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 Fundamentals of
Structural Analysis
Fifth Edition

Kenneth M. Leet
Professor Emeritus, Northeastern University

Chia-Ming Uang
Professor, University of California, San Diego

Joel T. Lanning
Assistant Professor, California State University, Fullerton

Anne M. Gilbert, PE, SECB

Structural Engineer Consultant
FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, FIFTH EDITION

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Leet, Kenneth, author. | Uang, Chia-Ming, author. | Lanning, Joel

author. | Gilbert, Anne M., author.
Fundamentals of structural analysis / Kenneth M. Leet, Professor Emeritus,
Northeastern University, Chia-Ming Uang, Professor, University of California,
San Diego, Joel T. Lanning, Assistant Professor, California State University,
Fullerton, Anne M. Gilbert, Adjunct Assistant Professor, Yale University.
Fifth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018] |
Includes index.
LCCN 2016051733 | ISBN 9780073398006 (alk. paper)
LCSH: Structural analysis (Engineering)
LCC TA645 .L34 2018 | DDC 624.1/71—dc23 LC record available
at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016051733

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate
an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the
information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered
For Kenneth M. Leet
This page intentionally left blank
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Kenneth Leet is a late Professor of structural engineering at Northeastern

University. He received his Ph.D. in structural engineering from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. As a professor of civil engineering
at Northeastern University, he taught graduate and undergraduate courses
in reinforced concrete design, structural analysis, foundations, plates and
shells, and capstone courses on comprehensive engineering projects for
over 30 years. Professor Leet was given an Excellence in Teaching award at
Northeastern University in 1992. He was also a faculty member for ten years
at Drexel University in Philadelphia.
In addition to being the author of the first edition of this book on struc-
tural analysis, originally published by Macmillan in 1988, he is the author of
Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete, published by McGraw-Hill.

Chia-Ming Uang is a Professor of structural engineering at the University

of California, San Diego (UCSD). He received a B.S. degree in civil engi-
neering from National Taiwan University and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in civil
engineering from the University of California, Berkeley.
Uang also coauthores the text Ductile Design of Steel Structures for
McGraw-Hill. He received the UCSD Academic Senate Distinguished
Teaching Award in 2004. He is also the recipient of the ASCE Raymond C.
Reese Research Prize in 2001, the ASCE Moisseiff Award in 2004 and 2014,
the AISC Special Achievement Award in 2007, and the T.R. Higgins Lec-
tureship Award in 2015.

Joel T. Lanning is an Assistant Professor of structural engineering at

California State University, Fullerton and is a registered Civil Engineer in
California. He received a B.S. degree in civil engineering from the Ohio
State University and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in structural engineering from
the University of California, San Diego. Professor Lanning is also involved
with developing tools and content for McGraw-Hill SmartBook and Connect
online products.

Anne M. Gilbert, PE, SECB, is a senior structural engineer at Rivermoor

Engineering, LLC, Scituate, MA, and an architectural designer. She is a
registered Structural Engineer in CT, ME and MA, and received a B.A. in

v
vi  About the Authors

architecture at the University of North Carolina, a B.S.C.E. from Northeast-

ern University, and a M.S.C.E. from the University of Connecticut. Over
the past 30 years, Gilbert specialized in structural design of institutional,
commercial and residential buildings. Gilbert was an Assistant Professor
(Adjunct) at Yale University, School of Architecture, and for over eight years
taught structural engineering courses.
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Preface xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction 3
1.1 Overview of the Text 3
1.2 The Design Process: Relationship
of Analysis to Design 4
1.3 Strength and Serviceability 6
1.4 Historical Development
of Structural Systems 7
1.5 Basic Structural Elements 10
1.6 Assembling Basic Elements to Form
a Stable Structural System 19
1.7 Analyzing by Computer 22
1.8 Preparation of Computations 23
Summary 24

Chapter 2 Design Loads and Structural Framing 27

2.1 Building and Design Code 27
2.2 Loads 28
2.3 Dead Loads and Gravity Framing 29
2.4 Live Loads 36
2.5 Snow Loads 42
2.6 Lateral Load-Resisting Systems 43
2.7 Natural Hazards 45
2.8 Wind Loads 46
2.9 Earthquake Loads 59
2.10 Tsunami Loads 64
2.11 Other Loads 70
2.12 Load Combinations 71
Summary 72

Chapter 3 Statics of Structures—Reactions 81

3.1 Introduction 81
3.2 Forces 82
3.3 Supports 89
vii
viii  Table of Contents

3.4 Idealizing Structures 93

3.5 Free-Body Diagrams 94
3.6 Equations of Static Equilibrium 96
3.7 Equations of Condition 102
3.8 Influence of Reactions on Stability
and Determinacy of Structures 105
3.9 Classifying Structures 113
3.10 Comparison between Determinate
and Indeterminate Structures 116
Summary 119

Chapter 4 Trusses 131

4.1 Introduction 131
4.2 Types of Trusses 134
4.3 Analysis of Trusses 135
4.4 Method of Joints 136
4.5 Zero Bars 140
4.6 Method of Sections 142
4.7 Determinacy and Stability 150
4.8 Computer Analysis of Trusses 156
Summary 159

Chapter 5 Beams and Frames 175

5.1 Introduction 175
5.2 Scope of Chapter 180
5.3 Equations for Shear and Moment 181
5.4 Shear and Moment Curves 188
5.5 Principle of Superposition 206
5.6 Sketching the Deflected Shape
of a Beam or Frame 210
5.7 Degree of Indeterminacy 215
5.8 Approximate Indeterminate
Structural Analysis 218
Summary 219

Chapter 6 Cables and Arches 235

6.1 Cables 235
6.2 Characteristics of Cables 236
6.3 Variation of Cable Force 237
6.4 Analysis of a Cable Supporting
Concentrated Gravity Loads 238
6.5 General Cable Theorem 240
6.6 Arches 245
6.7 Types of Arches 245
6.8 Three-Hinged Arches 247
 Table of Contents  ix

