THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

PH110/PH120 LABORATORY MANUAL 2023/2024

BY

MR. C MUSONDA

MR. F WALUSA

MR. J SIANTUBA

MR. L NABIWA

MR. S MUWOWO
Introduction
This booklet contains 15 experiments that you will carry out in groups but you will write reports individually.
The cover of your reports should contain the following;
 Experiment Title and Number
 Your name
 Your Group details (in font 18)
 Your Id #
 Lab partners or group members

The content of the report should have the following format;

 Title:this is the title of the experiment.
 The objectives or aims: what you want to achieve at the end of the experiment.
Apparatus/materials: the material and equipment you will use to achieve the experimental objectives.

 Theory: Explain the concepts and principles of the experiment and the variables understudy.
 Procedure: state the steps that were taken to carry out the experiments. That is: how to setup the
experiment, collect data and analyse it. (This should be written in reported speech).
 Data collection: the data collected, divide the data collection into parts if possible, show what is collected
for each part, use tables were possible to show your data.
 Data analysis:analyse the data showing all the processes (don’t just give final answers), analyse data in
parts just like you presented it in the data collection. Shows how errors were estimated. If graphs are
plotted: each graph should have its own title, each graph axis should be titled with units included.
 Discussion: explain; whether the experiment verified what you expected, any problems we encounter and
how they can be resolved.compared the experimentally derived values with the standard values
 Conclusion: give a summary of the entire experiment, state whether the experimental objectives were
achieved.
 References: correctly cite the materials were you got your literature.

Grading of the reports will be based on:

 Correct conclusion especially values relating to the aim
 Neatness and organization of the report
 Organization during the experiment
 Explanations
 Correctness of the methods used
 Any form of cheating will result in a punishment of zero mark for that experiment
When you miss a lab, you cannot get data from you lab partners, find time to do the experiment.

2
EXPERIMENT 1: INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHICAL AND ERROR ANALYSIS
AIM :To analyse errors in a data set
APPARATUS: Not applicable.
THEORY
Analytical Representation of Random and Systematic Errors
For a car moving with average velocity v̄ , the distance covered in an average time t is given by
x= v̄ t (1.1)
In measuring any value, the result is not just one number, such as 5.3 cm. It is two numbers, 5.3 ± 0.1 cm. The
second number is the experimental uncertainty, or error bar. It usually represents one standard deviation (one
sigma) from the first value.
All measurements are affected by errors. This means that all measurements are subject to some uncertainty.
There are many types of errors such as personal bias i.e error resulting in trying to fit results to some perceived
idea, random errors and systematic errors. As a result of this, it is recommended that repeated measurements are
conducted upon which statistical analysis is performed to validate the measurements.
Consider N independent measurements made of the same quantity x. Let the quantities be designated as
x1 ....xi ....xN. The mean of these measurements in x̄ is given by

(1.2)
where

= x1 + x2+ ..... + xN(1.3)

The difference between every measurement xi and the mean value is referred to as a deviation or residualxi
and is given by

xi = ( ) (1.4)
A better estimate of the uncertainty (experimental error) in the mean is given by the mean deviation which is
the mean of the moduli of N deviations, or by the standard error.
1
δx=
N
∑|( x i −x )|
Mean deviation = (1.5)

Standard deviation
σ=
√ 1
( N −1 )
∑ ( x i −x )2
(1.6)
The error in a measured quantity is conveniently expressed as a percent of the quantity itself. Given the true or
known value of the quantity x, the percentage error is given by
xi − x̄
×100 %
% error = x (1.7)
If the true value is not provided, a percentage deviation of the mean is evaluated as
δ x̄
×100 %
% error = x̄ (1.8)
If a quantity is raised to the power n, then the percentage error is multiplied by n.
The absolute error is obtained by multiplying the percentage error by the quantity itself and dividing by 100.
That is

3
 (% error in x )×x
Absolute error = 100 (1.9)

Graphical Presentation of Errors

Considerthe free fall of a stone used as a way to measure the acceleration due to gravity g. The equation for the
time tof fall is
1 2
s=ut+ a t (1.10)
2
2h
g= 2 (1.11)
t
The measured time of fall(t) for various lengths (h) of the stone can be used to find g. But we cannot average all
measurements of t into one mean value plus error and all measurements of h into one mean value plus error and
use these values to calculate a mean g, since t and h are different in each measurement. This is because we
would not be sampling the same quantity each time and so, statistical error analysis, as dealt with previously for
random errors, does not apply.
One approach to this is to calculate a value of g for each t and h, giving a list of g results, and then determine a
mean g with associated error at the end. While this works, it is inefficient, and a graphical approach to this
problem is more sensible.
The formula (1.10) is first associated with a known curve, in this case the straight line
y = mx + c(1.12)
Where:m is the slope of the graph and c is a constant. Let y≡h and x ≡ t , a graph with hon the y axis and t2 on
2

the x axis may be drawn. The slope m of this graph then takes the value
g
m= (1.14)
2
g=2m (1.13)
The value g is determined from equation (1.14). The error in the slope m represents the error in g since we can
see clearly that
Δg Δm
=
g m .(1.15)
Each data point plotted on the graph has an associated error determined either statistically or from observation
of the resolution of the measuring instrument. Thus a value for t2 of 100s2 plotted on the y axis may have an
error of  5s2. This error needs to be represented on the graph for each data point before a proper slope can be
drawn. The error range is represented by drawing a vertical error bar about the data point,i.efrom t 2 = 95s2to t 2
= 105s2. This is done for every point plotted, on bothx and y axes if necessary.

4
 Figure 1.1
The error in the slope then determined by drawing a line of maximum slope mmax through the plotted points and
their error ranges and line of minimum slope mmin. The average slope M is
(1.16)

PROCEDURE AND DATA COLLECTION

Table 1: Sampled speed of a car for three trips

No. Trip 1 Trip2

(m/s) (m/s)
1 25 25
2 27 27
3 27 26
4 25 26
5 26 26

In Table 1, calculate for each trip

1. mean, mean deviation and standard deviation
2. The percentage error for each of these trips.

Table 2. Time of fall of a stone from different heights

Height h (cm) Time of fall t(s) t2 (s2)
100.0 0.4474
120.0 0.4922
130.0 0.5109
140.0 0.5321
150.0 0.5493
160.0 0.5673
2
1. Calculate t for each height and complete table 2 above.
2. Plot height h against time t and calculate the average speed of descent of the stone.
3. Plot height h against time t 2. Draw a best-fit line and calculate the average value of acceleration from the
graph.
4. Calculate the percentage error in g given that the expected value is 9.81m/s2.

5
EXPERIMENT 2: MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH, MASS AND TIME
AIM: To familiarize with measuring instruments.
APPARATUS: Metal blocks with holes, sheet of plain paper (provide your own), Stop watch (you can use a
phone), triple beam balance, vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauge 30 or 10 centimeter rule.
THEORY
Physics is a quantitative experimental science and as such, it is largely a science of measurements. Lengths,
mass and time are fundamental basic physical quantities upon which the study of mechanics is based. If the
dimensions of a regular geometrical object and its mass are measured, such things like its area, volume and
density can be calculated. A measurement is only considered accurate to half the smallest division on the
instrument. This is known as the limit of precision of the instrument.
The Vernier Calipers

Figure 2.1 vernier calipers

A vernier calipers can be used to measure the external length, the internal diameter and the depth of a hole. The
knife-edge jaws at position A are used for internal measurements for object such as tubes, cylinders e.t.c. The
jaws at position B measure external length of objects. The right edge of the vernier calipers has a movable blade
C that is used to measure depth. A measuring demonstration will be done in the lab. This instrument has two
scales: the mains scale (MS) and the vernier scale (VS). The smallest reading that can be taken accurately with
the instrument is called the least count of the instrument. For a vernier calipers, the least count (LC) is given by

Least count = (2.1)

This value sets the number of decimal places to which you can state the value of the instrument reading. Some
vernier calipers may have 10 divisions on the vernier scale whereas others may have 20 divisions. The later is
more accurate.
The main scale reading (MSR) are read at the zero mark on the vernier scale, and the tenths and twentieths are
obtained by finding which vernier line coincides best with a line on the main scale. Let N be the number of a
vernier line that best coincides with

6
 Instrument reading = MSR + (N x LC) (2.2)
When the jaws are in contact and the reading is zero then there is no zero error. If it does not read zero, a zero
error correction must be performed for any reading taken with the instrument. The zero error can be negative or
positive. It is negative if the zero mark of the vernier scale is to the left of the zero mark of the main scale, and
is positive if the zero mark of the vernier scale is to the right of the zero mark of the main scale. The negative
zero correction has to be added to any measurement made using this verniercalliper, while the positive zero
correction is to be subtracted from any measurement made.

2.3 The Micrometer Screw Gauge

A micrometer measures smaller distances to the order of micron (10 μ m). The principle of the micrometer is
that as a screw is turned by one revolution it advances a distance equal to the pitch of the screw. A fraction of a
rotation advances the screw by a corresponding fraction of the pitch. The micrometer you will use has a pitch of
0.5 mm and the number of divisions on the circular scale is 50. The least count of a micrometer screw gauge is
given by

pitch of the screw

Least count = totalnumber of divisions on the circular scale (2.3)

The least count of the micrometer shown below is 0.01 mm.

