Abstract

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Name of the student- Nitish Saini Registration No.- 10PP18A32037
Faculty of Study- Physical Sciences Year of Submission- 2023
CSIR Lab- National Physical Laboratory, Name of Supervisor- Dr Ajeet Kumar
New Delhi
Title of thesis- Bio-inspired Memristive Devices for
Neuromorphic Computation & Its Application
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
The limitations of conventional computing, specifically the von Neumann bottleneck, have
hindered technological advancement due to data transfer inefficiencies and processing speed
limitations. Neuromorphic computing, which mimics the structure and function of the human
brain, offers a potential solution. Neuromorphic computing relies on memristive devices that can
perform digital and analogue computations, making it highly efficient. This approach has the
potential to optimize futuristic devices without the need for extensive programming.
A functional layer of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) polymer is deposited by electro-
polymerization using cyclic voltammetry. Here, we studied Pt/PEDOT/Al based memristor, which
exhibited excellent artificial synapse like plasticity. We discuss the basic function of remembering
and forgetting devices through synapticity and plasticity. The devices show excellent plasticity
behavior mimicking bio synaptic behavior, which makes them a suitable system for
neuromorphic applications.

Spike time-dependent plasticity (STDP), is the most important Hebbian learning rule for learning.
Modulation in synaptic strength and output is observed in PEDOT based memristors upon
stimulations from different waveform signals, which showed to mimic various Hebbian learning
rules of a biological synapse. The synaptic plasticity is directly correlated to the temporal
ordering of pre-and post-synaptic spikes. We demonstrated that the square, triangle, and
complex waveforms, their duration as well as the waveform spike pairing connections affect the
STDP learning window of the devices. The plasticity modulation with second order spiking signal
is also demonstrated. The characteristics observed in the devices can be crucial steps toward
designing a neural network mimicking a biological synapse.
A functional layer of methylammonium lead iodide (CH3NH3PbI3, MAPbI3) perovskite as a
switching material is deposited via thermal deposition. The resulting Al/MAPbI3/ITO-based
memristor demonstrates impressive bipolar resistive switching behavior. The device shows
stable characteristics of retention and endurance. The device also showed memorization
characteristics for both sweep and pulse cycles. The device exhibits multilevel digital
characteristics for a successive increase in voltage pulse and beyond a limit, it shows a transition
to analog switching behavior.

The simultaneous real time processing and interpretation of data is a challenging task.
Memristor enabled reservoir computing (RC) has shown great promise toward real time neural
signal analysis. Here, we demonstrate a PEDOT polymer based memristor behaviour towards
real time neural spike. The readout function is trained for classification and temporal analysis.
Brain like hardware featuring recognition of neural input patterns is reported. This concept is
further expanded for practical application to automate traffic surveillance.
List of Publications

Journals

1. Nitish Saini, Arti Bisht, Asit Patra, and Ajeet Kumar. Synaptic plasticity in
electro-polymerized pedot based memristors for neuromorphic application. J.

Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron, 2022. doi.org/10.1007/s10854-022-09368-2

2. Nitish Saini, Rashi Kedia, Asit Patra, Ajeet Kumar. Synaptic Spike Time

Dependent Plasticity (STDP) in PEDOT memristor under different waveform

stimulations.

3. Nitish Saini and Ajeet Kumar. Real time traffic surveillance based on neural
firing pattern recognition technique.

4. Kalpana Agarwal, Nitish Saini, Arti Bisht, Ajeet Kumar and Ritu Srivas-
tava. Voltage dependent multilevel digital to analogue transition in perovskite

memristor device.