6.9 Funicular Shape of an Arch 249

6.10 Funicular Shape for an Arch That
Supports a Uniformly Distributed Load 252
Summary 256

Chapter 7 Deflections of Beams and Frames 267

7.1 Introduction 267
7.2 Double Integration Method 268
7.3 Moment-Area Method 275
7.4 Elastic Load Method 293
7.5 Conjugate Beam Method 297
7.6 Design Aids for Beams 305
Summary 307

Chapter 8 Work-Energy Methods

for Computing Deflections 319
8.1 Introduction 319
8.2 Work 320
8.3 Strain Energy 322
8.4 Deflections by the Work-Energy
Method (Real Work) 325
8.5 Virtual Work: Trusses 326
8.6 Virtual Work: Beams and Frames 343
8.7 Finite Summation 355
8.8 Bernoulli’s Principle of Virtual
Displacements 357
8.9 Maxwell-Betti Law of Reciprocal
Deflections 360
Summary 364

Chapter 9 Analysis of Indeterminate

Structures by the Flexibility Method 377
9.1 Introduction 377
9.2 Concept of a Redundant 378
9.3 Fundamentals of the Flexibility
Method 379
9.4 Alternative View of the Flexibility
Method (Closing a Gap) 382
9.5 Analysis Using Internal Releases 392
9.6 Support Settlements, Temperature
Change, and Fabrication Errors 399
9.7 Analysis of Structures with Several
Degrees of Indeterminacy 404
9.8 Beam on Elastic Supports 411
Summary 414
x  Table of Contents

Chapter 10 Analysis of Indeterminate Beams

and Frames by the Slope-Deflection
Method 423
10.1 Introduction 423
10.2 Illustration of the Slope-Deflection Method 424
10.3 Derivation of the Slope-Deflection
Equation 425
10.4 Analysis of Structures by the
Slope-Deflection Method 431
10.5 Analysis of Structures That Are Free
to Sidesway 447
10.6 Kinematic Indeterminacy 457
Summary 458

Analysis of Indeterminate Beams

Chapter 11 
and Frames by the Moment Distribution 467
11.1 Introduction 467
11.2 Development of the Moment
Distribution Method 468
11.3 Summary of the Moment Distribution
Method with No Joint Translation 473
11.4 Analysis of Beams by Moment
Distribution 474
11.5 Modification of Member Stiffness 482
11.6 Analysis of Frames That Are Free
to Sidesway 497
11.7 Analysis of an Unbraced Frame for
General Loading 503
11.8 Analysis of Multistory Frames 508
11.9 Nonprismatic Members 509
Summary 520

Chapter 12 Influence Lines for Moving Loads 529

12.1 Introduction 529
12.2 Influence Lines 529
12.3 Construction of Influence Line for
Determinate Beams 530
12.4 Müller–Breslau Principle for
Determinate Beams 538
12.5 Use of Influence Lines 541
12.6 Influence Lines for Determinate
Girders Supporting Floor Systems 544
12.7 Influence Lines for Determinate Trusses 550
12.8 Live Loads for Highway and
Railroad Bridges 555
12.9 Increase–Decrease Method 558
12.10 Moment Envelope and Absolute
Maximum Live Load Moment 562
 Table of Contents  xi

12.11 Shear Envelope 567

12.12 Influence Lines for Indeterminate
Structures: Introduction 568
12.13 Construction of Influence Lines Using
Moment Distribution 569
12.14 Proof of Müller–Breslau Principle 573
12.15 Qualitative Influence Lines for
Indeterminate Beams and Frames 578
12.16 Live Load Patterns to Maximize Member
Forces in Multistory Buildings 584
12.17 Influence Lines for Indeterminate Trusses 588
Summary 591

Chapter 13 Approximate Analysis

of Indeterminate Structures 605
13.1 Introduction 605
13.2 Continuous Beams for Gravity Load 607
13.3 One-bay Rigid Frames for Vertical Load 613
13.4 Trusses with Single Diagonals 617
13.5 Estimating Deflections of Trusses 623
13.6 Trusses with Double Diagonals 625
13.7 Multistory Rigid Frames
for Gravity Load 628
13.8 Single-story Rigid Frames
for Lateral Load 637
13.9 Multistory Rigid Frames for Lateral Load:
Portal Method 640
13.10 Multistory Rigid Frames for Lateral Load:
Cantilever Method 648
Summary 653

Chapter 14 Introduction to the General

Stiffness Method 661
14.1 Introduction 661
14.2 Comparison between Flexibility
and Stiffness Methods 662
14.3 Analysis of an Indeterminate Structure
by the General Stiffness Method 666
Summary 679

Matrix Analysis of Trusses by

Chapter 15 
the Direct Stiffness Method 685
15.1 Introduction 685
15.2 Member and Structure Stiffness Matrices 690
15.3 Construction of a Member Stiffness
Matrix for an Individual Truss Bar 691
15.4 Assembly of the Structure Stiffness Matrix 692
xii  Table of Contents

15.5 Solution of the Direct Stiffness Method 695

15.6 Member Stiffness Matrix of an Inclined
Truss Bar 699
15.7 Coordinate Transformation of a Member
Stiffness Matrix 711
Summary 712

Matrix Analysis of Beams and Frames

Chapter 16 
by the Direct Stiffness Method 717
16.1 Introduction 717
16.2 Structure Stiffness Matrix 719
16.3 The 2 × 2 Rotational Stiffness Matrix
for a Flexural Member 720
16.4 The 4 × 4 Member Stiffness Matrix
in Local Coordinates 731
16.5 The 6 × 6 Member Stiffness Matrix
in Local Coordinates 741
16.6 The 6 × 6 Member Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates 750
16.7 Assembly of a Structure Stiffness
Matrix—Direct Stiffness Method 752
Summary 755

Appendix A 759
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 763
Index 769
P R E FAC E

This text introduces engineering and architectural students to the basic

techniques required for analyzing the majority of structures and the ele-
ments of which most structures are composed, including beams, frames,
trusses, arches, and cables. Although the authors assume that readers
have completed basic courses in statics and strength of materials, we
briefly review the basic techniques from these courses the first time we
mention them. To clarify the discussion, we use many carefully chosen
examples to illustrate the various analytic techniques introduced, and
whenever possible, we select examples confronting engineers in real-life
professional practice.