7
 Figure 2.3 Micrometer screw gauge

The micrometer reading is given as the sum of the sleeve reading (SR) and the product of the circular (or
thimble) reading (CR) and the least count (LC) (2.4)
Reading = SR + (CR x LC)
To safeguard the micrometer, do not close it by forcing, use the ratchet. When it clicks, it means that the spindle
has reached the limit. At this point you can lock the micrometer using a knob provided on it so that the reading
can be taken without possible shift of the divisions. This feature of a micrometer is not shown in figure 2.3.
Thus you must ask your instructor during the laboratory session.
When the spindle is closed to make contact with the anvil and the reading is zero then there is no zero error. If
it does not read zero, a zero error correction must be performed for any reading taken with the instrument. The
zero error can be negative or positive. It is negative if the zero mark of the circular scale is below the reference
line when anvil and spindle are in contact, and is positive if the zero mark of the zero mark of the thimble is
above the reference line when anvil and spindle are closed. The negative zero error has to be added to any
measurement made using this micrometer, while the positive zero error is to be subtracted from any
measurement made.

PROCEDURE
(A) VernierCalipers
Data collection procedure

8
1. Examine the vernier calipers. Take note of the value of the smallest reading on the main scale and the number
of divisions on the vernier scale. From this data, calculate the least count of the vernier calipers.
2. Use the vernier calipers to measure the diameter, height of the metal block and the depth and diameter of the
holes in it. Calculate the total volume of the holes and then find the actual volume of the material making the
metal block.
Data analysisProcedure
4. Calculate the density of the block; take the value of the mass of the metal block as 1004g. Use any table for
densities to identify the material from which the metal block was made by taking the closest value.
5. Obtain the percentage error in your result.
6. What is the volume of the largest metal block whose dimensions can be measured with this vernier caliper?
If it would have no holes, what would be its mass if it is made of the same material as the one you measured?
7. In your view, what could have contributed to this error and how can this be minimized?

(B) Micrometer Screw Gauge

Data collection procedure
1. Examine it carefully and record the value of the smallest division on the sleeve and the number of divisions
on the thimble.
2. Note and record the reading indicated by the sleeve and then rotate it through one revolution. Take its reading
again. What is the pitch of this micrometer? Calculate its least count.
3. Use the micrometer to measure the thickness of a white sheet of plain paper at five different positions.
Calculate the mean thickness, the mean deviation in the readings, the percentage error of the mean and the
standard deviation.
4. Use a 30 cm rule to measure the lateral dimensions of the paper accurately.
5. Measure its mass on the beam balance
Data analysis Procedure
6. Calculate the density of the paper.
7. Use the results in 3 and 4 to calculate the volume of this paper.
8. Of what material is this paper made? Base your answer on the density found.
9. Obtain the percentage error in your result.

9
EXPERIMENT 3: HOOKE'S LAW AND VIBRATION

AIM:To measure the extension produced in a spring for various loads and calculate the spring constant.
APPARATUS: Spiral spring, pointer, stand & clamp, metre rule, masses, scale-pan & stop watch.

Figure 3.1 Hooke’s law apparatus set up

THEORY :
According to Hooke's law, a load attached to a spiral spring produces an extension proportional to the weight of
the load.
E = Mg / k (3.1)
whereE stands for the extension (or increase in length) of the spring, M stands for the mass of the load, and
g for the acceleration of gravity ( g = 9.8 ms 2 ). Thus Mg is the weight of the load. The spring constant k
depends only on properties of the spring, not on its extension or load.
A method using equation (3.1) to determine k is called a static method because the measurements are
performed in a static (not changing) situation.
When a loaded spring is stretched beyond its equilibrium position and then released, it will start vertical
vibrations. The period T of a vibration is the time required to move from the upper end of the vibration to the
lower end and back again.
Let M = mass of the applied load, m = mass of the scale pan, and s = mass of the spring.
Then we have the relation,

T = 2π
2
√ ( m0 )
K
T = 4 π  ( m0 ) / K
2
or (3.2)
Here k is the same spring constant as in equation (3.1). A method using equation (3.2) to determine k is
called a dynamical method because the motion of the mass is essential to the measurement.
10
PROCEDURE
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1 and fix the pointer at the lower end of the spring such that it moves
lightly over the vertical meter scale.

PART A

Data collection procedure

1. Note and record the reading of the pointer when no mass is added to the mass hanger. This load is
known as “dead load” m0.
2. Go on increasing the load on the mass hanger and for each load record the position of the pointer.
Data analysis Procedure
3. The extension is obtained by taking the reading of the pointer with a certain load and subtracting the
reading with “dead load”.

Record your observations as follows:

Table 3.1 (student to give it a title)
Mass on the Pointer Extension Load M
mass hanger readings E(mm) =mg (N)
(g) (mm)
m0 x0
m1 x1
m2 x2
m3 x3
m4 x4
m5 x5

Plot a graph of extension E versus load M, choosing the correct origin and scales. Give them units, and
give the graph a short explanatory title. Does the graph give a straight line? It should pass through the
origin. Determine the gradient (slope) of the graph and use this to calculate the spring constant K. Give the
value of the calculated K in S.I. units.
NOTE: Since every measurement you make is not exact, but has some experimental uncertainty, do not
expect your data points to lie exactly on a smooth curve or a perfectly straight line.
a E 1
slope= = →K = N /m 
b Mg slope (3.3)
PART B
Data collection procedure
1. Remove the pointer from the mass hanger.
2. Add a load M (30g) to the mass hanger and set it in vertical vibration by giving it a small additional
downward displacement.
3. Obtain the time taken for 20 vibrations twice.
11
4. Repeat the measurements with five different loads such that you add the following masses to Mrespectively
(10g, 15g, 20g, 25g, and 30g).
5. Obtain the mass of the mass hanger and that of the spring.
Note : You should use loads such that the coils do not touch when the spring is compressed.
Record your observations as follows :
Mass of the mass hanger, m = ......
Mass of the spring, s = ......
Effective mass of the spring, s/3 = ......
Table 3.2 (Student to give title)
Load M M + m +s/3 Time for 20 vibrations. Mean time for 20 Time for 1 T2
(g) (g) set 1 (sec) set 2 (sec) vibrations (sec) vibration(sec) (sec)2

Data analysis Procedure

6. Plot a graph of T2on the X-axis against (M + m + s/3) on the Y-axis. Does the graph confirm your
expectations from theory?
7. Determine the slope of the straight line graph and, using formula (ii), calculate from this the spring constant
K. Again indicate clearly the method you used.

s
M +m+
3

2
t

Figure3.2
(M + m + s/3)
slope= 2
→ K = 4 π 2( slope )N/m 
t (3.3)
Also,
Compare the values of k found in parts A and B and comment.

12
EXPERIMENT 4: TORQUE AND EQUILIBRIUM
AIM: To investigate the turning effect of forces (torque) using a pivoted metre rule and known unequal masses,
and to use these to determine a value for the mass of the rule by applying the conditions for static equilibrium.
APPARATUS:Metre rule, string, clamp stand, known masses and spring balance.
THEORY:
The torque of a force about a point 0 is the product of magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distances
(d) between the point 0 and the line of action of the force.
T=f.d (4.1)
For a body to be in equilibrium under the action of two or more forces;
1. The vector sum of the forces must be zero, and
2. The sum of the torques about any point in the clockwise direction is equal to the sum of the torque about
the same point in the anti-clockwise direction.
The weight of a mass is the force exerted by the earth on the mass and this weight acts vertically downwards.
The magnitude of the forces is
W =Mg (4.2)
g
Where M is the mass in Kg, is the acceleration due to gravity in ms (9.8 ms-2), and W is weight in Newton.
-2

Note that in many experiments it is not always necessary to calculate the Mg since g will often cancel out from
both sides of the equation.
PROCEDURE
For all parts of the experiment, the meter rule should be placed on the pivot with the scale side facing you. The
known masses M1 and M2 (M1>M2), made of small slotted weights, are to be hung under the metre rule.
1. Place the metre rule on the pivot and determine its centre of gravity (G). Record your result.
2. Pivot the metre rule at its centre of gravity.Hang M1at a distance x1,and M2 at a distance
x2 from the centre of gravity G to obtain a balance. Record the values of M1,x1,M2, and x2.
Calculate and compare the torques.
3. With the arrangement as in part 2 (Figure a), double the distance x 1 and find the new position of M2 which
gives equilibrium. How does the new value compare with the value found in part 2? Explain your
findings. Or, if your value of x1 in part 2 was so large that you can’t double it, then half x 1 and find out
what happens to the position of M2.
4. Pivot the rule at a point O a distance d from the centre of gravity G (Figure b). Find the position of M 1 which
will give equilibrium. Taking torques about O:
(M1g)x1 = (Mg)d (4.3)
WhereM is the mass of the metre rule and M1 is the mass of the mass hanged on the rule
Hence measure x 1 and d, and find a value of M. Repeat for 5 other values of d (and hence x 1) so that you
end up with six separate determinations of M. Record the data in a table such as given below:
Table 4.0: Table of values for step four (4)

13
 Position of O Position of G Position of M1 d x1 M
cm cm cm cm cm g

R
x1 x2

O
M1 g M2 g

Figure a

R
x1
d

O Mg
M1 g

Figure b

R
x1 x2
d

O Mg
M1 g M2 g

Figure c

O = pivot
G =centre of gravity of the metre rule
R = force exerted on the rule by the pivot
M = mass of the metre rule.