5. Harshit Sharma, Nitish Saini, Ajeet Kumar, and Ritu Srivastava. Agbis2

quantum dot based multilevel resistive switching for low power electronics.J.
Mater. Chem. C, 2023. doi.org/10.1039/D3TC01050C

6. Arti Bisht, Nitish Saini, Komal Bhardwaj, Rachna Singh and Ajeet Ku mar.
Two-Stage Filamentary Mechanism in High-Performance Organic Resistive
Switch. J.Mater. Chem. C, 2023. doi.org/10.1039/D3TC02348F

7. Harshit Sharma, Nitish Saini, Lalita, Divya Kaushik, Ajeet Kumar. Ritu
Srivastava. CuInS2 quantum dots-based unipolar resistive switching for non-
volatile memory application. RSC Adv., 2024

106
List of Publications

Presentations and proceedings in International/National Conferences

1. International Conference on Thin Films & Nanotechnology: Knowledge,

Leadership, & Commercialization

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India

2. IEEE-ICEE 2020

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India

107
J Mater Sci: Mater Electron

Synaptic plasticity in electro-polymerized PEDOT

based memristors for neuromorphic application
Nitish Saini1,2, Arti Bisht1,2, Asit Patra1,2, and Ajeet Kumar1,2,*

1
CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, Dr. KS Krishnan Marg, New Delhi 110012, India
2
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India

Received: 30 May 2022 ABSTRACT

Accepted: 20 October 2022
Ó The Author(s), under
exclusive licence to Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC,
part of Springer Nature 2022
A polymer based memristor as an artificial synapse has been one proficient
approach to mimic biological synapse. It remembers the last state and modulate
the output accordingly with subsequent voltage signals at low voltages and at
high processing speeds. A functional layer of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)
(PEDOT) polymer is deposited by electro-polymerization using cyclic voltam-
metry. Here, we studied Pt/PEDOT/Al based memristor, which exhibited
excellent artificial synapse like plasticity. We discuss the basic function of
remembering and forgetting of the devices through synapticity and plasticity.
STDP, which is the most important Hebbian learning rule for learning and
memory showed up to 75% change in synaptic weight under wide range of
input signals. The devices show excellent plasticity behavior mimicking biosy-
naptic behavior, which makes them a suitable system for neuromorphic
applications.

1 Introduction units are different. So, there is a huge power loss in

Deep learning in artificial intelligence devices have
potential to make new discoveries using high-di-
mensional data and is therefore have wide applica-
tion in data science [1], pattern recognition [2], image
transmission through multimode fiber [3], simula-
tions [4], and network security [5]. These applications
generate a large amount of data and requires brain
like computing, i.e., which can process data sequen-
tially and in parallel as well, to execute complicated
tasks that are difficult for traditional computers [6–8].
In traditional computing, memory and processing
the transportation of data from CPU to memory units
due to which parallel processing is incredibly chal-
lenging, which is known as Von Neumann bottleneck
[9]. To meet the technological advancement a non-
von Neumann computing capable of massive parallel
and serial processing has received immense attention
in recent times [10].
In recent years, the extended research on memris-
tors made possible to replace conventional devices
for futuristic application such as in high-density
storage applications, multilevel memory applications,
and neuromorphic computing [11]. The conventional
memory devices store data by storing electrons and

Address correspondence to E-mail: kumarajeet@nplindia.org

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-022-09368-2

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.