Features of This Text

1. Major reorganization. The number of chapters has been reduced
from 18 in the previous editions to 16 for a more concise presentation
of the materials. This is done by combining the cable and arch
chapters into one as well as presenting the influence lines for both
determinate and indeterminate structures in one chapter to avoid
repeating information.
2. Expanded treatment of design loads. Chapter 2 is devoted to a
discussion of loads based on the most recent ANSI/ASCE 7 Standard.
This includes dead and live loads, snow, earthquake, and wind loads,
and, new to this edition (and the ASCE Standard), tsunami loading.
Further, a discussion on natural hazards and the ASCE Standard’s
probabalistic approach to natural hazard design loads is added. The
presentation aims to provide students with a basic understanding of
how design loads are determined for practical design of multistory
buildings, bridges, and other structures.
3. New homework problems. A substantial number of the problems
are new or revised for this edition (in both metric and U.S. Cus-
tomary System units), and many are typical of analysis problems
encountered in practice. The many choices enable the instructor
to select problems suited for a particular class or for a particular
emphasis.
4. Computer problems and applications. Computer problems,
some new to this edition, provide readers with a deeper under-
standing of the structural behavior of trusses, frames, arches,

xiii
xiv  Preface

and other structural systems. These carefully tailored problems

illustrate significant aspects of structural behavior that, in the
past, experienced designers needed many years of practice to
understand and to analyze correctly. The computer problems are
identified with a computer screen icon and begin in Chapter 4 of
the text. The computer problems can be solved using the Educa-
tional Version of the commercial software RISA-2D that is avail-
able to users at the textbook website. However, any software that
produces shear, moment, and axial load diagrams, and deflected
shapes can be used to solve the problems. An overview on the use
of the RISA-2D software and an author-written tutorial are also
available at the textbook website.
5. Problem solutions have been carefully checked for accuracy. The
authors have carried out multiple checks on the problem solutions
but would appreciate hearing from users about any ambiguities or
errors. Corrections can be sent to Professor Chia-Ming Uang (cmu@
ucsd.edu).
6. Textbook web site. A text-specific website is available to users. The
site offers an array of tools, including lecture slides, an image bank
of the text’s art, helpful web links, and the RISA-2D educational
software.

Contents and Sequence of Chapters

We present the topics in this book in a carefully planned sequence to
facilitate the student’s study of analysis. In addition, we tailor the expla-
nations to the level of students at an early stage in their engineering
education. These explanations are based on the authors’ many years of
experience teaching analysis. In this edition, we have streamlined the
presentation by restructuring the book from 18 to 16 chapters while still
keeping all the important materials.
Chapter 1 provides a historical overview of structural engineering
(from earliest post and lintel structures to today’s high-rises and
cable-stayed bridges) and a brief explanation of the interrelation-
ship between analysis and design. We also describe the essential
characteristics of basic structures, detailing both their advantages
and their disadvantages.
Chapter 2 on loads is described above in Features of This Text.
Chapters 3, 4, and 5 cover the basic techniques required to determine
by statics bar forces in determinate trusses, and shear and moment
in determinate beams and frames. Methods to identify if the struc-
ture is determinate are also presented.
Chapter 6 interrelates the behavior of arches and cables, and covers
their special characteristics (of acting largely in direct stress and
using materials efficiently).
 Preface  xv

Chapters 7 and 8 provide methods used to compute the deflections of

structures. One direct application is to use it to analyze indeterminate
structures by the method of consistent deformations in Chapter 9.
Chapters 9, 10, and 11 introduce three classical methods for analyz-
ing indeterminate structures. The method of consistent deforma-
tions in Chapter 9 is classified as a flexibility method, while the
slope-deflection and moment distribution methods in the other two
chapters are classified as the stiffness method.
Chapter 12 introduces the concept of influence lines and covers
methods for positioning live load that can vary in space on deter-
minate and indeterminate structures to maximize the internal
force at a specific section of a beam, frame, or bars of a truss.
Engineers use this important concept to design bridges or other
structures subject to moving loads or to live loads whose position
on the structure can change.
Chapter 13 gives approximate methods of analysis, used to esti-
mate the value of forces at selected points in highly indeter-
minate structures. With approximate methods, designers can
perform preliminary member sizing, verify the accuracy of
computer studies analysis results, or check the results of more
traditional, lengthy hand analyses described in earlier chapters.
Chapters 14, 15, and 16 introduce matrix methods of analysis.
Chapter 14 extends the general direct stiffness method to a
variety of simple structures. The matrix formulation of the stiffness
method, which is the basis of modern structural analysis software,
is applied to the analysis of trusses (Chapter 15) and to the analysis
of beams and frames (Chapter 16).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This text was originally authored by Kenneth M. Leet and was published by
Macmillan in 1988. Dionisio P. Bernal at Northeastern University contrib-
uted Chapters 15 and 16. Anne Gilbert served as a coauthor in the third and
fourth editions.
For their assistance with the first McGraw-Hill edition, we thank Amy Hill,
Gloria Schiesl, Eric Munson, and Patti Scott of McGraw-Hill and Jeff Lachina
of Lachina Publishing Services.
For their assistance with the second and third editions, we thank Amanda
Green, Suzanne Jeans, Jane Mohr, and Gloria Schiesl of McGraw-Hill; Rose
Kernan of RPK Editorial Services Inc.; and Patti Scott, who edited the second
edition.
For their assistance with the fourth edition, we thank Debra Hash, Peter
Massar, Lorraine Buczek, Joyce Watters, and Robin Reed of McGraw-Hill, and
Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services Inc.
For their assistance with this fifth edition, we thank Thomas Scaife, Jolynn
Kilburg, Chelsea Haupt, and Jane Mohr of McGraw-Hill Education.
xvi  Preface

We also wish to thank Bruce R. Bates of RISA Technologies for provid-

ing an educational version of the RISA-2D computer program with its many
options for presenting results. Mr. Nathanael Rea assisted in preparing the
answers for the fifth edition.
We would like to thank the following reviewers for their much appreciated
comments and advice:
Robert Hamilton, Boise State University
Blair McDonald. Western Illinois University–Quad Cities
Azadeh Parvin, The University of Toledo
Christopher Pastore, Philadelphia University
Jose Pena, Perdue University Calumet
Jey Shen, Iowa State University
Michael Symans, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Steve Wojtkiewicz, Clarkson University

