step
involves mixing resin and hardener in specified proportions, typically provided by the
supplier and indicated on the containers. It's crucial to adhere to these proportions
precisely as it initiates a complete chemical reaction, essential for maximum matrix
strength.
Volume measurement using screw-in pumps inserted into resin and hardener cans is the
preferred method, available for purchase alongside the containers. It's imperative to
keep resin and hardener equipment separate to avoid contamination, which can
prematurely trigger the reaction. Mixing occurs in designated containers with a stirring
stick, ensuring a slow and thorough blend for at least two minutes to prevent air bubble
entrapment.
Using a flat mixing stick like a tongue depressor is recommended for optimal blending.
Plastic mixing containers may not withstand the reaction's heat, so using containers
specifically designed for epoxy resin is advisable. Once mixed, an appropriate amount
is deposited into the mold and spread evenly using a brush or roller. Care must be taken
to avoid excessive resin, leading to thick layers, or insufficient resin causing surface
holes upon curing.
Estimating resin quantity based on the weight of the fiberglass cloth and applying a
safety margin ensures sufficient resin for the layup. The first layer of fiberglass is laid
and thoroughly wetted with resin, ensuring proper adhesion. Subsequent layers require
careful elimination of air bubbles, achieved by rolling or brushing. Varying fiber

orientation, known as 'clocking,' enhances specific strength directions.Covering the
layup with temporary plastic sheets aids in reducing mess and excess resin squeeze-out
during layer buildup. Excess resin should be disposed of in a non-flammable area after
completion. Students should monitor the exothermic reaction's progress, observing
temperature changes in the cup compared to the composite panel.
4.2.4 CURING
The component can undergo curing either at elevated temperatures, typically around
160 degrees Fahrenheit using an oven, or at room temperature. The appropriate curing
duration for each resin-hardener type, as well as the working timeframe, is typically
indicated by the supplier on the containers. If the component is placed on plastic
sheeting, ensure to use a suitable grade such as type 7 plastic that can withstand high
temperatures, as most common plastic sheets like polyethylene from hardware stores
may melt. If the intention is to transfer the component to a curing oven after laying it
up, it's advisable to perform the layup on a caul plate, typically made of aluminum or
steel and over 1/8” thick. For the purposes of this experiment and utilizing an epoxy
resin system, curing at room temperature suffices.
4.2.5 CLEANING
Once the cured part is ready, it needs to be relocated appropriately. This can involve
transferring it to a curing oven or allowing it to cure in its current position until the
following day. Subsequently, a thorough cleanup is essential before leaving the
workspace. All utilized materials, such as brushes, rollers, mixing tools, and scissors,
along with the work surface, must be meticulously cleaned using acetone and a cloth.
Additionally, any remaining fiberglass woven reinforcement should be gathered from
both the table and floor.
Regarding the disposal of acetone, if it comes into contact with the skin, it should be
washed off with soap and water. Alternatively, certain hand cleaners like Go Jo can
effectively remove it. Any surplus acetone should be disposed of properly. It's advisable

to pour it into a designated disposal container with a lid and ensure it is disposed of in
accordance with regulations.
4.3 COMPOSITIONS TAKEN:

1. Sheep fiber +10% Duck egg shell powder
2. Camel fiber +10% Duck egg shell powder
3. Chicken feather +10% Duck egg shell powder
4. Sheep fiber + Camel fiber + 10% Duck egg shell powder
5. Camel fiber + Chicken feather + 10% Duck egg shell powder
6. Chicken feather + Sheep fiber + 10% Duck egg shell powder
7. Chicken feather + Sheep fiber + Camel fiber + 10% Duck egg shell powder
4.4 STEPS INVOLVED IN THE FABRICATION OF SPECIMEN:
10% Duck egg shell powder was used to create the following specimens: 10% Duck egg
shell powder was used to create the Chicken feather fiber with 10% Duck egg shell
powder, the Camel fiber with 10% Duck egg shell powder, the S glass with 10% Duck egg
shell powder, the S glass/Chicken feather fiber with 10% Duck egg shell powder, and the
Chicken feather fiber/S glass /CAMEL FIBRE specimen. All compositions were created
by hand layup technique. 10% of powdered duck egg shell is utilized in all formulations.
Ten grams of hardener (HY951) and 100 grams of epoxy (LY556), which serves as the
composite's matrix, are combined. The specimen thickness for both the tensile and flexural
tests is 4.5 mm.
4.4.1 CHICKEN FEATHER FIBER FIBREWITH 10% DUCK EGG SHELL