holes [12]. A memristor is a two terminal device
having a thin functional layer sandwiched between
two electrodes. Memristors store data by internal
reconfiguration of charged particles in the functional
layer, which stabilizes in variable resistance states
when subject to different external inputs [13]. To
mimic biological synapse, memristor’s top and bot-
tom electrodes serves as pre- and post-synaptic
neurons, respectively. The pre-neural and post-neu-
ral are connected through a unique synaptic weight
which makes it capable of addressing information
like a human brain [14, 15].
The potential functional layer to achieve efficient
artificial synapse is categorized as inorganic and
organic materials [16]. Most of the work on memris-
tor have been done on inorganic materials such as
HfO2 [17], Nb2 O5 [18], WO3 [19], etc. These materials
lack bio-compatibility, biodegradability and flexibil-
ity, which are needed for various applications [20].
The organic polymer poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythio-
phene) (PEDOT) based memristors proved to be an
excellent material for such applications. It has been
widely used in photo-electrical devices due to its
properties such as, ability to form a uniform, trans-
parent, conductive, and thermally stable thin film,
which strengthens the adhesion to the organic layer,
good energy conversion efficiency, low-cost mass
production [21], bio-compatible and biodegradable
[22] and works great for stretchable and flexible
electronics applications [23–25]. A lot of research is
done on water soluble poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythio-
phene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) complex
thin film instead of water insoluble PEDOT thin film
[26]. The PEDOT based devices shows unipolar or
bipolar resistive switching is observed based on
electrode combination [27–29]. The PEDOT is a con-
ductive and thermally stable conducting polymer
[30]. However, neuromorphic study on electro-poly-
merized PEDOT polymer has not been reported so
far.
In the present study, we report fabrication of
memristor with electropolymerized PEDOT as the
functional layer. The electropolymerized thin film is
uniform throughout the surface. This uniformity
reduces cell-to-cell measurement variation. The basic
memristor electronic characterization of SET/RESET,
retention, and endurance is reported. We demon-
strated the synaptic properties like short term plas-
ticity (STP), long term plasticity (LTP), and spike-
rate-dependent plasticity (SRDP). Spike time
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
J Mater Sci: Mater Electron
dependent plasticity (STDP), which is the most
important Hebbian learning rule for learning and
memory showed up to 75% change in synaptic
weight under wide range of input signals, which
makes it a suitable material for neuromorphic com-
putation applications [31].
2 Experimental
3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) (97%) and
anhydrous tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophos-
phate (TBAPF6 ) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich.
Acetonitrile (99%, RG) was purchase from Sisco
research laboratories Pvt.Ltd. Electrochemical studies
were carried out with Metrohm AUTOLAB-PGSTAT
using a three-electrode assembly with platinum-
coated silicon wafer as the working electrodes. Pt
wire was used as counter electrode a Ag/Agþ was
used as a reference electrode. The measurement was
performed under N2 atmosphere and before each
measurement N2 was purged through the solution
for 10min to deoxygenate the system. Fer-
rocene/ferrocenium couple was used as external
standard for the cyclic voltammetry system.
An electro-polymerized PEDOT thin film  50 nm
was deposited on a Pt/SiO2 /Si substrate using cyclic
volametry. The room temperature basic electronic
characterization of Pt/PEDOT/Al device and
synaptic behavior were investigated with two probe
using Keithley-2450 source meter. The labview pro-
gram is made to study synaptic behavior using pulse
signal.
3 Results and discussion
Different strategies for deposition of thin film on
substrates have been well reported, such as solution-
processable, thermal and electrochemical deposition
and so forth. Among these, electrochemical deposi-
tion method is a potential technique to control the
morphology, thickness, and doping level of the film,
which are essential parameters for the device per-
formance. It is worthy that electrochemical poly-
merization yielded pure, metal-free, least chemically
defect material and better film adhesion on substrate.
The high quality thin film of PEDOT was deposited
on the substrate of platinum-coated silicon wafer by
electrochemical polymerization, as depicted in
J Mater Sci: Mater Electron
Fig. 1b. Monomer 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene
(EDOT) was used for polymerization by cyclic
voltammetry (CV) scanning from - 0.5 to 1.5 V at
scan rate 50 mV/s. Electropolymerization was carried
out using 0.01 M EDOT as a monomer, 0.1 M tetra-n-
butylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAPF6 ) as a
supporting electrolyte and MeCN as a solvent. The
thickness of the deposited PEDOT films on substrate
was controlled by the number of electropolymerized
cycles and monomer concentration. The electropoly-
merization of PEDOT film was characterized by CV
and absorption spectra (Figs. S1 & S2 in Supple-
mentary Information). The results are in agreement
with our previously reported characteristics of
PEDOT films [32]. The resulting electrochemically
deposited film was washed with monomer-free sol-
vent and keep at ambient conditions for drying for
device fabrication.
The electropolymerization deposited structure of
Pt/PEDOT/Al is investigated for memristor behavior
as shown in Fig. 2a. Platinum (Pt) and aluminum
(Al) are used as bottom and top electrodes, respec-
tively. The current–voltage (I–V) memristive charac-
teristics are shown in Fig. 2b. The device exhibits
bipolar resistive switching, the device could be SET
and RESET with the change in bias polarity. In step 1,
the voltage is swept from 0 V to positive bias, the
rapid increment in current was observed resulting in
attaining compliance value, i.e., 0.0005 A at around 1
V and turned the device ON (SET). The conduction
filament was formed. In step 2, the voltage swept
back to 0 V, the device remained ON. In step 3, the
voltage swept from 0 V to negative bias, the current
decreased instantly and switched (RESET) the device
from ON to OFF state. In this process, the breakdown
in conduction filament occurs. In step 4, when the
voltage swept back to 0 V, the device remained in
OFF state. The positive bias potential shows a sym-
metric behavior with higher conductivity. A change
Fig. 1 a Electrochemical
polymerization of EDOT in
solvent-electrolyte medium.
b SEM image of
electropolymerized PEDOT
thin film
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
in resistance is observed due to the formation and
rupture of conduction filament which is correlated to
oxidation and reduction of functional layer, respec-
tively [29]. When positive bias is applied on the top
electrode (Al), holes were injected into the film.
Under the influence of electric field, the charge ions
get accumulated. In this case, PEDOTo which act as a
charge trapping site is oxidized to PEDOTþ (PED-
OT0 þ hþ ! PEDOTþ ) which is a low resistance state
[33]. This leads to space charge accumulation of
charged ion PEDOTþ across the electrode. When an
adequate amount of charges accumulate, a sudden
increase in the conductivity (SET) was observed due
to the formation of conduction path in the PEDOT
film. This accumulation of charges is responsible for
LRS behavior. When the top electrode was negatively
biased, electrons were injected into the film. The
PEDOTþ is reduced to PEDOT0 (PEDOTþ ? e !
PEDOT0 ) which is a high resistance state [34]. The
conduction path was destroyed across the electrode
and an abrupt decrease in conductivity (RESET) was
observed. The device endurance characteristics were
studied by continuously applying SET/RESET pulses
of 1.5/- 2 V of 100 ms and a read voltage (0.01 V, 100
ms). We observed resistance fluctuation, while
switching from one state to another, was more in the
HRS state than in the LRS state. The breakdown of
conduction filament is an abrupt process which can
cause current fluctuations.
The conductance of the device can be regarded as a
synaptic weight. The synaptic weight is continuously
adjusted equivalent to the device conductance [35].
The various activity like forgetting and memorizing
are based on the synaptic weight change of a bio-
logical synapse. The Pt/PEDOT/Al memristor con-
ductivity changes with every consecutive voltage
sweep. To study the above behavior, a positive volt-
age sweep after every sweep from 0 to 0.8 V is
 J Mater Sci: Mater Electron