5. Calculate the mean and also the mean deviation, maximum deviation and standard deviation.
6. Pivot the metre rule again at a distance d from the center of gravity of the metre rule and now
use the masses M1 and M2. Find the positions for these two masses which give equilibrium
(figure c). With the arrangement in equilibrium, take torques about the pivot O:

14
 (M1 g)x1 = Mgd + M2 g x2 (4.4)
Hence from your values of x 1, x2 and d calculate a value for M, the mass of the rule. If you have time, it is
always best to take repeated readings. Comment on the agreement with the value of M from part4.
Table 4.1: table of values for step six (6)
Position of G Position of M1 d x1 x2 M M2
cm cm cm cm cm g g

7. In each arrangement, (Figure a, b, and c) the pivot exerts an upward force on the metre rule,
R. To find the value of this force, suspend the rule from a spring balance and position M 1 and M2 on the
rule such that the rule and the masses are in equilibrium for each arrangement and record the value of R
from the spring balance.
Table 4.2: table of values for step seven (7)
Position of G Position of d x1 M R (N
cm M1 cm c c
m m

Determine a value of M from these measurements and compare with the values from 4 and 5.

15
EXPERIMENT 5: COEFFICIENTS OF STATIC FRICTION
AIM: To determine the coefficient of static friction
APPARATUS: A horizontal plane, a frictionless pulley fixed at one end, trays with different surfaces, weight
box, scale pan and string.
THEORY:
Friction is the resisting force encountered when one tries to slide one surface over another. This force acts along
the tangent to the surface in contact. It is found experimentally that the force of friction is directly proportional
to the normal force. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of friction. When a body lies at rest
on a surface and an attempt is made to push it, the pushing force is opposed by a frictional force equal to
f= µsFN (5.1)
Where µsis the coefficient of static friction and F N is the normal force. When the pushing force is greater than
the static friction force, the body begins to move. If the contacting surfaces are actually sliding one over the
over, the force of friction is given by:
f= µKFN (5.2)
Here µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

PROCEDURE
Data collection procedure
1. Weigh the mass hanger and wooden surface tray separately and record them.
2. Tie the mass hanger and wooden surface tray using a 50cm string.
3. Place the wooden surface tray on the horizontal plane at the 30cm mark and allow the string to pass over
the frictionless pulley so that the mass hanger is on the over side bellow the pulley.
4. Add weights on the mass hanger till the wooden surface tray just begins to slide. Note and record the
weights on the mass hanger for two trials.
5. Repeat the experiment by adding weights of 50g, 100g, 150g, 200g in the wooden surface tray, each
time starting from the same marked point on the plain.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for the plastic and wool surfaced trays
16
 Weight on hanger when tray
Tria Weight on tray
Material slides
l (x) N
(y) N
Wooden surface tray 1 0

2 0
Plastic surface tray 1 0

2 0
Wool surface tray 1 0

2 0

Data analysis Procedure

Table 5.1: Measurements for static friction (take g as 9.81N/kg)
Weight on Average coefficient
Limiting Normal
Tria Weight on tray hanger when for each weight on
Material friction force FN =
l (x) N tray slides the block
f =(S + y) W+x
(y) N µS
Wooden 1 0
surface
tray 2 0
Plastic 1 0
surface
tray 2 0
Wool 1 0
surface
tray 2 0

Draw a graph of fvs FN and calculate for the slope which gives an average value for the coefficient of static
friction.
Compare the values obtained from the graph and the average of the values you calculated from the obtained
data.

17
EXPERIMENT 6: COEFFICIENTS OF KINETIC FRICTION
AIM: To determine the coefficient of kinetic friction
APPARATUS: A horizontal plane, a frictionless pulley fixed at one end, trays with different surfaces, weight
box, scale pan and string.
THEORY:
Friction is the resisting force encountered when one tries to slide one surface over another. This force acts along
the tangent to the surface in contact. It is found experimentally that the force of friction is directly proportional
to the normal force. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of friction. When a body lies at rest
on a surface and an attempt is made to push it, the pushing force is opposed by a frictional force equal to
f= µsFN (6.1)
Where µsis the coefficient of static friction and F N is the normal force. When the pushing force is greater than
the static friction force, the body begins to move. If the contacting surfaces are actually sliding one over the
over, the force of friction is given by:
f= µKFN (6.2)
Here µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

PROCEDURE:
Data collection procedure
1. Place a weight on the mass hanger and give the block a slight push towards the pulley.
2. Increase weights on the mass hanger and give the block a slight push until it is found to continue moving
with steady small velocity.
3. Record the corresponding weights on the mass hanger.
4. Repeat the experiment by adding weights of 50g, 100g, 150g, 200g on top of the wooden block, starting
always from the small position on the wooden plane.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for the plastic and wool surfaced trays
18
 Weight on hanger
Weight on tray
Material Trial when tray slides
(x) N
(y) N
Wooden 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
surface 2
tray 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Plastic 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
surface 2
tray 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Wool 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
surface 2
tray 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Data analysis Procedure

Table 15.1: Measurements for kinetic friction
Weight on Average coefficient
Kinetic Normal
Tria Weighton tray hanger when for each weight on
Material friction force FN =
l (x) N tray slides the block
f =(S + y) W+x
(y) N µk
Wooden 1 0
0.
1
1.
2
surface 5 5
tray 2 0. 1.
0 1 2
5 5
Plastic 1 0
0.
1
1.
2
surface 5 5
tray 2 0. 1.
0 1 2
5 5
Wool 1 0
0.
1
1.
2
surface 5 5
tray 2 0. 1.
0 1 2
5 5

1. Draw a graph of F Vs FN and calculate for the slope which gives an average value for the coefficient of
kinetic friction.
2. Compare the values obtained from the graph and the average of the values you calculated from the obtained
data.

19
EXPERIMENT 7. COMPOSITION OF FORCES
AIM :To verify the law of parallelogram of forces, triangle law of forces, and Lami’s theorem.
APPARATUS :Gravesand’s apparatus ( a wooden vertical board fitted with two frictionless pulleys), slotted
weights with hangers, mirror strip, thread, spring balance, and set squares (bring your own).

THEORY

Law of parallelogram of forces : If two forces acting simultaneously on a point object are represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant of these two forces is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram at the same point.
Law of triangle of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a point object are represented in magnitude
and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in order, then the third side taken in the opposite order
completely represents in magnitude and direction the resultant of these two forces.
If three forces P, Q, and R act upon a point object such that the object is at rest or in equilibrium, then the three
forces are completely represented by the three sides of a closed triangle.
P Q R
= =
Lami’stheorem :sin α sin β sin γ

20
 b
C’ C Q
Q P a
R
B A P

O’
α O β

Figure 6.1Gravesand’s apparatus

PROCEDURE :
Data collection procedure
1. Place the Gravesand’s apparatus on the table; see that its board is vertical.
2. The pulleys should be as free from friction as possible and should be able to move freely. Fix a sheet of white
paper on the board.
3. Take a long thread and tie two hangers at its two ends. Tie the third hanger at the end of another thread. The
other end of this second thread is connected to the centre of the first thread.
4. Place the threads over the pulleys as shown in Figure 6.1
5. Add slotted weights to the hangers of different masses. P is the weight on the right hand side, Q is the
weight on the left hand side, and R is the weight at the centre. Adjust the weights such that the knotted point O
lies somewhere in the middle of the sheet of paper. The weights should not touch the board. The values of the
weights should not be less than 20g.
6. Mark a point O on the paper just close to the meeting point of the threads.
7. Point a touch to the threads so that a shadow of the threads is cast on the white paper.
8. At the point O the three forces are in equilibrium. Mark two points on the paper in line with the shadows of
the three threads OP, OR and OQ then join these points with a line. The three lines will meet at the point O.
9. Remove the thread and the hangers.
10. Find the weights of P, Q, and R and tabulate the values.
No. Forces (N)
P Q R
1
2
3

Precautions:
01. The board should be vertical.
02. The pulleys should be frictionless.
03. The hangers should hang freely, without touching the board.
04. Weights P, Q, R should be weighed properly and tabulated correctly on proper sides.
05. Scale selected should be such that a parallelogram that is neither too large nor too small is formed.
06. Angles should be measured correctly.

21
07. Show arrowheads representing the direction of forces.

Data analysis Procedure

11. Choose a suitable scale to represent a certain weight by a certain length (say, 2cm = 25g). Let the line OA
represent P, and the line OB represent Q. Complete the parallelogram OAC’B. Then OC’ represents the
resultant and should be equal to the equilibrant R. Measure OC’ from the parallelogram.
12. Measure the anglesa, b, and g.
13. Repeat the experiment twice with different values of P, Q, and R.
DATA :
Scale in grams (say 25g =1cm therefore P grams = …….cm)
(Student to give table number and title)
No. Forces (N) Lengths (cm) Resultant Difference
P Q R P/ Q/x=OB R/x=OC R’=x.OC’ R – R’
x=OA
1
2
3

If the experiment is perfect, RO extended should pass through C. Due to experimental error, this may not be so.