POWDERA specimen made of reinforced epoxy composite was created using a manual
layup approach. In this procedure, 100 grammes of epoxy (LY556), which serves as the
composite's matrix, is combined with 10 grammes of hardener (HY951) and 8 sheets of
300GSM chicken feather fibre (230/300mm), with 10% duck egg shell powder in each
composition. The specimen made from two sheets of 300GSM chicken feather fibre has a

thickness of around 1 mm. Eight sheets of chicken feather fibre are utilised to achieve a
4.5 mm thickness.
4.4.2 CAMEL FIBER FIBREWITH 10% DUCK EGG SHELL POWDERA

specimen made of reinforced epoxy composite was created using a manual layup
approach. In this procedure, 100 grams of epoxy (LY556), which serves as the
composite's matrix, is combined with 10 grams of hardener (HY951) and 8 sheets of
300GSM Camel Fibrefibre (230/300mm), with 10% Duck egg shell powder in each
composition. The specimen made from two sheets of 300GSM CAMEL FIBRE fibre has
a thickness of about 1 mm. The specimen thickness for the flexural, hardness, impact, and
tensile tests is 4.5 mm.
4.4.3 SHEEP FIBERWITH 10% DUCK EGG SHELL POWDERA specimen made
of reinforced epoxy composite was created by hand layup. Four sheets of 300GSM sheep
fibre (230/300 mm) with a 4 mm thickness and 10% powdered duck egg shell in each
composition were used in this method. Additionally, 100 grams of epoxy (LY556), which
serves as the composite's matrix, are combined with 10 grams of hardener (HY951). The
specimen thickness for the flexural, hardness, impact, and tensile tests is 4.5 mm.
4.4.4 CAMEL FIBER+CHICKEN FEATHER FIBERWITH 10% DUCK EGG

SHELL POWDERusing a manual layup technique, reinforced epoxy composite
specimens are created. For this epoxy and hardener combination. Throughout this
process, four sheets of 300GSM hybrid fiber (230/300 mm) and four sheets of 300GSM
camel fiber with chicken feather fiber were used. In all compositions, 10% duck egg shell
powder was used. Additionally, 100 grams of epoxy (LY556) and 10 grams of hardener
(HY951) are combined to form the composite's matrix. The specimen thickness for the
flexural, hardness, impact, and tensile tests is 4.5 mm.
4.4.5 SHEEP FIBER+CAMEL FIBER WITH 10% DUCK EGG SHELL

POWDERSheep fiber, camel fiber, epoxy, and hardener are combined with camel fiber
to create this hybrid composite. This fiber is utilized in all formulations to achieve a 4
mm thickness and 10% duck egg shell powder. Additionally, 100 grams of epoxy

(LY556) and 10 grams of hardener (HY951) are combined. The specimen thickness for
the flexural, hardness, impact, and tensile tests is 4.5 mm.
4.4.6 SHEEP FIBER +CHICKEN FEATHER FIBER WITH 10% DUCK EGG
SHELL POWDERSheep fiber, epoxy, and hardener are combined with chicken feather
fibred to create this hybrid composite. To get the 4mm thickness and 10% duck egg shell
powder in all compositions, 4 sheets of 300GSM Sheep fiber (230/300 mm) and 4 sheets
of 300GSM Chicken feather fiber are utilized in this technique. Additionally, 100 grams
of epoxy (LY556) and 10 rams of hardener (HY951) are combined. The specimen
thickness for the flexural, hardness, impact, and tensile tests is 5 mm.
4.4.7 CAMEL FIBER+ CHICKEN FEATHER+ SHEEP FIBER WITH 10% DUCK
EGG SHELL POWDERA specimen made of fiber-reinforced epoxy composite is
created. 10% duck egg shell powder is added to all compositions of the epoxy and
hardener for this composite made of chicken feathers, camel fibre, and sheep fibers. The
specimen thickness for the flexural, hardness, impact, and tensile tests is 4.5 mm.
Figure 4.2: All composites fibers used samples