Kenneth M. Leet
Emeritus Professor
Northeastern University
Chia-Ming Uang
Professor
University of California,
San Diego
Joel T. Lanning
Assistant Professor,
California State University,
Fullerton
Anne M. Gilbert PE, SECB
Structural Engineer Consultant
This page intentionally left blank
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 Fundamentals of
Structural Analysis
© Noah Berger/Bloomberg via Getty Images

Skyway construction of the San

Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
Segmental bridge construction was used for the mile-long viaduct, or Skyway, of the new
San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge (see the book cover). The Skyway’s decks comprise
452 precast concrete segments, which were transported by barge to the site and were
lifted into place by winches. In balanced cantilever construction, as shown in this photo,
the superstructure is erected by cantilevering out from opposite sides of the pier to main-
tain a relatively balanced system. As such, controlling deflection during the construction
stage is very important for segmental bridge construction.
C H A P T E R

Introduction 1
1.1
Overview of the Text
As an engineer or architect involved with the design of buildings, bridges,
and other structures, you will be required to make many technical decisions
about structural systems. These decisions include (1) selecting an effi­cient,
economical, and attractive structural form; (2) evaluating its safety, that is,
its strength and stiffness; and (3) planning its erection under temporary con-
struction loads.
To design a structure, you will learn to carry out a structural analysis
that establishes the internal forces and deflections at all points produced by
the design loads. Designers determine the internal forces in key members in
order to size both members and the connections between members. And de-
signers evaluate deflections to ensure a serviceable structure—one that does
not deflect or vibrate excessively under load so that its function is impaired.

Analyzing Basic Structural Elements

During previous courses in statics and strength of materials, you developed
some background in structural analysis when you computed the bar forces in
trusses and constructed shear and moment curves for beams. You will now
broaden your background in structural analysis by applying, in a s­ ystematic
way, a variety of techniques for determining the forces in and the deflections
of a number of basic structural elements: beams, trusses, frames, arches, and
cables. These elements represent the basic components used to form more
complex structural systems.
Moreover, as you work analysis problems and examine the distribution
of forces in various types of structures, you will understand more about how
structures are stressed and deformed by load. And you will gradually develop
a clear sense of which structural configuration is optimal for a particular de-
sign situation.
Further, as you develop an almost intuitive sense of how a structure be-
haves, you will learn to estimate with a few simple computations the approxi-
mate values of forces at the most critical sections of the structure. This ability
3
4  Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

will serve you well, enabling you (1) to verify the accuracy of the results of
a computer analysis of large, complex structures and (2) to estimate the pre-
liminary design forces needed to size individual components of multimember
structures during the early design phase when the tentative configuration and
proportions of the structure are being established.

Analyzing Two-Dimensional Structures

As you may have observed while watching the erection of a multistory
building frame, when the structure is fully exposed to view, its structure is
a complex three-dimensional system composed of beams, columns, slabs,
walls, and diagonal bracing. Although load applied at a particular point in
a three-dimensional structure will stress all adjacent members, most of the
load is typically transmitted through certain key members directly to other
supporting members or into the foundation.
Once the behavior and function of the various components of most three-
dimensional structures are understood, the designer can typically simplify the
analysis of the actual structure by subdividing it into smaller two-dimensional
subsystems that act as beams, trusses, or frames. This pro­­­­­cedure also significantly
reduces the complexity of the analysis be­cause two-dimensional structures are
much easier and faster to analyze than three-dimensional structures. Since with
few exceptions (e.g., g­ eodesic domes constructed of light tubular bars) design-
ers typically analyze a series of simple two-dimensional structures—even when
they are design­ing the most complex three-dimensional structures—we will de-
vote a large portion of this book to the analysis of two-dimensional or planar
structures, those that carry forces lying in the plane of the structure.
Once you clearly understand the basic topics covered in this text, you will
have acquired the fundamental techniques required to analyze most buildings,
bridges, and structural systems typically encountered in professional practice.
Of course, before you can design and analyze with confidence, you will require
some months of actual design experience in an engineering office to gain fur-
ther understanding of the total design process from a practitioner’s perspective.
For those of you who plan to specialize in structures, mastery of the top-
ics in this book will provide you with the basic structural principles required
in more advanced analysis courses—those covering, for example, matrix
methods or plates and shells. Further, because design and anal­ysis are closely
interrelated, you will use again many of the analy­tical procedures in this text
for more specialized courses in steel, reinforced concrete, and bridge design.

1.2
The Design Process: Relationship
of Analysis to Design
The design of any structure—whether it is the framework for a space vehicle,
a high-rise building, a suspension bridge, an offshore oil drilling platform,
a tunnel, or whatever—is typically carried out in alternating steps of design
 1.2 ■ The Design Process: Relationship of Analysis to Design  5

and analysis. Each step supplies new information that permits the designer to
proceed to the next phase. The process continues until the analysis indicates
that no changes in member sizes are required. The specific steps of the proce-
dure are described below.

Conceptual Design
A project begins with a specific need of a client. For example, a developer
may authorize an engineering or architectural firm to prepare plans for a
sports complex to house a regulation football field, as well as seating 60,000
people, parking for 4000 cars, and space for essential facilities. In another
case, a city may retain an engineer to design a bridge to span a 2000-ft-wide
river and to carry a certain hourly volume of traffic.
The designer begins by considering all possible layouts and struc-
tural systems that might satisfy the requirements of the project. Often, archi-
tects and engineers consult as a team at this stage to establish layouts that lend
themselves to efficient structural systems in addition to meeting the archi-
tectural (functional and aesthetic) requirements of the project. The designer
next prepares sketches of an architectural nature showing the main structural
elements of each design, although details of the structural system at this point
are often sketchy.

Preliminary Design
In the preliminary design phase, the engineer selects from the conceptual
design several of the structural systems that appear most promising, and sizes
their main components. This preliminary proportioning of structural mem-
bers requires an understanding of structural behavior and a knowledge of
the loading conditions (dead, live, wind, and so forth) that will most likely
affect the design. At this point, the experienced designer may make a few
rough computations to estimate the proportions of each structure at its criti-
cal sections.