In that case, let it pass through C’. Measure OC’. It represents R’.

Result : It is found that R = R’ within the limits of experimental error. Therefore R’ is the resultant of P and Q.
Here R is the equilibrant.
(b) Law of triangle of forces.
Take O’a parallel and equal to OA, ab parallel and equal to OB, and bO’ equal and parallel to OC.
No. Forces (N) Lengths (cm) P Q R
'
P Q R O’a ab bO’ Oa ab bO '
1
2
3
P Q R
= = '
Result : It is found that O' a ab bO within the limits of experimental error.
(c) Lami’s theorem.
No. Forces (N) Angles P Q R
P Q R a b g sin α sin β sin γ
1
2
3
P Q R
= =
Result : It is found that sin α sin β sin γ within the limits of experimental error.

22
EXPERIMENT8: SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A METAL BLOCKS
AIM: to determine the specific heat capacity of metal blocks.
APPARATUS: Metal block D, thermometer, lagging C, calorimeter cup, and Stop watch.
THEORY
The Specific Heat of a substance, usually indicated by the symbol c, is the amount of heatrequired to raise the
temperature of one gram of the substance by 1° C (or 1 K). From thedefinition of the calorie, it can be noted
that the specific heat ofwater is 1.0 cal/g K. If an object is made of a substance with specific heat equal to
csub,then the heat, ∆H, required to raise the temperature of that object by an amount ∆T is:
∆H = (mass of object) (csub) (∆T) (8.1)

PROCEDURE:
Data collection procedure
1. Measure Mcal, the mass of the calorimeter you will use (it should be empty and dry). Record your result in
Table 8.1.
2. Measure the mass of the aluminum block. Record these masses in Table 8.1 in the row labeled M sample.
3. Measure the temperature Thotof the boiling water and record the value.
4. Attach a thread to the metal sample and suspend the samples in boiling water. Allow a few minutes for the
samples to heat thoroughly.
5. Fill the calorimeter approximately 1/2 full of cool water use enough water to fully cover the metal sample.
6. Measure Tcool, the temperature of the cool water. Record your measurement in the table.
7. Immediately following your temperature measurement, remove the metal samples from the boiling water,
quickly wipe it dry, then suspend it in the cool water in the calorimeter (the sample should be completely
covered but should not touch the bottom of the calorimeter).
8. Stir the water with the thermometer and record Tfinal, the highest temperature attained by the water as it
comes into thermal equilibrium with the metal sample.
9. Immediately after taking the temperature, measure and record Mtotal, the total mass of the calorimeter, water,
and metal sample.
10. Repeat steps 1 to 9 for the copper and lead samples.
Copper Lead Aluminum
Mcal
Msample

23
 Thot
Tcool
Tfinal
T(boiling water)
Mtotal

Data analysis Procedure

For each metal tested, use the equations shown below to determine
Mwater, the mass ofthewater used,
∆Twater, the temperature change of the water when it came into contact withthe metal sample, and
∆Tsample, the temperature change of the metal sample when it cameinto contact with the water. Record your
results in Table 8.1.
Mwater = Mtotal - (Mcal + Msample)
∆Twater = Tfinal - Tcool
∆Tsample = T(boiling water) - Tfinal
From the law of energy conservation, the heat lost by the metal sample must equal the heatgained by the water:
Heat lost by sample = (Msample) (c sample) (∆Tsample) = (Mwater) (c water) (∆Twater) = Heat gained by water
cwater is the specific heat of water, which is 1.0 cal/g K.

Table 8.1: Data and Calculations (Part 1)

Copper Lead Aluminum
Mwater
∆Twater
∆Tsample
c

Use the above equation, and your collected data, to solve for the specific heats of aluminum, copper, and lead.
Record your results in the bottom row of Table 8.1.

Questions
1. How do the specific heats of the samples compare with the specific heat of water?
2. Discuss any unwanted heat loss or gain that might have affected your results?

24
EXPERIMENT9: THE THIN LENS FORMULA
AIM: To determine the focal length of a thin convex lens.
NOTE: In optical experiments, always arrange the optical centres of mirrors or lenses to be in line with the
object used.
APPARATUS: light source, convex lens, lens holder, screen, metre rule, object.

Figure 9.1
THEORY
The lens equation is
1 1 1
+ =
u v f (9.1)
Given that an object placed a distance u from a lens forms an image at distance v away from the lens. The
magnification m is given by
v
m=
u (9.2)

PROCEDURE
Data collection procedure
25
1. Step up the apparatus as shown in the figure above
2. Mount the lens in the lens holder and move either the lens or screes until you get a sharp, diminished and
inverted image on the screen.
3. Measure the distance u and v. repeat the procedure for eight more different distances between the object and
the screen. Record the values in table 9.1
4. Now set up the lens holder until you get a sharp, magnified and inverted image on the screen. Again measure
the distance u and v. repeat the procedure for eight moredifferent distances between the object and the
screen.Record the values in another as shown in table 9.1.
Tbale: 9.1: values of v and u for reduced image and magnified image
Object distance u(cm) Image distance v(cm)

Data analysis procedure

5. Calculate the focal length f and magnification for each reading.
6. Calculate the mean value <f>, the mean deviation, the standard deviation, and the standard error from the
calculated values of f. express the final result with an error, i.e, <f>±△f.
Table 9.2 Measurements for reduced image
Object distance Image distance v 1 1 f (cm)
m= (cm-1) (cm-1)
u(cm) v(cm) u u v

Table 9.3 Measurement for magnified image

Object distance Image distance v 1 1 f (cm)
m= (cm-1) (cm-1)
u(cm) v(cm) u u v

Question:
1. Explain why it was necessary to have an inverted image.
2. Draw using graph paper images, with the help of a ray diagram, for an object in all the three cases.
i. Between f and 2f,
ii. Beyond 2f, and
iii. Between f and the lens.
3. What will be the nature of the image and magnification when an object is located:

26
EXPERIMENT10: DEVIATION BY A GLASS PRISM
AIM: to determine the refractive index and angle of minimum deviation fo a triangular glass prism.

APPARATUS:Light Source, Acrylic Trapezoid, White paper, 30 cm rule, protractor, drawing board, drawing
pins, white sheet of paper.

THEORY
The deviation produced by a prism depends on the angle at which the light is incident on the prism. The
deviation is minimum when the light passes symmetrically through the prism.

Normal

Normal D
i
i r Emergent
ray

Incident ray

C
B
Figure15.1 Light incident on glass prism
In the figure above, the angles have the following relations:
Dm =2i−2 r (10.1)
A = 2r (10.2)
A + Dm
i= (10.3)
2
According to snell’s law,
27
 n1 sin i=n2 sin r (10.4)

If light is incident from air, n1=1, the refractive index of the material into which light impinges is given by
A+ D m
sin ( )
2
n2 =
A
sin ( )
2 (10.5)
PROCEDURE
PART A
Data collection procedure
1. Draw the outline of the prism on a white paper fixed on a drawing board and the label the edges ABC as
in the figure 15.1
2. Draw a perpendicular bisector (normal) to side AB
3. Draw a line incident to the prism that makes an angle of 30 o below the normal and label two points P
and Q on this ray.
4. Turn the wheel to select a single ray on the light source in ray-box mode and place it on the paper such
that the single ray is in line with the incident ray.
5. Label two other points R and S on the emergent ray on the side AC.
6. Remove the prism from the paper and draw the line RS and extend these lines ( PQ and RS) until they
intersect at a point O. Extend further the line PQ and mark a point T on this line away from the point O.
7. Measure the angle<TOR. This is the angle of deviation.
8. Repeat the experiment by increasing the angle of incidence in steps of five and up to 60o and each time
measure the angle<TOR.
Table 10.1: angular measurements

Trial number Angle of incidence i Angle of deviation D

Data analysis procedure

9. Plot a graph of angle of deviation against the angle ofincidence.
10. Determine the angle of minimum deviation from the graph.
11. Use this value and the existing theory to calculate the refractive index of the glass prism.

PART B
Data collection procedure

B C

D
Figure 10.2

28
1. Draw the outline of the trapezoid on a white paper fixed on a drawing board and the label the edges ABCD
as in the figure 10.2
2. Drawa perpendicular bisector (normal) to side AB
3. Draw a line incident to the trapezoid and below the normal that makes an angle of 10o below the normal.
4. Turn the wheel to select a single ray on the light source in ray-box mode and place it on the paper such that
the single ray is in line with the incident ray.
5. Trace three dots on the side DC to outline the refracted ray. Remove the trapezoid from the paper and draw
a line passing through the three dots. Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows in the
appropriate directions. Carefully mark where the rays enter and leave the trapezoid.
6. Draw a line on the paper connecting the points where the rays entered and left the trapezoid. This line
represents the ray inside the trapezoid.
7. Measure the angle of incidence (θi) and the angle of refraction (θr) with a protractor. Both ofthese angles
should be measured from the normal. Record these angles in Table 10.1.
8. On new sheets of paper, repeat steps 1–7 for four (4) different angles of incidence.