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES
The properties of the sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+10
grams of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken
feather+ sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, sheep fiber+ camel fiber+10
grams of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg shell
powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+ sheep fiber with 10 grams of duck egg shell powder
in all compositions reinforced epoxy hybrid composites with of fiber under this
investigation are presented in below Table. I have taken each composite for each test.
Details of processing of these composites and the tests conducted on them have been
described in the previous chapter. The mechanical properties of Synthetic fiber reinforced
composites are largely depending on the chemical, structural composition, fiber type and
soil conditions and also on atmospheric conditions at the time of fabrication of the
specimens.
Table 3: Final test results
S.NO COMPOSITE TENSILE TEST FLEXURAL TEST IMPACT TEST HARDNESS
LOAD(N) ELONGTATION(mm) LOAD(N) ELONGTATION(mm) (J) NUMBER
1 Sheep fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 1705 8.3 175 9.3 79 22
2 Camel fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 2015 9 191 8.9 90 24
3 Chicken feather fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 1590 7.6 149 8.7 76 32
4 Sheep fiber + Camel fiber fiber+10gms Duckegg shell powder 1790 4.8 177 10.9 104 38
5 Sheep fiber +Chicken feather Fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 1575 5.6 162 9.7 89 42
6 Chicken feather fiber + camel Fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 1670 4.9 183 6.9 102 36
7 Chicken feather+Sheep fiber + Camel fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 2145 4.1 219 4.9 108 51
The results of various characterization tests are reported here. This includes
evaluation of tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact strength and hardness test. Has
been studied and discussed. Based on the tabulated results, various graphs are plotted and
presented in figures for composites.

5.2 TENSILE TEST CALCULATIONS
Fabrication and testing successfully completed in this project the tensile properties of
sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg
shell powder, camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+ sheep
fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, sheep fiber+ camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg
shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, camel
fiber+ chicken feather+ sheep fiber with 10 grams of duck egg shell powder in all
compositions fibersfabricated by using hand lay-up method. The tensile strength was
calculated by the relation
tensileload
Tensile stress σt =
area of cross−section
P
= N/mm2
A
Where, P=Load
A=Area of cross section
Figure 5.1: Tensile strength materials specimens
As per results peak load (N) values of tensile specimens,

 Chicken feather+10grams duck egg shell powder:
1590
σt = = 0.219 N/mm2
165× 44
 Sheep fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:
1705
σt = = 0.234 N/mm2
165× 44
 Camel fiber +10grams duck egg shell powder:
2015
σt = = 0.277 N/mm2
165× 44
 Chicken feather/Sheep fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:
1575
σt = = 0.216 N/mm2
165× 44
 Sheep fiber/Camel fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:
1790
σt = = 0.246 N/mm2
165× 44
 Chicken feather/ Camel fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:
1670
σ t= = 0.230 N/mm2
165× 44
 Chicken feather/Sheep fiber/Camel fiber+10grams duck egg
shell powder:
2145
σt = = 0.295 N/mm2
165× 44
The percentage of elongation is calculated by the follow equation

change∈length
% elongation = ×100
originallength
As per results displacements (mm) values of tensile specimens,
 Chicken feather +10grams duck egg shell powder:

8.3
% of elongation = ×100= 5.06%
164
 Camel fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:

9
164

7.6
164

4.8
164
 Sheep fiber/Camel fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:

5.6
164
 Camel fiber/Chicken feather+10grams duck egg shell powder:

4.9
164
 Chicken feather/Sheep fiber/Camel fiber+10grams duck egg

shell powder:
4.1
164
Table4: Tensile test results

S.NO COMPOSITE TENSILE TEST
LOAD(N) ELONGTATION(mm) TENSILE STRESS(N/mm2) ELONGTATION(%)
1 Sheep fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 1705 8.3 0.234 5.06
2 Camel fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 2015 9 0.277 5.48
3 Chicken feather fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 1590 7.6 0.219 4.63
4 Sheep fiber + Camel fiber fiber+10gms Duckegg shell powder 1790 4.8 0.246 2.92
5 Sheep fiber +Chicken feather Fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 1575 5.6 0.216 3.41
6 Chicken feather fiber + camel Fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 1670 4.9 0.23 2.98
7 Chicken feather+Sheep fiber + Camel fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 2145 4.1 0.295 2.5
TENSILE TEST (Load Vs Elongation)

2145
2500 1705 2015 1790 1670
2000
1590 1575
1500
1000
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Graph1: Bar graph for various Tensile test of experimental samples used
Based on the tensile strength finally concluded that sheep fiber/camel fiber/chicken
feather fiber with 10 grams duck egg shell powder possess high tensile strength compared
to remaining composite.