Analysis of Preliminary Designs

At this next stage, the precise loads the structure will carry are not known
because the exact size of members and the architectural details of the design
are not finalized. Using estimated values of load, the engineer carries out an
analysis of the several structural systems under consideration to determine
the forces at critical sections and the deflections at any point that influence
the serviceability of the structure.
The true weight of the members cannot be calculated until the structure
is sized exactly, and certain architectural details will be influenced, in turn,
by the structure. For example, the size and weight of mechanical equipment
cannot be determined until the volume of the building is es­tablished, which
in turn depends on the structural system. The designer, however, knows from
past experience with similar structures how to estimate values for load that
are fairly close approximations of final values.
6  Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

Redesign of the Structures

Using the results of the analysis of preliminary designs, the designer recom-
putes the proportions of the main elements of all structures. Al­though each
analysis is based on estimated values of load, the forces established at this
stage are probably indicative of what a particular structure must carry, so that
proportions are unlikely to change significantly even after the details of the
final design are established.

Evaluation of Preliminary Designs

The various preliminary designs are next compared with regard to cost, avail-
ability of materials, appearance, maintenance, time for construction, and
other pertinent considerations. The structure best satisfying the client’s es-
tablished criteria is selected for further refinement in the final design phase.

Final Design and Analysis Phases

In the final phase, the engineer makes any minor adjustments to the selected
structure that will improve its economy or appearance. Now the designer
carefully estimates dead loads and considers specific positions of the live load
that will maximize stresses at specific sections. As part of the final analysis,
the strength and stiffness of the structure are evaluated for all significant loads
and combinations of load, dead and live, including wind, snow, earthquake,
temperature change, and settlements. If the results of the final design confirm
that the proportions of the structure are adequate to carry the design forces,
the design is complete. On the other hand, if the final design reveals certain
deficiencies (e.g., certain members are overstressed, the structure is unable to
resist lateral wind loads efficiently, members are excessively flexible, or costs
are over budget), the designer will either have to modify the configuration of
the structure or consider an alternate structural system.
Steel, reinforced concrete, wood, and metals, such as aluminum, are all
analyzed in the same manner. The different properties of materials are taken
into account during the design process. When members are sized, designers re-
fer to design codes, which take into account each material’s special properties.
This text is concerned primarily with the analysis of structures as detailed
above. Design is covered in separate courses in most engineering programs;
however, since the two topics are so closely interrelated, we will necessarily
touch upon some design issues.

1.3
Strength and Serviceability
The designer must proportion structures so that they will neither fail nor
deform excessively under any possible loading conditions. Members are al-
ways designed with a capacity for load significantly greater than that required
to support anticipated service loads (the real loads or the loads specified
 1.4 ■ Historical Development of Structural Systems  7

by design code). This additional capacity also provides a factor of safety

against accidental overload.
Although structures must be designed with an adequate factor of safety to
reduce the probability of failure to an acceptable level, the engineer must also
ensure that the structure has sufficient stiffness to function usefully under all
loading conditions. For example, floor beams under service loads must not sag
excessively or vibrate under live load. Excessively large deflections of beams
may produce cracking of masonry walls and plaster ceilings, or may damage
equipment that becomes misaligned. High-rise buildings must not sway ex-
cessively under wind loads (or the building may cause motion sickness in the
inhabitants of upper floors). Excessive movements of a building not only are
disturbing to the occupants, who become concerned about the safety of the
structure, but also may lead to cracking of exterior curtain walls and windows.
Photo 1.1 shows an office building whose facade was constructed of large floor-
to-ceiling glass panels. Shortly after the high-rise building was completed,
larger than anticipated wind loads caused many glass panels to crack and fall Photo 1.1: Wind damage. Shortly after
out. The falling glass constituted an obvious danger to pedestrians in the street thermopane windows were installed in this
below. After a thorough investigation and further testing, all the original glass high-rise office building, they began failing
and falling out, scattering broken glass on
panels were removed. To correct the design deficiencies, the structure of the passers-by beneath.
building was stiffened, and the facade was reconstructed with thicker, tempered Before the building could be occupied, the
glass panels. The dark areas in Photo 1.1 show the temporary plywood panels structural frame had to be stiffened and all
used to enclose the building during the period in which the original glass pan- the original glass panels had to be replaced
els were removed and replaced by the more durable, tempered glass. Similarly, by thicker, tempered glass—costly proce-
dures that delayed the opening of the building
for seismic design of multistory buildings the designer also needs to ensure for several years.
that the relative lateral deflection between two adjacent floors is not excessive. © Kenneth Leet