Trial Angle of incidence Angle of refraction

No. (θi) (θr)
1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50

Data analysis procedure

Table 10.2 Relation between angle of incidence and angle of refraction
Trial Angle of incidence Angle of refraction sin θi sin θr Refractive index of
No. (θi) (θr) acrylic
sin θi
(n acrylic= )
sinθ r
1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50
1. Draw a graph ofsin θi againstsin θr . Is Snell’s law verified?
2. Determine the refractive index of the acrylic from the graph.
3. Compute the mean the calculate values of the refractive index of the acrylic ¿ n acrylic > ¿ and compare with the
value obtained from the graph.

29
EXPERIMENT 11: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITRY
APPARATUS:
– AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads
– D-cell Battery
– Multimeter
– Graph Paper
AIM:investigate the three variables involved in a mathematicalrelationship known as Ohm’s Law.

PART A: OHM’S LAW

PROCEDURE
1. Choose one of the resistors that you have been given. Using the chart on the next page, decode the
resistance value and record that value in the first column of Table 11.1.
2. MEASURING CURRENT: Construct the circuit shown in Figure 11.1a by pressing theleads of the resistor
into two of the springs in the Experimental Section on the Circuits.

Figure 11.1a Figure 11.1b

3. Set the Multimeter to the mA range, noting any special connections needed for measuringcurrent. Connect
the circuit and read the current that is flowing through the resistor. Record thisvalue in the second column of
30
 Table 11.1.
4. Remove the resistor and choose another. Record its resistance value in Table 11.1 then measureand record
the current as in steps 2 and 3. Continue this process until you have completed all ofthe resistors you have
been given. As you have more than one resistor with the same value, keepthem in order as you will use them
again in the next steps.

5. MEASURING VOLTAGE: Disconnect the Multimeter and connect a wire from the positivelead (spring)
of the battery directly to the first resistor you used as shown in Figure 11.1b. Changethe Multimeter to the 2
VDC scale and connect the leads as shown also in Figure 11.1b. Measurethe voltage across the resistor and
record it in Table 11.1.
6. Remove the resistor and choose the next one you used. Record its voltage in Table 11.1 as in step
7. Continue this process until you have completed all of the resistors.

Data Analysis
8. Construct a graph of Current (vertical axis) vs Resistance.
9. For each of your sets of data, calculate the ratio of Voltage/Resistance. Compare the valuesyou calculate
with the measured values of the current.

Table 11.1
Resistance Current, amp Voltage, v Voltage/Resistance
Ω

Discussion
1. From your graph, what is the mathematical relationship between Current and Resistance?
2. Ohm’s Law states that current is given by the ratio of voltage/resistance. Does your dataconcur with this?
3. What were possible sources of experimental error in this lab? Would you expect each tomake your results
larger or to make them smaller?

Reference

PART B: Resistances in Circuits

Procedure
1. Choose three resistors. Enter those sets of colors in Table 11.1 below. We willrefer to one as #1, another as
#2 and the third as #3.
2. Determine the coded value of your resistors. Enter the value in the column labeled “CodedResistance” in
Table 11.1. Enter the Tolerance value as indicated by the color of the fourth bandunder “Tolerance.”

31
3. Use the Multimeter to measure the resistance of each of your three resistors. Enter these valuesin Table
11.1.
4. Determine the percentage experimental error of each resistance value and enter it in the appropriate column.
Experimental Error = [(|Measured - Coded|) / Coded ] x 100%.
Table 11.1
Colors Coded Measured %
Tolerance
1st 2nd 3rd 4th Resistance Resistance Error
#1
#2
#3

5. Now connect the three resistors into the SERIES CIRCUIT, figure 11.1, using the spring clips onthe
Circuits Experiment Board to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending them.
6. Measure the resistances of the combinations as indicated on the diagram by connecting the leadsof the
Multimeter between the points at the ends of the arrows.

Series

Figure 11.1
7. Calculate the values of R12, R23, and R123. Compare them to the measured values
8. Construct a PARALLEL CIRCUIT, first using combinations of two of the resistors, and thenusing all three.
Measure and record your values for these circuits.

Parallel

NOTE: Include also R13 byreplacing R2 with R3.

9. Calculate the values of R12, R13, R23, and R123. Compare them to the measured values
10. Connect the COMBINATION CIRCUIT below and measurethe various combinations ofresistance. Do these
followthe rules as you discoveredthem before?
11. Calculate the values of R23, and R123. Compare them to the measured values

32
Combination

Figure 11.3

Discussion
12. How does the % error compare to the coded tolerance for your resistors?
13. What is the apparent rule for combining equal resistances in series circuits? In parallelcircuits? Cite
evidence from your data to support your conclusions.
14. What is the apparent rule for combining unequal resistances in series circuits? In parallelcircuits? Cite
evidence from your data to support your conclusions.
15. What is the apparent rule for the total resistance when resistors are added up in series? Inparallel? Cite
evidence from your data to support your conclusions.

EXPERIMENT 12: SIMPLE PENDULUM

AIM: To investigate:
(i)The relationship between the length of a simple pendulum and its period of oscillation,
(ii) If the period of oscillation depends upon the mass of the bob, and
(iii) If the period of oscillation depends upon the amplitude of the oscillation.

APPARATUS
Length of string, masses to act as bobs, stop clock, vernier calipers, angle indicator, stand and clamp.

THEORY
If the mass of the pendulum is concentrated into a size which is much smaller than the distance from the mass to the
support (Figure 12.1), and if the supporting string is light, then the pendulum is called a simple pendulum. The angular
distance of the pendulum from the equilibrium position (string vertical) is called the displacement, and the maximum
displacement is called the amplitude of the oscillation. For small amplitudes (e.g. less than or equal to 10 o) the period
(time for one complete oscillation) is given by:

(12.1)
Where T is the period in seconds, L is the length in meters and g is the acceleration of gravity in ms 2. The theory thus
predicts three properties of the simple pendulum which you will investigate in this experiment:

The period T is directly proportional to √L. squaring both sides:

T 2=4π 2 ()
L
g i.e., T2 is proportional to L. (12.2)
Since the mass of the bob does not appear in the equation, equation (i) therefore, predicts that the period is independent of
the mass of the bob.

33
In the derivation of the equation it is necessary to assume that the amplitude of oscillation is small. Equation (12.1)
then predicts that the period T is independent of the amplitude of oscillation. Is the period T of the pendulum
independent of the amplitude for all values of amplitude? Or is the period T of the pendulum independent of the
amplitude only if the amplitude is small?

In part A, when investigating the variation of period with length it will be necessary to keep the angular amplitude
small and the mass constant throughout the experiment, so that any variations due to mass or amplitude would not
interfere with the investigation of period with length. Likewise, to investigate the variation of period with mass, the
length should be kept constant, the amplitude being small (less than 5 degrees).

PROCEDURE:
(A) Period and Length
Data collection procedure
1. Make L as large as possible and tie the bob at its end. Tie the string to a clamp and set the pendulum into oscillations,
the amplitude being small (  less than 10 degrees).
2. Measure the time (t) for 20 complete oscillations. (Use two stop watches to maximize on time).
3. Repeat the measurement. If these two timings agree within a reasonable amount, then note down these two values in
the table for this L. If the two values of t differ significantly, then you should repeat your observations for this L until
you get consistent values.
Length L Time for 20 Oscillations
(cm)
t1 (s) t2 (s)

Data analysis procedure

4. Calculate the mean value of t. Determine mean t for at least five values of L, decreasing the value at regular intervals
from the largest to the smallest, so that the smallest value of L is at least 30cm.
5. Calculate the period T (the time for one complete oscillation) for each L. Put your readings in a table.

Figure 12.1

Note: Length L = length of the string + radius of the bob if it is spherical. Take L from 30cm to about 100cm.
Table 12.0:
Length L Time for 20 Oscillations Mean Time (s) t T2
Period T (T = )
(cm) t=(t1 + t 2 )/2 n (s2)
t1 (s) t2 (s)

34
6. Plot L (along Y-axis) against T 2 (along X-axis) and see if your data agree with the predicted relationship in equation
(12.2). From the slope of your graph determine the value for the acceleration of gravity g.

g=4π 2 ( )
L
T2
=4π 2×slope  of  the graph .

(12.3)
2
Calculate the percentage of error in g. [Take g = 9.81 m/s ]

(B) Period and Mass

1. Select a fixed L and determine the period T for three different masses of the bob.
2. Follow the same procedure as in Part A.
3. After allowing for the fact that each of your values of T has some experimental error, do your data agree with the
prediction that the period is independent of the mass?

(C) Period and Amplitude

1. With the mass of the bob fixed and the length of the pendulum fixed at 50cm, measure the period for several widely
different amplitudes (10o, 20o, 40o, 60o and 70o)
2. Comment on the variation of period with amplitude.