5.3 FLEXURAL TEST CALCULATIONS
Fabrication and testing successfully completed in this project the flexural strength of
sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg
shell powder, camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+ sheep
fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, sheep fiber+ camel fiber+10 grams of duck
egg shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg shell powder,
camel fiber+ chicken feather+ sheep fiber with 10 grams of duck egg shell powder 7
combinations are fabricated by using hand lay-up method. The flexural strength was
calculated based the following relation
Figure 5.2 Tensometer
3P L
Flexural strength S = 2
2bt
Where, P= load in N
L= length between supports (70mm)
b= Width in mm
d= Thickness in mm

Figure 5.3 Flexural strength specimen after breakage
As per results peak load (N) values of flexural specimens,

3× 149× 70
S1= = 39.112 N/mm2
2× 25× 4 ×4
3× 191× 70
S1= = 50.137 N/mm2
2× 25× 4 ×4
3× 175× 70
S1= = 45.937 N/mm2
2× 25× 4 ×4
 Camel fiber/Chicken feather 10grams duck egg shell powder:
3× 183× 70
S1 = = 48.037 N/mm2
2× 25× 4 ×4
 Sheep fiber/Camel fiber +10grams duck egg shell powder:
3 × 177 ×70
S1= =45.937 N/mm2
2× 25× 4 ×4

3× 162× 70
S1= =42.525 N/mm2
2× 25× 4 ×4
 Chicken feather/Camel fiber/Sheep fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:
3 × 219× 70
S1= =57.487 N/mm2
2× 25× 4 ×4
The percentage of elongation is calculated by the follow equation,
change∈length
% elongation = ×100
originallength

8.7
164

8.9
164

9.3
164
 Camel fiber/Chicken feather+10grams duck egg shell powder:

6.9
164
 Chicken feather/ Sheep fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:

9.7
164
 Sheep fiber/ Camel fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:

10.9
164

 Sheep fiber/Chicken feather/Camel fiber+10grams duck egg shell powder:
4.9
% of elongation = ×100=2.98%
164
Table 5: Flexural test results
S.NO COMPOSITE FLEXURAL TEST
LOAD(N)
1 Sheep fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 175
2 Camel fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 191
3 Chicken feather fiber +10gms Duckegg shell powder 149
4 Sheep fiber + Camel fiber fiber+10gms Duckegg shell powder 177
5 Sheep fiber +Chicken feather Fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 162
6 Chicken feather fiber + camel Fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 183
FLEXURAL TEST (Load Vs Elongation)

250 219
191 183
200 175 177
162
149
150
100
50
9.3 8.9 8.7 10.9 9.7 6.9 4.9
0
Sheep fiber Camel fiber Chicken feather Sheep fiber + Sheep fiber Chicken feather Chicken
+10gms Duckegg +10gms Duckegg fiber +10gms Camel fiber +Chicken fiber + camel feather+Sheep
shell powder shell powder Duckegg shell fiber+10gms feather Fiber+10grms fiber + Camel
powder Duckegg shell Fiber+10grms Duckegg shell fiber+10grms
powder Duckegg shell powder Duckegg shell
powder powder
LOAD(N) ELONGTATION(mm)
Graph2: Flexural test results

Based on the flexural strength finally concluded that sheep fiber/camel fiber/chicken
feather fiber with 10 grams duck egg shell powder possess high tensile strength compared
to remaining composite.
5.4 IMPACT TEST CALCULATIONS

Fabrication and testing successfully completed in this project I also focused on impact
strength of sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+10 grams
of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken
feather+ sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, sheep fiber+ camel fiber+10
grams of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg
shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+ sheep fiber with 10 grams of duck egg
shell powder 7 combinations in all compositions fabricated by using hand lay-up
method. Impact strength was calculated by the following relation
2P
σ=
A
Where, P= Energy observed in J
A= Area in mm
Figure 5.4: Impact tester

Figure 5.5: Impact strength specimen on impact tester
Table 6: Impact test results in joules
S.NO COMPOSITE IMPACT TEST
(J)
7 Chicken feather+Sheep fiber + Camel fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 108

IMPACT TEST (J)
120 104 102 108
100 90 89
79 76
80
60
40
20
0
Graph 4: Impact test results
Based on the impact strength finally concluded that sheep fiber/camel fiber/chicken feather
fiber with 10 grams duck egg shell powder possess high tensile strength compared to
remaining composite.
5.5 HARDNESS TEST CALCULATIONS