1.4
Historical Development
of Structural Systems
To give you some historical perspective on structural engineering, we will
briefly trace the evolution of structural systems from those trial-and-error
designs used by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks to the highly sophis­ticated
configurations used today. The evolution of structural forms is closely related
to the materials available, the state of construction technology, the designer’s
knowledge of structural behavior (and much later, analysis), and the skill of
the construction worker.
For their great engineering feats, the early Egyptian builders used stone
quarried from sites along the Nile to construct temples and pyramids. Since
the tensile strength of stone, a brittle material, is low and highly variable (be-
cause of a multitude of internal cracks and voids), beam spans in temples had
to be short (Figure 1.1) to prevent bending failures. Since this post-and-lintel
system—massive stone beams balanced on relatively thick stone columns—
has only a limited capacity for horizontal or eccentric vertical loads, build-
ings had to be relatively low. For stability, columns had to be thick—a slender Figure 1.1: Early post-and-lintel construction
column will topple more easily than a stocky column. as seen in an Egyptian temple.
8  Chapter 1 ■ Introduction
Figure 1.2: Front of Parthenon, where col-
umns were tapered and fluted for decoration.
The Greeks, greatly interested in refining the aesthetic appearance of
the stone column, used the same type of post-and-lintel construction in the
Parthenon (about 400 b.c.), a temple considered one of the most elegant exam-
ples of stone construction of all time (Figure 1.2). Even up to the early twentieth
century, long after post-and-lintel construction was superseded by steel and re-
inforced concrete frames, architects continued to impose the facade of the clas-
sic Greek temple on the entrance of public buildings. The classic tradition of
the ancient Greeks was influential for centuries after their civilization declined.
Gifted as builders, Roman engineers made extensive use of the arch,
often employing it in multiple tiers in coliseums, aqueducts, and bridges
(Photo 1.2). The curved shape of the arch allows a departure from rectangu-
lar lines and permits much longer clear spans than are possible with masonry
post-and-lintel construction. The stability of the masonry arch requires that
(1) its entire cross section be stressed in compression under all loading con-
ditions, and (2) abutments or end walls have suf­ficient strength to resist the
large diagonal thrust at the base of the arch. The Romans, largely by trial and
error, also developed a method of enclosing an interior space by a masonry
dome, as seen in the Pantheon still standing in Rome.
During the Gothic period of great cathedral buildings (Chartres and
Notre Dame in France, for example), the arch was refined by trimming away
excess material, and its shape became far more elongated. The vaulted roof,
a three-dimensional form of the arch, also appeared in the construction of
cathedral roofs. Arch-like masonry elements, termed flying buttresses, were
used together with piers (thick masonry columns) or walls to carry the thrust
of vaulted roofs to the ground (Figure 1.3). Engineering in this period was
Photo 1.2: Romans pioneered in the use of arches for bridges, buildings, and aqueducts.
Pont-du-Gard. Roman aqueduct built in 19 b.c. to carry water across the Gardon Valley to
Nimes. Spans of the first- and second-level arches are 53 to 80 ft. (Near Remoulins, France.)
© Apply Pictures/Alamy
Another random document with
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them from my observer, who was an old hand at the game. I
confess to a feeling of relief when I reached the point where
our bombs were to be thrown over. Having discharged this
duty I was glad to return to my starting-point with the motor
running at slow speed, and knowing that I was soon to be out
of range of the enemy’s deadly fire.
“In this bombardment my machine was made almost
entirely of steel tubing with a 140-horse-power engine,
capable of carrying a load of bombs weighing from four to
seven hundred pounds. As an arm of defense it carried a
machine gun. This is the type of machine that has made most
of the long raids on the enemy. I soon became accustomed to
the duty I had to perform and to flying with the spectacle of
shells bursting all around me, at the same time keeping on
the lookout for the ’planes of the enemy. We made seventeen
bombardments during the ensuing month of June and we got
to be old hands at this kind of warfare. It is never quite
agreeable to be shelled up in the air or elsewhere, and those
who make the boast of liking it do not tell the exact truth.
“To illustrate how well the French military aviation service is
organized and supplied with machines, let me tell you of my
experience at the front in Lorraine, where one day I had the
misfortune to break one of the wings of my machine. Instead
of stopping to have it repaired, all I had to do was to turn it
into a supply station near by where it was at once dismantled
and sent to the rear. I was then promptly supplied with a new
machine. A change of aeroplanes by an aviator in action in
France is like a cavalryman changing his horse. If there is
anything the matter with the animal, even if it is only a corn, a
new one is at once forthcoming. There is no suggestion of
parsimony or niggardliness in giving out the supplies
necessary for efficient fighting.
“On another occasion, when we were making a raid on the
railway station at Douai, which was about twenty-five
kilometres within the enemy’s lines, we started with a
squadron of some twenty machines. There happened to be
that day a great many German machines out. Somehow or
other they knew we were coming. We had four or five brisk
engagements with them. Our planes had only machine guns
with which to defend themselves, while the Germans used
regular fighting machines. This aerial engagement resulted in
four of our machines coming back riddled with bullets, my
lieutenant being hit in the leg.
“I was fortunate enough that day to escape the range of the
German flying machines by going farther north and passing
through the clouds, though I was shelled from a long distance
all the way. I succeeded in dropping my bombs on a railroad
station, one of which I saw explode in a bunch of freight cars
in the railroad yard. As I was returning within our lines the
Englishmen, by mistake, opened a brisk fire on me which
necessitated my going up into the clouds again. I proceeded
due west until I ran out of gasoline and I then descended in
the dark near the headquarters of the English. It was my good
fortune to land safely and on my arrival at my post I was
brought before the English commander, who asked me to tell
my story. Mine being one of the four machines out of twenty
that had reached Douai in the raid, I was awarded a citation
and given the right to wear a War Cross—my first decoration.
“My squadron spent a month in the east and during this
time I went farther into the enemy’s territory than I had been
before. I think the longest distance was when we made the
raid on two localities over one hundred kilometres within the
enemy’s lines in Bocherie, as we called it. During this month
General Joffre came to review our four squadrons of
bombarding machines. With him came the President of
France and the King of the Belgians. These distinguished
visitors witnessed the departure of a squadron of some ninety
of our machines on a bombarding raid loaded with bombs and
flying four abreast. They were highly complimentary in their
salutations to us Americans.
“During this month in Lorraine I experienced the hardest
knock I had received up to that time. One day six German
machines, fully equipped, bombarded Nancy and our aviation
field. To retaliate, my squadron was sent out to bombard their
field on the same afternoon. We started with thirty machines
to a designated rendezvous and fifty minutes later, after
getting grouped, we proceeded to our ultimate destination. I
had a very fast machine, and reached the German flying field
without being hit. When about to let go my bombs and while
my observer was aiming at the hangars of the Germans my
machine was attacked by them—one on the left and two on
the right. I shouted to my observer to drop his bombs, which
he did, and we immediately straightened out for home. While I
was on the bank the Germans opened fire on me with their
machine guns which were even more perilous than their
shells. My motor stopped a few moments afterwards. It had
given out and to make matters worse a fourth German
machine came directly at us in front. My observer, who was
an excellent shot, let go at him with the result that when last
seen this German aeroplane was about four hundred feet
below and quite beyond control. The other Germans behind
kept bothering us. If they had possessed ordinary courage,
they might have got us. Flying without any motive power
compelled me to stand my machine on end to keep ahead of
them. As we were nearing the French lines these Germans
left us, but immediately batteries from another direction
opened fire on us. As I was barely moving I made an
excellent target. One shell burst near enough to put shrapnel
in my machine. It is marvelous how hard we can be hit by
shrapnel and have no vital part of our equipment injured. I
knew I was now over the French lines, which I must have
crossed at a height of about four hundred metres. I finally
landed in a field covered with white crosses marking the
graves of the French and German soldiers who had fallen the
previous September at this point. This was the battle the
Kaiser himself came to witness, expecting to spend that night
in Nancy.
“Thousands fell that day, but the Kaiser did not make his
triumphal entry. Looking back on this latter experience of mine
I think myself most fortunate in having been able to return to
the French lines without a scratch. I got home safely because
the German aviators lacked either courage or skill or both.
They had me with my engine dead, four against one, and
twenty kilometres within their lines.”
 Portrait as exhibited at Allied Fairs

