In a double circulation, blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circuit.

Pulmonary circulation: Blood flows from the heart to the lungs, and then back to the heart.

Blood goes from the heart to lungs via the pulmonary artery.

Blood returns to the heart from the lungs via the pulmonary vein.

Systemic circulation: It is the circulation of blood around the body.

Oxygenated blood leaves the left side of the heart and is distributed by arteries to all parts of the body
(except the lungs).

Veins carry deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body to the right side of the heart.

Double Circulation – Advantages

 Blood entering the lungs is at a lower pressure compared to blood leaving the heart.
 Blood can flow more slowly through the lungs
 More time for blood to absorb oxygen before returning to the heart
 Heart can pump the blood at high pressure to the rest of the body.
 Distributes oxygenated blood to the body tissues more quickly
 Maintain high metabolic rate in mammals

The Heart – Structure

External structure:
 Surrounded by a pericardium, which is made up of two layers of membrane
 Inner membrane: in contact with the heart
 Between the two membranes: fluid to help reduce friction when the heart is beating
Internal structure:
 4 chambers:
 Upper chambers: atria (singular: atrium)
 Lower chambers: ventricles
 Divided down the middle into left and right halves by a muscular wall called the median septum
 Prevents the mixing of deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood
 Route of the Blood in the Heart
1. Return of deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body to the heart
 Blood from the head, neck and arms enter via the superior vena cava
 Blood from the other parts of the body (except lungs) enter via the inferior vena cava
 Enters the right atrium
2. Right atrium contracts: blood goes into the right ventricle
 Tricuspid valve opens (consists of 3 flaps, attached to the walls by chordae tendinae)
 Pressure in the right atrium is higher than the pressure in the right ventricle.
3. Right ventricle contracts:
 Blood pressure in right ventricle causes the tricuspid valve to close, preventing backflow
of blood into the atrium.
 Chordae tendinae prevent valve flaps from reverting into the atrium.
 Blood leaves right ventricle via the pulmonary arch
 Pulmonary arch divides into two pulmonary arteries, one to each lung.
 Semi-lunar valves in pulmonary arch prevent backflow of blood into the right ventricle.
4. Blood enters the lungs:
 Blood is slowed down by the branching of the artery into a capillary network.
 Gaseous exchange occurs
5. Oxygenated blood from the lungs return to the heart:
 Blood enter via the pulmonary vein
 Blood enters the left atrium
6. Left atrium contracts, blood goes into the left ventricle:
 Bicuspid valve opens (consists of 2 flaps)
 Pressure in the left ventricle is lower than the pressure in the left atrium.
7. Left ventricle contracts:
 Bicuspid valve closes
 Blood leaves left ventricle via the aortic arch
 Semi-lunar valves in aortic arch prevent backflow of blood into the left ventricle.
8. Blood in aorta is distributed to the rest of the body (except lungs):
 Aortic arch have branches to direct the blood to specific areas of the body
 Blood entering the aorta is at a very high pressure
 Two small coronary arteries emerge from the aortic arch, to bring oxygen and nutrients
to the heart muscles
The Cardiac Cycle

Two keywords:

 Systole: contraction
 Diastole: relaxation
3 stages:
 Complete diastole (whole heart)
 Atrial systole
 Ventricular systole / Atrial diastole
 Ventricular diastole (back to complete diastole)
Complete diastole
 Both atria and ventricles are relaxed
 Right atrium receives blood from vena cavae
 Left atrium receives blood from pulmonary veins
 Some blood flows directly into the ventricles
Atrial systole
 Atria contract
 Blood is forced into the ventricles
Ventricular systole / Atrial diastole
 Ventricles contract – high pressure in ventricles
 Blood flows from left ventricle into the aortic arch, and from right ventricle into the pulmonary
arch
 Bicuspid and tricuspid valves close, producing a loud ‘LUB’ sound.
Ventricular diastole
 Ventricles relax
 Drop in blood pressure in ventricles causes semi-lunar valves in the arches to close
 Produce a soft ‘DUB’ sound.
 Whole heart is relaxed
 (complete diastole)
The Heart and Blood Pressure
Definition of blood pressure:
o the force that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels
o Measured using a sphygmomanometer
o Unit of measurement: mm of mercury
High blood pressure in arteries:
o Occurs during ventricular systole when blood is forced into arteries
Decrease in blood pressure:
o Occurs during ventricular diastole
Blood pressure varies in different parts of the body.
o Highest: near aortic arch
o Lowest: vena cava (almost 0 mm mercury)

Blood Pressure of a Person

Average blood pressure:
120 (systolic)
80 (diastolic)

High blood pressure: 140/90 or higher

Can occur temporarily after heavy exercise or when a person is angry
Can be persistent, which is unhealthy

Tissue Fluid
Description: colourless liquid
Location: between tissue cells
Function: carry substances in solution between tissue cells and blood capillaries
Formation:
Blood pressure at arterial end of capillaries is high
Blood plasma is forced through capillary walls as tissue fluid.
Other names: intercellular fluid, interstitial fluid

Exchange of Substances between Blood and Tissue

Wanted substances:
food substances and oxygen
originate from the arterioles
diffuse from the blood into the tissue fluid
Unwanted waste products:
hydrogencarbonate ions, urea, creatinine
diffuse from cells into tissue fluid, and then through capillary walls into the blood
plasma
Red Blood Cells in Capillaries
Lumen of the capillary is very narrow, thus red blood cells have to move through the
lumen in single file.
Red blood cells may become bell-shaped as they pass through narrow blood capillaries.
Advantages:
Reduce diameter of the cell so that it can pass through easily
Increase surface area to speed up transfer
Reduce rate of blood flow

Coronary Heart Disease

Cause: blockage or narrowing of coronary arteries
Arteries lie on the outside of the heart
Carry blood to the muscles in the walls of the heart
Muscle cells are kept alive by the fresh supply of oxygen from the arteries, keeping the
heart pumping

Result: heart attack

Blood flow to a particular part of the heart may be completely blocked
Heart does not receive sufficient oxygen and nutrients
Region of heart muscle dies
Blood is unable to pump blood to various parts of the body

Causes
Atherosclerosis
Fatty substances (e.g. cholesterol, polysaturated fats) deposited on the inner surface of
the coronary arteries.
Lumen of the artery is narrowed
Blood pressure increases
Artery develops rough inner surfaces
Increases the risk of forming a blood clot

Coronary thrombosis
Thrombosis: blood clot
Cuts off blood and oxygen supply to the heart muscles
Heart attack occurs
Reducing the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease
 Proper diet
 Replace animal saturated fats with polyunsaturated plant fats: may lower
cholesterol
 Rich in dietary fibres from green vegetables and fruits
 Proper stress management
 Avoid smoking
 Nicotine increases blood pressure and the risk of coronary thrombosis
 Carbon monoxide increases the risk of atherosclerosis
 Regular physical exercise