Brinell hardness values of sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken
feather+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell
powder, chicken feather+ sheep fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, sheep fiber+
camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+10 grams
of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+ sheep fiber with 10 grams of
duck egg shell powder 7 combinations in all compositions are used fabricated by using
hand lay-up method natural composites.
Table 7: Hardness test results

S.NO COMPOSITE HARDNESS
NUMBER
7 Chicken feather+Sheep fiber + Camel fiber+10grms Duckegg shell powder 51
HARDNESS TEST
60 51
50 42
40
38 36
32
30 22 24
20
10
0
HARDNESS NUMBER
Graph5: Hardness test results
Based on the impact strength finally concluded that sheep fiber/camel fiber/chicken feather
fiber with 10 grams duck egg shell powder possess high tensile strength compared to
remaining composite.

Figure 5.6 Before testing of tensile test specimens
Figure 5.7 Before testing of flexural specimens

Figure 5.8 Before testing of impact specimens
Figure 5.9 Before testing of hardness specimens

Figure 5.10After testing of tensile
Figure 5.11 after testing of flexural

Figure 5.12 After Testing of impact
Figure 5.13 After testing of impact

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
The present work has been done with an objective to explore the use of sheep
fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg shell
powder, camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, chicken feather+ sheep fiber+10
grams of duck egg shell powder, sheep fiber+ camel fiber+10 grams of duck egg shell
powder, camel fiber+ chicken feather+10 grams of duck egg shell powder, camel fiber+
chicken feather+ sheep fiber with 10 grams of duck egg shell powder 7 combinations in
all compositions are manufactured using hand lay-up method. Epoxy is used as matrix in
the reinforced composite and investigated the mechanical properties like tensile, flexure,
impact, and hardness tests of composites. This work is focused to find the best composite
among the seven combinations. After all the tests have performed on the specimens for
the above investigations, we are proposed the sheep fiber/camel fiber/chicken feather
fiber with 10 grams duck egg shell powder having good mechanical properties when
comparing with other results.

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CHAPTER 1

The arrangement of elements within the composite is manipulated through mechanical

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 1

Commercial production of particle reinforced metal matrix composites is now underway.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 2

 Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs)

 Fibers reinforced composites

Figure 1.1: Classification of Composites Based on the type of matrix material

1.3 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 3

OVERALL, THE PROPERTIES OF THE COMPOSITE ARE DETERMINED BY:

i) Characteristics of the fiber

1.4 TYPES OF FIBERS

Figure 1.2 Classification of fibers

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 4

Figure 1.3: Natural fibers

Examples of Natural Fibers:

1.5.1 Animal fibers:

- Silk, obtained from silkworms through a process known as sericulture, is primarily

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 5

1.6 SYNTHETIC FIBRES

Figure: 1.4 Synthetic fibers

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 6

1.8 TYPES OF ANIMAL FIBERS

Figure :1.5 Sheep flock with fleece

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Figure 1.6: Llama fibers

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1.9.8. Hypoallergenic Qualities: Varieties like alpaca and cashmere are

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1.10.5Technical Textiles: Wool and cashmere find applications in technical textiles

1.10.6Industrial Applications: Animal fibers play a role in industrial products such

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Figure 1.9(a) : Bio prostheses used to substitude heart valve

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 14

1.11.4 CIVIL /INFRA STRUCTURE:

Figure 1.10 :Fibers used in concrete to control crackingdue to plastic shrinkage

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 15

1. Raw materials and fabrication expenses are prohibitively high.

2. Composites possess brittleness, rendering them susceptible to damage.

3. Weakness in transverse properties may be observed.

4. The matrix exhibits low toughness, contributing to overall weakness.

5. Difficulty arises in the reuse and disposal processes.

7. Challenges are encountered in joining composite parts.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 16

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 17

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 18

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 19

Kiew et al. Worked on comparative study of dielectric properties of chicken feather-Kenaf

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 20

Sheep wool as fiber reinforcement as concrete admixture gave good percentage of

SabithAhamedManegar, Chennakeshava R , Amruth M Acharya , Jevil Clement

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 21

2.3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 22

2.3.5. Delaminating: Inadequate bonding between layers can result in delamination,

2.3.7. Thickness Variation: Inconsistent thickness across the composite can

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3.1.1 Fabrication of a new class of epoxy-based hybrid composite reinforced with

3.1.2 Evaluation of mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural strength,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGPage 24