Alluding to the occasion of the telling of this story, William Roscoe

Thayer, who presided at the dinner, said when the tidings of
Norman’s death came from France: “I shall never forget that
Christmas night at the Tavern Club when Norman sat next to me and
told me many details of his service and then arose and gave that
wonderfully simple, impressive story. To have had such a service
and to die fighting for the cause which means the defense of
civilization—what nobler career could he have had? I can think of no
one who more thoroughly enjoyed the life of continuous peril which
he led. The honors which it brought him showed that France
recognized as heroism that which he took as a matter of course.”
 III
LETTERS

The following letters of Norman Prince, although chiefly of an

intimate and personal character, are here published as a part of the
record of his experiences in the service of France and as further
testimony to his tenderly affectionate nature and his constant
thoughtfulness and solicitude for those he left at home.
 With his Superior Officer Lieutenant de Laage de Mœux

Havre, Jan. le 29, 1915.

Dear Mamma,—I have just put foot ashore in France after a
disagreeable crossing, 2nd class. Here in Havre there are
troops and troops always passing. French troops, chiefly of
the reserve; thousands of English troops in khaki, Belgian
troops without uniform. They all say, not at all in a boastful
way, that they will be back home again by the end of the year.
Will they?
Dear Mamma, I hope you are well and that papa has not
taken too much at heart my leaving home at this time. I
believe I can find a place to do some efficient and useful work
for the cause to which I am so deeply devoted. My love to you
all. I shall write often.
Affectionately your son,
Norman.

Esc N. 124, Secteur 24, May 15, 1915.

Dear Governor,—Arrived en escadrille par la voie des airs
to replace a disabled pilot until the Escadrille Américaine is
formed.
I saw the battle lines and heard for the first time the never-
ending boom of guns. This is war in dead earnest and right at
hand. Will write more fully later.
Affectionately,
Norman.

V. B. 108-B. 103, May 20, 1915.

Dear Freddy,—Arrived here at the Front last Tuesday
piloting two Voisins appareils de bombardement. On the way
we bombarded observation balloons, railway centers,
poudrières, aviation camps and other locations of Boche
activity—but not towns or cities or other localities where the
lives of helpless women and children might be endangered.
We are in the section where all the French advances have
lately been made. The vertical guns of the Boches are
particularly annoying to us. They have got two out of six of the
pilots of our Escadrille since our arrival. One got down within
our own lines; the other fell within the lines of the Boches—
whether he was killed or not we do not know.
(Eight miles from the German trenches.)
Been here a week and have become quite accustomed to
being shot at. We go out every day and the salutations we get
from the Boches are rapid and continuous when we are over
their lines. The Boches here have more vertical guns to aim at
us—more to the mile of front than anywhere else. There are
hundreds of French aeroplanes grouped here because it is in
the twenty miles north of Arras and south of the English
where all the recent French advances have taken place.
Attacks and counter attacks by day and night, and the bang of
artillery in the near distance never ceases. We often go out at
the same time as the infantry attack behind the artillery fire,
the artillery of both sides banging away at the trenches,
batteries and at us,—the avions in the air. It is a wonderful
spectacle and something frightful as well—until we get used
to it!
N. P.

Paris, September 6, 1915.

My dear Grandmamma,—I am in Paris on a few days’ leave
and just had luncheon with a friend who is leaving to-night for
Rome and I have asked him to mail this letter to you on his
arrival.
 For the last four months I have been at the front—two
months in the North near Arras during the attacks of May and
June. After that we were stationed for a month near Nancy in
the East. Now we have returned to the north again where
there is increasing activity. I am happy and in the best of
health. I sleep under canvas on a stretcher bed and eat in the
shed of an old farm house near by. I have nothing to complain
of. I like it. There are ten American pilots with us in the French
service and twelve others in training with their number
constantly increasing. Some day soon we will all be united in
one escadrille—an Escadrille Américaine—that is my fondest
ambition. I am devoting all my spare energies to organizing it
and all the American pilots here are giving me every
encouragement and assistance in the work of preliminary
organization. As I have had so much to do in originating and
pushing the plan along, perhaps I shall be second in
command.
I would enjoy tremendously a letter. My address now is
Sergeant-Pilote Prince
Escadrille d’Avions Canon
3me Groupe de Bombardement
Secteur Postal 102.
I hope you are in Rome, not in Treviso, which must be dans
la Zone des Armées.
Your affectionate grandson,
Norman.
 Application to ride a Breguet de Chasse

Cⁱᵉ Gˡᵉ Transatlantique, À bord, January 4, 1916.

 My dear Mamma,—Just a line before the pilot leaves us to
tell you that Freddy and I appreciate your sorrow in having
your two boys go to the war. However, the greater the sorrow,
the greater the joy will be when they return!
Nothing was forgotten. Freddy and I have the same
stateroom and I shall immediately start to make him fit. I tell
him that in order to join the Flying Corps, one cannot weigh
more than 75 kilos.
Your most affectionate son,
Norman.