EXPERIMENT 13: CONVERTION OF ENERGY

Aim: to investigate,
a) How energy is converted from GPE to K.E during free fall.
b) How much energy is lost to the surrounding and the system

Apparatus; interface (spark), metre rule, rigid stand, steel ball, freefall adaptor
Theory
One dimensional kinematic motion assumesconstant acceleration for dense objects falling under short distance,
equation 13.1 accurately predicts the motions.
1 2
y = yo + vot + a t 13.1
2
Since the object is initially at rest, then v o = 0, if the initial position is taken as the reference point then y o = 0.
Thus equation 13.12 becomes
1 2
y = at
2
The net work done by a non-conservative force external to the system is,
Wext = ∆ KE+ ∆ GPE+ ∆ TE 13.2
Where; Wext is the external non-conservative force and ∆ TE is the change in the internal energy
This energy will include air resistance for a freefalling body. If there is no external non-conservative force
acting on the system, then equation 13.2 reduces to
( KE f −KE i ) + ( GPE f −GPE i )+ ∆ TE = 0
Procedure
Data collection procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 13.1.

35
 Figure 13.1. Freefall system setup
2. Measure the time taken for the steel ball to fall through the height (d=1.5m) and repeat the measurement
for tenmore values of time;find the average of these values.Calculate the error in the time (t)
Data analysis procedure
3. Calculate the value of the acceleration (a).
4. Calculate the velocity of the steel ball just when it strikes the ground, find its K.E.
5. Measure the mass of the steel ball and record it as “m”
6. Find G.P.E of the steel ball at height (d = 1.5m) using the theoretical value of “g”. Find the value of
∆ TE
7. Account for the difference in the theoretical value of (g) and the experimental value.

EXPERIMENT 14: FORCES ON A BOOM

Aim: to calculate the tension in the cable
Apparatus: Statics Board, Mounted Spring Scale, Pulley Balance Arm and Protractors, Thread Mass and
Hanger Set
Theory
Theory
A boom supported by a cable has a mass suspended at its upper end. The lower end of the boom is supported by
a pivot. Assume that the cable is attached at the boom’s center of mass and is at an angle relative to the boom.
The boom is at an angle of 50° to the horizontal. For the boom to be in equilibrium, all of the translational
forces (Fx and Fy) and all of the torques must add up to zero. One torque is produced by the tension in the
cable. Another torque is produced by the weight of the beam. A third torque is produced by the weight of the
hanging mass.

∑ τ clockwise= WLcosβ + WcmLcmcosβ = ∑ τ counterclockwise = TLcmcosα 14.1

36
 Figure: 15.1
where W is the weight of the hanging mass, L is the lever arm from the pivot point to the place where the
hanging mass is attached, Wboomis the weight of the boom, Lcm is the lever arm from the pivot point to the
center of mass, β is the angle of the boom, T is the tension in the cable, and α is the angle of the cable relative to
the normal of the boom.

Procedure
1. Set up the Balance Arm with the pivot at one end, a protractor at the midpoint, and a second protractor at
the other end. Mount the Balance Arm in a lower corner of the Statics Board.
2. Mount the Spring Scale and a Pulley on the board and use thread to attach the Spring Scale to the
protractor at the midpoint of the beam.
3. Use thread to attach a hanging mass of 50g to the protractor at the end of the beam.
4. Make and record the necessary measurements, and fill the data sheet in table 14.2.

Figure: 14.2
Data sheet

37
 Table: 14.1
Calculations
1. Calculate the sum of the clockwise torques about the pivot point.
2. Calculate the theoretical tension, T, in the thread.

Question
How does the force reading on the Spring Scale compare to the theoretical value for the tension in the cable?

References
1. Department of Physics, P191 Laboratory Manual 2001, University of Zambia, Zambia.
2. Fredrick J. Bueche., and David A. Jerde. (1995). Principles of Physics, 6TH ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc., U.S.A.
3. Harnan Singh, BSc. Practical Physics,(2000), S. Chand and Company Ltd, India.
4. NelkonOgborn. (1997).Advanced Level Practical Physics, 4TH ed., ELBS.
5. P.C. Simpemba, PH120 Module One, (2012), Directorate of Distance Education and Open learning,
Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia.
6. PASCO experiments. (2012). Advanced Physics. Retrieved from: www.pasco.com
7. S. Edmonds Jnr, Experiments in College Physics, 7th Edition, U.S.A.
8. Tyler.F. (1967). A Laboratory Manual of Physics. Edward Arnold Publication, London.

38
 COURSE OUTLINE IN BRIEF
TERM ONE

1. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

2. VECTORS

3. KINEMATICS

 UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

 FREE FALL AND PROJECTILE MOTION

 RELATIVE MOTION

4. DYNAMICS (NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION)

TEST ONE
39
TERM TWO

5. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

6. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

7. CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION

8. ROTATIONAL MOTION

TEST TWO

TERM THREE

9. OSCILLATIONS

10. ELECTRICITY

SESSIONAL

TUTORIAL SHEET ONE

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
1. Dimensional analysis plays a vital role in the quantitative analysis of physical quantities.
(i) What is a physical quantity?
(ii) State two applications of dimensional analysis?
(iii) State any four limitations of dimensional analysis
2. Prove that the following equations are dimensionally consistent
(i) Potential energy = m g h
1
m v2
(ii) Kinetic energy = 2
(iii) Pressure = ρ g h

(iv) Period of the pendulum (T) =

2π
√ l
g

40
3. A physics student conducting a laboratory experiment on kinematics derives a formula for velocity of an
object(⃗v ) that varies with time expressed as⃗v = X t 2 + Y t + Z , where velocity (⃗v ) and time (t ) are expressed
in terms of SI units, determine the units of constants X , Y and Z in the given equation.
4. The centripetal force ⃗
F acting on a particle (moving uniformly in a circle) depends on the mass m of the
v and radius r of the circle. Derive dimensionally the formula for force [ ⃗
particle, its velocity ⃗ F ].
5. Astronomical distances are sometimes described in terms of light-years (ly). A light-year is the distance that
light will travel in one year. How far in meters does light travel in one year?
6. Milk is flowing through a full pipe whose diameter is known to be 1.8cm. The only measure available is a
tank calibrated in cubic feet, and it is found that it takes 1 hour to fill 12.4 ft 3.What is the velocity of flow of the
liquid in the pipe?
7. Compute the dimensional formula of electrical resistance R.
8. The kinetic energy K of a rotating body depends on its moment of inertia I and its angular speed ω . Suppose
a b
the relationship is K = cI ω , where c is a dimensionless constant. Find the values of a and b given that
2
the moment of inertia I of a sphere of mass M and radius r about its diameter is (2/5 ) M r .
GM m
E=
9. Show that the equation for the gravitational potential energy R is dimensionally correct given that
the units for the gravitational constant G are N.m2.kg-2, M and m are masses of interacting objects and R is their
separation distance.
v2
s=
10. Determine whether the equation 2 g μk is dimensionally homogeneous. Here μk is a
dimensionless constant called the coefficient of kinetic friction, v is the velocity, s is the displacement and g is
the gravitational acceleration.

TUTORIAL SHEET TWO

VECTORS
1. A boy travels 10m due north and then 7m due east. Find the displacement of the boy.
2. Find the resultant of two forces, one 6N due east and other 8N due north.
3. A particle has a displacement of 12m towards east and 5m towards the north and then 6m vertically upward.
Find the magnitude of the sum of these displacements.
4. Two forces equal to P and 2P Newton act on a particle. If the first be doubled and the second be increased by
20 Newton, the direction of the resultant in unaltered. Find the value of P.
⃗ , when added to the resultant of the vectors
5. A vector X
⃗A =3 ⃗i −5 ⃗j+7 ⃗k and
⃗B=2 ⃗i +4 ⃗j−3 ⃗k gives a unit
⃗.
vector along Y-axis. Find the vector X

6. Find unit vector parallel to the resultant of the vectors

⃗A =⃗i +4 ⃗j +2 ⃗k and ⃗B=3 ⃗i −5 ⃗j + ⃗k

41
7. Three vectors , ⃗ ⃗ are such that ⃗A =B
B and C ⃗+C
⃗ and their magnitudes are 5, 4 and 3 respectively. Find the
angle between ⃗ ⃗.
A and C

8. Find a vector whose length is 7 and which is perpendicular to each of the vectors
⃗A =2 ⃗i −3 ⃗j+6 ⃗k and
⃗B=⃗i + ⃗j−⃗k
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
9. If the resultant of the vectors 3 i +4 j+5 k and 5 i +3 j+4 k makes an angle θ with x-axis, then find cosθ.
10. A bird is at a point P whose coordinates are (4m,-1m, and 5m). The bird observes two points P1 and P2
having coordinates (-1m, 2m, 0m) and (1m, 1m, 4m) respectively. At time t=0, it starts flying in a plane of three
positions, with a constant speed of 5ms-1 in a direction perpendicular to the straight line P1P2 till it sees P1 and
P2 collinear at time t. calculate t.

11. If |⃗A + B⃗|=|⃗A −B⃗|, Find the angle between ⃗A and ⃗B

12. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to both
⃗A =2 ^i + ^j+ k^ and
⃗B= ^i− ^j+2 k^

TUTORIAL SHEET THREE

KINEMATICS
1. An object moving along the x-axis in such a way that its displacement⃗
x is given by the expression
⃗x = 30 + 20 t −15 t 2
Where ⃗
x is in meters (m) and t is in seconds (s).
(i) Find the expressions for the velocity ⃗ v and acceleration⃗ a.
(ii) Find the value for the initial position and the initial velocity of the object.
(iii) At what time and distance from the origin is the velocity zero?
2. A particle starts from rest and accelerates as shown in the Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1
Determine
(i) The particle’s speed at t =10s and at t =20.0s, and
(ii) The distance traveled in the first 20.0 s.