Fig. 2 a Pt/PEDOT/Al memristor and biological synapse current was set to 0.0005 A for 0 to ? 1.5 V sweep and 0.0004 A
structural analogy. b I–V plot of Pt/PEDOT/Al exhibiting for 0 to - 1.5 sweep, respectively, where the arrow represents the
bipolar resistive switching of up to 5 cycles. The compliance direction of the voltage

applied and a gradual increase in current was 1 V amplitude is calculated by fitting equation y ¼
observed. The synaptic weight increased gradually
a  ðx  cÞb where b is non-linear parameter having
after every successive run, shows memorizing
value - 0.088. The amount of space charge accumu-
behavior of the device as shown in Fig. 3a. Similarly,
lation increases gradually at the electrode after every
a multiple successive negative voltage sweep from 0
successive positive pulse. With each successive pos-
to (- 0.8 V) is applied and a gradual decrease in
itive pulses, the charge accumulates at the electrode
current was observed. The synaptic weight decreased
lower the interface barrier and hence, increased the
gradually after every successive run, shows forget-
conductivity of the device. The accumulation of
ting behavior of device as shown in Fig. 3b. The
charge at the interface is very rapid initially and
similar approach can be explained by applying volt-
saturate at a later stage. The amount of space charge
age pulses. In this study, a series of 50 identical
accumulation decreases at the electrode after every
positive pulses (1 V, 600 ms) followed by similar
successive negative pulse. The recombination of
series of 50 negative pulses (- 1 V, 600 ms) were
accumulated charge annihilates the conduction fila-
applied to the device. A read voltage (0.01 V) was
ment and decreased conductivity was observed. The
applied after each pulse and the read current was
change in conductivity was non-linear. This non-lin-
measured and non-linear function was fit as shown in
ear gradual increase and decrease in conductivity are
Fig. 3c. The non-linearity for 1 V amplitude is cal-
called potentiation and depression, respectively. We
culated by fitting equation y ¼ a xb where b is non- can infer from the above results, our device is capable
linear parameter having value 0.147. Similarly, for -