42
3. A rock is shot up vertically upwards from the edge of the top of the building. The rock reaches its maximum
height 2s after being shot. Then, after barely missing the edge of the building as it falls downward, the rock
strikes the ground 8s after it was launched. Find
(i) The upward velocity the rock was shot at?
(ii) The maximum height above the building the rock reaches; and
(iii) How tall is the building? Disregard air resistance.

4. A projectile is shot from the edge of the building top 125 m above the ground level with an initial speed of 65
m/s at an angle of 37o with the horizontal as shown in the Figure 3.2.

Determine:
(i) The time taken by the projectile to hit point P at ground level.
(ii) Determine the range x of the projectile measured from the base of the building as shown in Figure 3.2
(iii) The magnitude of velocity just before the particle reaches the ground.
(iv) The angle φ below the horizontal made by the velocity vector.
(v) The maximum height reached by the projectile from the top of the building.
5. A ball is thrown from a point 1m above the ground. The initial velocity is 20 m/s at an angle of 40 degrees
above the horizontal.
(i) Find the maximum height of the ball above the ground.
(ii) Calculate the speed of the ball at the highest point in the trajectory.
6. The highest barrier that a projectile can clear is 20 m, when the projectile is launched at an angle of 40.0
degrees above the horizontal. What is the projectile's launch speed?
7. A rocket is fired at a velocity of 80 m/s from the ground level at an angle of 50 o above the horizontal. The
rocket is fire toward a 10 m high wall, which is located 20m away. By how much does the rocket clear the top
of the wall?

TUTORIAL SHEET FOUR

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

43
1. A large crate with mass m rests on a horizontal floor. The coefficients of friction between the crate and the
floor are
μ S and μ K . A woman pushes downward at an angle θ below the horizontal on the crate with a force
⃗
F.
(i) What magnitude of the force ⃗
F is required to keep the crate moving at constant velocity?

(ii) If
μ S is greater than some critical value, the woman cannot start the crate moving no matter how hard she
μ
pushes. Calculate this critical value of S .
2. Two blocks with masses 4 kg and 8 kg are connected by a string and slide down a 30o inclined plane as
shown in the Figure below. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the 4 kg block and the plane is 0.25 while
that between the 8 kg block and the plane is 0.35.
(i) Calculate the acceleration of each block.
(ii) Calculate the tension in the string.
(iii) What happens if the positions of the blocks is reversed, so that the 4 kg block is above the 8 kg block?

3. In terms of m1 , m 2 and g, find the acceleration of each block in the Figure below. There is no friction
anywhere in the system.

4. Two blocks connected by a cord passing over a small frictionless pulley rest rest on frictionless planes as
shown in the Figure below.
(i) Which will the system move when the blocks are released from rest?
44
(ii) What is the acceleration of the blocks?
(iii) What is the tension in the cord?

⃗ as
5. A window washer pushes his scrub brush up a vertical window at constant speed by applying a force F
shown in the Figure below. The brush weighs 12 N and the coefficient of kinetic friction is
μk = 0. 15 .
Calculate
(i) The magnitude of the force ⃗
F.
(ii) The normal force exerted by the window on the brush.

6. Block A in the Figure below weighs 1.40 N, and block B weighs 4.20 N. The coefficient of static friction
between all surfaces is 0.30. Find the magnitude of the horizontal force ⃗F necessary to drag block B to the left
at constant speed if A andB are connected by a light, flexible cord passing around a fixed, frictionless pulley.
7. A force ⃗
F applied to an object of mass m1 produces an acceleration of 3.00 m/s2. The same force applied to a
second object of mass m2 produces an acceleration of 1.00 m/s2.
(i) What is the value of the ratio m1/m2?
⃗.
(ii) If m1 and m2 are combined, find their acceleration under the action of the force F
⃗ ^ ^ ⃗ ^ ^ ⃗F = (−45 { ^i ) N ¿
8. Three forces acting on an object are given by F 1 = (−2 i + 2 j) N , F 2 = (5 i − 3 j ) N , and 3 .
2
The object experiences an acceleration of magnitude 3.75 m/s .
(i) What is the direction of the acceleration?
(ii) What is the mass of the object?
(iii) If the object is initially at rest, what is its speed after 10.0 s?
(iv) What are the velocity components of the object after 10.0 s?
45
 TUTORIAL SHEET FIVE
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS
1. A water molecule consists of an oxygen atom with two hydrogen atoms bound to it as shown in the Figure
below. The angle between the two bonds is 106°. If the bonds are 0.1 nm long, where is the center of mass of
the molecule?

2. A billiard ball moving at 5 m/s strikes a stationary ball of the same mass. After the collision, the first ball
moves, at 4.33 m/s, at an angle of 30° with respect to the original line of motion. Assuming an elastic collision
(and ignoring friction and rotational motion), find the struck ball’s velocity after the collision.
3. Two particles with masses m and 3m are moving toward each other along the x axis with the same initial
speeds vi. Particle m is traveling to the left, while particle 3m is traveling to the right. They undergo an elastic
glancing collision such that particle m is moving downward after the collision at right angles from its initial
direction.
(i) Find the final speeds of the two particles.
(ii) What is the angle θ at which the particle 3m is scattered?
4. A 3kg steel ball strikes a wall with a speed of 10 m/s at an angle of 60° with the surface. It bounces off with
the same speed and angle (see the Figure below). If the ball is in contact with the wall for 0.2 s, what is the
average force exerted by the wall on the ball?

5. A 3kg particle has a velocity of (3i - 4j) m/s.

46
(i) Find its x and y components of momentum.
(ii) Find the magnitude and direction of its momentum.
6. An object of mass m and velocity v collides elastically with a stationary object and continues in the same
direction with speed 0.25v. What is the mass of the object that was initially stationary?
7. A bullet of mass m is fired into a block of mass M initially at rest at the edge of a frictionless table of height h
as shown in the Figure below. The bullet remains in the block, and after impact the block lands a distance d
from the bottom of the table. Determine the initial speed of the bullet.

TUTORIAL SHEET 6
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
1. An elevator cab of mass 500 kg is descending with a speed of
v i=4 .0 m/ s when its supporting cable begins
to slip, allowing it to fall with a constant acceleration⃗
a =⃗g /5
(i) During the fall through a distance d of 10 m, what is the work
W g done on the cab by the gravitational force
Fg .

(ii) During the 10 m fall, what is the work W T done on the cab by the upward tension T
⃗ due to the elevator’s
cable?
W
(iii) What is the net work net done on the cab during the fall?
(iv) What is the cab’s kinetic energy at the end of the 10m fall?
2. A hotel guest starts to pull an arm chair of mass 25 kg initially at rest by exerting a constant force of 90 N
150 above the horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the chair and the floor is 0.2.
(i) Use work-energy theorem to find the speed of the chair after it moves a distance of 5 m horizontally.
(ii) Repeat part (i) using Newtonian mechanics.
3. A force acting in the x direction on an object varies with x as shown in the figure below. Find the work done
by the force in the intervals: (a) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1m, (b) 1m ≤ x ≤ 3m, (c) 3m ≤ x ≤ 4m, (d) 4m ≤ x ≤ 7m, and (e) 0 ≤
x ≤ 7m.

47
4. A force of ⃗ F =( 6 x 2 i⃗ + 4 ⃗j ) N acts on a particle that moves from point A with coordinates (2,2) m to point B
with coordinates (3,4) m. How much work is done on the particle as it moves from point A to point B?
5. An engine pumps 2 tons of water in one minute to an average height of 10 m. Calculate the power of the
engine if 30% of the energy is wasted in the process.
6. A 750 kg car has a maximum power of 30 kw and moves against a resistance to motion of 800 N. Find the
maximum speed of the car
(i) on the level road.
1
(ii) up an inline of arc sin to the horizontal.
10
(iii) down the same incline as in part (b).
7. Two blocks of masses m1 = 4 kg and m2 = 6 kg are connected by a massless string that passes over a
massless frictionless pulley as shown below. Block m1 is initially at rest on a horizontal plane while block
m2is at a height h = 0.75m above the ground. Use energy concepts to find the speed of the masses just before
m2 hits the ground if the plane
(i) is frictionless.
(ii) has a coefficient of friction 0.5.

TUTORIAL SHEET 7
CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION
7.1 CIRCULAR MOTION
1. Suppose you are driving at speed v0 and find yourself heading straight for a brick wall that intersects the line
of your path at 90°. Assuming that the coefficients of friction for stopping and for turning are the same, are your
chances of avoiding a crash better if you continue straight ahead while braking or if you simply turn along a
circular path at a constant speed?
2. In an enduro motorcycle race a rider goes over the top of a small hill that is approximately spherical with a
radius of curvature of 12 m. What is her maximum speed if she is not to become airborne?
48
3. A small block of mass m slides with negligible friction in a horizontal circle on the inside of a conical
surface. The axis of the cone is vertical, and the half angle of the cone is 60°. The block rotates at 1.20 rev/s.
How high above the apex of the cone does the block slide?
4. A woman stands a distance of 2.40 m from the axis of a rotating merry-go-round platform. The coefficient of
friction between her shoes and the platform surface is 0.60. What is the maximum number of revolutions per
minute the merry-go-round can make if she is not to start slipping outward?
5. A car traveling on a freeway goes around a curve of radius r at speed v. The roadway is banked to provide the
necessary inward centripetal force in order for the car to stay in its lane. At what angle should the roadway be
banked if the car is not to utilize friction to make the turn?
6. A 450 g ball at the end of is whirled in an almost horizontal circle of radius 1.25 m. Its tangential speed in the
circle is 8.5 m/s . Do not neglect the weight of the ball; the string cannot be perfectly horizontal.
(a) What must the tension in the cord be?
(b) What angle does the cord make with the horizontal?
7.2 GRAVITATION
1. Comet Halley orbits the sun with a period of 76 years. Its perihelion distance (when it is closest to the sun) is
8.9×1010 m. What is the comet's aphelion distance (when it is farthest from the sun)?
2. How far from the earth, in terms of the Earth-Moon separation d, should a satellite be positioned if it is to
experience no net gravitational force from the Earth and the Moon? The Moon's mass is M M = 0 . 012 M E .
3. Three identical stars each of mass m positioned at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side a move in a
circular orbit. For each of the stars the needed centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force due to the
other two stars. What is the period of such a star system?
4. A certain binary star consists of two identical stars of mass M, each moving in a circular orbit of radius R
about the center of mass. Determine
(a) the gravitational force exerted on each star,
(b) the orbital speed of each star,
(c) the period of the motion, and
(d) the energy needed to separate the stars to infinity.
5. Calculate the period of revolution of Neptune around the Sun given that the diameter of the orbit is 30 times
the diameter of the Earth around the Sun, both orbits being assumed to be circular.
6. A satellite is orbiting very close to a planet of density 8×103 kgm-3 . If the gravitational constant
G = 6.67×10-11 Nm 2 kg-2 , find the time period of the satellite.
7. A satellite is in a circular orbit around the earth at a radius of 2 R E . How much energy is required to move it
out to an orbit of radius 4 R E ?

TUTORIAL SHEET 8
ROTATIONAL MOTION
1. A wheel rotates in such a way that its angular displacement in a time t is given by
2 3
θ=a t +b t
Where a and b are constants. Determine equations for
(i) angular speed as a function of time
49
(ii) angular acceleration as a function of time
2. A 500 g uniform solid sphere of diameter 14 cm spins at 30 rev/s on an axis through its center. Find its
moment of inertia, kinetic energy of rotation, angular momentum and radius of gyration.
3. A wheel of radius R , mass M and moment of inertia I is mounted on a frictionless horizontal axle. A light
cord wrapped around the wheel supports an object of mass m which hangs from the rim of the wheel. Show that
(i) the tension in in the cord is
Img
T= 2
I +m R
(ii) the linear acceleration of the wheel is
2
gm R
a= 2
I +m R

(iii) the angular acceleration of the wheel is

gmR
α= 2
I+m R

4. A pulley of mass M = 6 kg and radius R = 20 cm is mounted on a frictionless axis, as shown in figure below.
A massless cord is wrapped around the pulley while its other end supports a block of mass m=3kg. If the cord
does not slip, find the linear acceleration of the block, the angular acceleration of the pulley, and the tension in

(
the cord. Take g=10 m/s2. I = M r
1
2
2
)

5. An automobile moves on a road with a speed of 54 km/h. The radius of its wheel is 0.35 m. What is the
average negative torque transmitted by its brakes to a wheel if the vehicle is brought to rest in 15 seconds? The
moment of inertia of the wheel about its axis of rotation is 3 kgm2.
6. A ballet dancer spins about a vertical axis at 1 rev/min with her arms stretched. With arms folded her moment
of inertia about the vertical axis decreases by 60% of the initial value. Calculate her new rate of revolution
7. A solid sphere of mass m and radius r initially at rest rolls down an inclined plane from a height h. The
sphere rolls smoothly and friction energy losses are negligible. Derive the expression for the speed of the sphere
at the foot of the plane and show that it is independent of the mass of the sphere. Hence calculate the value of
this speed given that the length of the plane is 3 m and that angle at which the plane is inclined is 37 o.

TUTORIAL SHEET NINE

OSCILLATIONS
1. A Simple harmonic motion is represented by y=10sin(20t+0.5) write down its amplitude, angular frequency,
frequency, time period and initial phase, if displacement is measured in meters and time in seconds.
50
2. If y=a cosωt +b sin ωt , show that it represents SHM. Determine its amplitude
3. A particle executes SHM with a time period of 2s and amplitude 5cm. Find
(i) displacement
(ii) velocity and
(iii) Acceleration, after 1/3 second; starts from the mean position .
4. A particle is moving with SHM in a straight line. When the distance of the particle from the equilibrium
position has values X1 and X2, the corresponding values of velocities are u1 and u2, show that the time period of
oscillation is given by

[ ]
1/ 2
x 22 −x21
T =2 π
u21 −u22
5. A body executes SHM of time period 8s. if its mass be 0.1kg, its velocity 1 second after it passes through its
mean position be 4ms-1, find its
(i) Kinetic energy
(ii) Potential energy and
(iii) Total energy.
6. A second pendulum is taken in a carriage. Find the period of oscillation when the carriage moves with
acceleration of 4ms-2
(i) Vertically upwards
(ii) Vertically downwards and
(iii) In a horizontal direction.
8. Calculate the length of a second’s pendulum. If this pendulum is mounted in a lift which accelerates
upwards at 2.8ms-2 and by what factor does its period of oscillation change from the original value? Given g
on earth=9.8ms-2

TUTORIAL SHEET TEN

ELECTRICITY
10.1 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS
1. In the Figure below find the equivalent resistance seen by the battery

(a) when the switch S is open and

(b) when the switch S is closed.
(c) What is the current through the 4Ω resistor when the switch is closed?
51
2. When a current of 3.2 A is drawn from a certain battery, its terminal voltage drops from its zero current value
of 1.57 V to 1.28 V. What is the internal resistance of the battery?

10.1.1 OHM’S LAW AND RESISTIVITY

1. An extension cord 20 m long uses no. 12 gauge copper wire (cross-sectional area 0.033 cm 2, resistivity
1.7×10-8 Ω-m ). What is its resistance?
2. A tungsten wire of diameter 0.40 mm and length 40 cm is connected to a 36-V power supply. What current
does it carry at 20°C and at 800°C? At 20°C the resistivity of tungsten is 5.6×10 -8 Ω-m and α = 4.5×10-3 (°C)-
1
.
3. An immersion electric heater used in the lab will increase the temperature of 500 mL of water by 50°C in 6
min when operated with a 120-V supply,
(a) What power does the heater deliver?
(b) What current does it draw?

10.1.2 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

1. What is the potential difference between points X and Y in this circuit?

2. What is the value of ε 1 in this circuit?

10.2 ELECTROSTATICS
10.2.1 COULOMB’S LAW
1. Two identical Styrofoam spheres, each of mass 0.030 kg, are each attached to a thread 30 cm long and
suspended from a common point. Each sphere is given a charge q (perhaps by rubbing it on a piece of cloth),
and the two spheres repel each other and hang with each thread making an angle of 7 degrees with vertical.
What is the charge on each sphere?

52
 q = −4 μC
2. Charges are placed on the x axis as follows: q 1 = +2 μC = + 2 at x = 0, q 2 = −3 μC at x = 2 m, 3
q
at x = 3 m, and q 4 = +1 μC at x = 3.5 m. What is the magnitude and direction of the force on 3 ?
3. Three identical positive charges q are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side L. What force
does one of the charges experience?
4. Three point charges are located at the corners of an equilateral triangle as shown in the Figure below.
Calculate the resultant electric force on the 7.00 μC charge.

10.2.2 ELECTRIC FIELD

1. Two point charges are located on the x axis. The first is a charge + Q at x = – a. The second is an unknown
kQ
2 2
charge located at x = +3a. The net electric field these charges produce at the origin has a magnitude of a .
What are the two possible values of the unknown charge?
2. In the Figure below, determine the point (other than infinity) at which the electric field is zero.

10.2.3 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

−9 −9
1. A −4.0×10 C is located at the origin of a coordinate system and another charge of 6.0×10 C is located
at x = 2.4 m. At what two points on the x axis is the electric potential due to the two charges equal to zero?
2. A 6.0 μ C is located at the point (0, 1.0) where the coordinates are in meters. A second charge of −4.0 μ C is
located at (-3.0, 0). Find the absolute potential due to the two charges at
(a) (0, -3.0) and
(b) (1.0, 0)
3. Two point charges q 1 = −5 nC and q 2 = 4 nC are separated by 40 cm. What is the absolute potential

53
(a) at a point midway between the charges and
(b) at a point 40 cm from both charges?
4. The three charges in Figure below are at the vertices of an isosceles triangle. Calculate the electric potential
at the midpoint of the base, taking q = +7.00 μC .

END

54