Fig. 3 Memorization characteristics of PEDOT based memristor. measured by series of 50 pulses of 600ms width at ?/- 1 V
a The hysteresis current increases with every voltage sweep of 0 to respectively. The read current was measured at 0.01 V and non-
0.8 V. b The hysteresis current decreases with every voltage sweep linearity function was fit (solid lines). The increment and
of 0 to - 0.8 V. c The potentiation and depression characteristic is decrement of current was observed

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

J Mater Sci: Mater Electron
of emulating analogue electronic characteristics of
memristor.
The human brain memory shows two kind of
plasticity, short term plasticity (STP) and long term
plasticity (LTP). In STP, the synaptic connections
persist for a very short duration, i.e., for few seconds
or minutes and then fades away. In LTP, permanent
change in synaptic connection is observed, which
may last for hours or years [36]. However, STP can be
reshaped to LTP through continuous stimulations
[37]. Transition for the devices was observed from
STP to LTP (shown in Fig. 4b). A sequence of dif-
ferent pulse train (1 pulse train = 5 to 30 voltage
pulses) having a fixed amplitude 1 V, width and
interval as shown in Fig. 4a were applied to the
memristor. After a different number of voltage pul-
ses, the current was recorded at 0.01 V for 50 seconds,
so that the device relaxes back to attain an equilib-
rium state. The current was measured and inter-
preted as synaptic weight. For stimulation N = 5 and
10 voltage pulses, the device relaxes back to the HRS
state and the lifetime value becomes insignificant. For
N = 20 and 30, the adequate amount of charge carrier
gets accumulated. Thus, the device attains synaptic
weight which indicates a transition of STP to LTP.
The synaptic weight retention curve as shown in
Fig. 4b indicates that current drops rapidly at the
beginning, then moderately, and stabilizes at last. The
recombination of the charge carrier could be a reason
for the decay in the retention curve. The exponential
decay function was fit to analyze relaxation time in
Fig. 4b.
I t = I 0 ? Aexp (- t/s)
I 0 represents steady stable current, A is a constant
and s is the relaxation time constant. If t \ s, the
Fig. 4 a A sequence of different input voltage pulse train applied
to the device at t \ 0. b The change in synaptic weight at t[0 is
plotted after different numbers of a voltage pulses were applied.
The exponential decay function was fit (solid lines) to analyze the
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
synaptic weight drops rapidly, and if t [ [ s the
synaptic weight varies gently. Thus, the relaxation
time constant plays an important role. Fig. 4c shows
the synaptic weight with respect to time for different
input pulse trains and the fitting curve. The
stable synaptic weight and relaxation time constant
was obtained from the fitting curve. This was then
plotted with respect to a number of pulses in Fig. 4c.
As shown, as the number of input voltage pulses
increases the relaxation time increased. Thus, the
current takes longer time to decay. Also, the
stable synaptic weight increases which indicates the
decrease in volatility of device and also indicates a
confirmation from STP to LTP transition of the
device.
Spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) is one
the most important and the fundamental Hebbian
learning rule for learning and memory, which states
that the change in synaptic weight is correlated to
temporal synchronization between pre- and post-
synaptic spikes [38]. If the temporal synchronization
of pre-synapse is before post-synapse (Dt \ 0), it
results in increment in synaptic weight (i.e., long-
term potentiation or LTP). In reverse temporal paring
(Dt [ 0), results in decrement in synaptic weight (i.e.,
long-term depression or LTD).
To stimulate STDP, precise temporal pair of pre-
and post-synaptic spike with 1 V/- 1 V amplitude
with the pulse width of 100 ms was applied to the top
and bottom electrodes of the memristor respectively.
The time interval Dt is defined as the difference of
time elapsed between the pre- and post-synaptic
spike respectively, as shown in Fig. 5a. The read
current (0.01 V) was measured before and immedi-
ately after the spike. The percentage change [39] in
relaxation time. The number of pulses in (a) and the corresponding
synaptic weight in (b) are time correlated. c The stable synaptic
weight after different number of voltage pulses and the relaxation
time constants after different number of a voltage pulses
 J Mater Sci: Mater Electron

Fig. 5 STDP function in the

device. a A pair of pre- and
post-synaptic spike temporal
synchronization of pulses with
1 V/- 1 V amplitude having
width of 100 ms, respectively.
b The change in synaptic
weight with respect to the
timing of the pre- and post-
synaptic spike. The
exponential function was fit
(solid lines) to the data

Fig. 6 The spiking rate-

dependent plasticity was
observed for different intervals
of time. The change in current
was measured for 1 V having
100ms pulse width at 20 s, 10
s, 5 s, and 1 s interval of time.
a The rate of change in current
for different numbers of
voltage pulses. b The rate of
change in current for different
intervals

the relative synaptic weight was calculated and
plotted as shown in Fig. 5b. As discussed above, the
increment (decrement) of relative synaptic weight
was observed when the pre-synaptic spike was
applied before (after) post-synaptic spike. The device
exhibit excellent STDP functional property mimick-
ing biological neural network.
Another important characteristic of biological
synaptic plasticity is spike-rate-dependent plasticity
(SRDP). The time interval between two successive
pulses also affects the change in the efficacy of a
synapse [40]. The pre-synaptic spiking rate determi-
nes the strength of synaptic plasticity. In our mem-
ristor, the top and bottom electrode mimicks pre-
synaptic and post-synaptic neuron, respectively. The
spiking rate effect on synapse was studied by
applying a fixed number (N = 10) of identical voltage
pulses of 1 V and width 0.1s with varying time
interval between successive pulses (1 to 20 s).
The read current was measured after each voltage
pulse at a read voltage 0.01 V. For the large intervals
i.e 20 s and 10 s, the accumulation of space charge is
not adequate and the current difference is small. The
conductivity of the memristor increases for 5 s pulse
interval. Further reduction in pulse interval to 1 s,
significant increase in current was observed with
successive pulse. Thus, when the time interval
between the successive pulses is shorter than the
decay constant of effective charge diffusion, the cur-
rent increases with each pulse. As the following
stimulus overlaps the current decay which leads to a
net increase in charge carrier at the electrode as
shown in Fig. 6a. The relative change in current was
calculated and plotted with respect to the time
intervals between two successive pulses as shown in
Fig. 6b. Hence, to a great extent, the strength of
synaptic plasticity is dependent on the pre-synaptic
spiking rate.

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

J Mater Sci: Mater Electron
4 Conclusion
A functional layer of PEDOT has been fabricated by
electro-polymerization using cyclic voltammetry. The
basic memristive effect has been investigated for the
best-optimized condition of the voltage range of
1.5/- 1.5 V for sweep. The device exhibited superior
memorization characteristics. The transition from
STP to LTP through continual stimulation could be
easily realized. STDP function of temporal synchro-
nization of pre- and post-snaptic spike mimicked
biological hebbian learning rules. A significant
synaptic weight change of about 75% is observed.
Devices also showed significant SRDP response when
subjected to change in time intervals between two
successive voltage pulses. The superior memristive
characteristic of PEDOT polymer can potentially be
used to design complex neuromorphic systems.
Author contributions
AP prepared the PEDOT thin films. NS and AB did
measurements. NS did data analysis and writing
manuscript. AK did overall planning, editing, and
supervision of work.
Funding
N.S. would like to thank Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) grant under senior
research fellowship (SRF) for financial support. This
research was funded by CSIR-NPL research support.
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during the current
study are included in the manuscript or available
from the corresponding author.
Declarations
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the
corresponding author states that there is no conflict of
interest.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Supplementary Information: The online version
contains supplementary material available at http
s://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-022-09368-2.
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