G. D. E. Div. Nieuport Secteur 92A, February 19, 1916.

Dear Governor,—Enclosed is a letter from Freddy. Notice
that he says the discipline at Pau is very strict.
I am a schoolboy again. I am training to fly the very fastest
appareil de chasse—quite a different instrument from the
avion canon which weighs three times more than these small
chasing appareils.
I am busy pushing matters, in regard to the formation of the
Escadrille Américaine. There is a possibility that St.-Saveur,
now a captain in the aviation, may command us. Although but
a short time on the front he has done finely as a pilot. We are
all disponible to go to the front and are only waiting for a
captain, the personnel—(chauffeurs, secretary, cook, etc.) our
avions and the motor cars. Orders for our formation will be
issued, I hope, next week. The weather has been very rainy
and windy here for a week, which is to be expected, during
the month of February. We are losing no time, however.
Those Lewis guns, if there is any way of getting hold of a
dozen, would be much appreciated by us here. The more you
can get for us the better, but I realize that it may be
impossible even for you to get hold of any.
How are the horses? Don’t overdo the schooling!
I hope you and Mamma are enjoying Aiken. The main thing
is to care for your health.
With love to Mamma, who, I trust, is not too anxious about
Freddy and me.
Your affectionate son,
Norman.

Esc. N. 124. Secteur 24, June 26, 1916.

Dear Mamma,—Oliver Wolcott, who has been cantoned
near by with the American Ambulance, is going home to serve
with the militia and is to take this letter with him.
No news of Freddy this past week. The training is so
thorough at these aviation schools that he risks but little while
there. Probably he won’t get to the front for another month.
Poor Victor Chapman! He had been missing for a week and
we knew there was only a very remote chance that he was a
prisoner. He was of tremendous assistance to me in getting
together the Escadrille. His heart was in it to make ours as
good as any on the front. Victor was as brave as a lion and
sometimes he was almost too courageous,—attacking
German machines whenever and wherever he saw them,
regardless of the chances against him. I have written to Mr.
Chapman—a rather difficult letter to write to a heart-broken
father. Victor was killed while attacking an aeroplane that was
coming against Lufberry and me. Another unaccounted for
German came up and brought Victor down while he was
endeavoring to protect us. A glorious death—face à l’ennemi
and for a great cause and to save a friend!
 Your affectionate son,
Norman.

Escadrille N. 124, Secteur 24, June 29, 1916.

Dear Mamma,—Enclosed is a photograph of Victor
Chapman and myself, taken two days before his death. It is a
print of what is probably the last photograph taken of him. I
have sent one to Mr. Chapman.
We are too busy and short of pilots at our Escadrille to think
of taking a permission at present. Tout va bien. Bonnes
nouvelles de Freddy.
Your affectionate son,
Norman.

July 2, 1916.
Dear Mamma,—A few lines to tell you that tout va bien.
This letter will be taken over and mailed in New York by an
American Ambulance driver who dined with us last night.
To-day I am de garde all the morning—that is to say, from
dawn to noon. I must be by my avion ready to start as soon
as any Boches are signaled. None have been so far this
morning—worse luck!
Your affectionate son,
Norman.
Esc. 124, Secteur 24.
 Esc. N. 124, Secteur 24, July 6, 1916.
Dear Governor,—Enclosed is a letter which speaks of
Freddy. The Escadrille is running well. St.-Saveur lunched at
our popole last week and wished to be remembered to you
and Mamma; de R⸺, who was on our team at Bagatille,
was here for lunch to-day with R⸺; both wish to be
remembered; de P⸺ came last week looking very fit and
will write to you shortly.
The aviaphone for my helmet arrived in good shape and I
have lent it to my captain, as I am riding at present a single-
seated aeroplane.
Your affectionate son,
Norman.
 Memorandum of the bringing-down of his first German machine

Deauville, Sept. 2, 1916.

Dear Mamma,—I am down here with friends, passing part
of my permission. It is very pleasant and refreshing, the
change. One soon gets enough of Paris in summer and in
wartime. Here no one pays the slightest attention to the war.
There are few militaires—mostly civiles from Paris and their
amies. Good bathing,—golf in the afternoon—many good-
lookers, making the plage rather good fun.
Freddy is nearly through at Pau. He is now at the acrobacy
school learning to do stunts in the air. It is a part of the
training of a chasse pilot. I gave him some pointers before he
left and told him to do the least possible with the old machines
which are quite out of date and clumsy.
Monday I return to Paris and Tuesday back to the Front, my
eight days permission expiring on that day.
I was fortunate enough to run across a German the other
day who didn’t see me approaching. If you read the
communiqué aérien of the 23d or 24th you will find mention of
my Boche,—“un avion désemparé est tombé dans la forêt de
Spencourt.” Undoubtedly they will give me this time the
Médaille Militaire,—the chicest decoration in France. The
chief pleasure of having it will be the satisfaction of having
earned it many times and that my receiving it may please the
governor and you.
A bientôt, dear Mamma. Thanks for the socks and the
handkerchiefs.
Most affectionately,
Norman.

Escadrille Américaine, par Luxeuil-les-Bains,

Haute-Saône, September 24, 1916.
Dear little Mamma,—I am so afraid you will worry more
than ever when you hear of poor Kiffen Rockwell’s death. I
know how anxious you must be with the two of us over here.
Keep very busy, ride a lot, go out to dinners and get as many
other distractions as possible so that you will not have too
much time to think of us. As far as danger to us goes, we are
trying to take as few chances as possibly consistent with
playing the game.
Everybody tells me that Freddy is showing himself to be an
excellent pilot. Unfortunately he has not yet fully decided to
come with our Escadrille. He would prefer to go to another
which is commanded by St.-Saveur. I dare say he might be
happier if he did not come with us, but à point de vue of safety
it seems to me he would be better off with us. I could be a lot
of assistance to him, telling him all I have learned this spring
hunting Germans, and he would have an excellent mechanic
in Michel, who by the way, has been Rockwell’s mechanic
while waiting for Freddy’s arrival; and further, he could have
my machine to ride, which is the dernier cri in appareils de
chasse, with two machine guns. He would otherwise get one
as safe, but not so good for knocking down Boches. He would
have only one gun.
Did I write you that I had knocked down another Boche two
days before leaving the Verdun district? I enclose a clipping
giving the communiqué officiel, with mention also of my
Boche who fell at Dieppe.
Dear Mamma, I must stop writing now. We are going out to
try to avenge Rockwell. Don’t worry! I am doing my duty as
safely as I know how. With much love to you both,
Most affectionately,
Norman.

To his Mécanicien
Cher Michel,—En cas qu’un accident m’arrive—c’est à dire
que je suis tué, blessé ou que je reste chez les Boches—je
vous prie d’écrire quelques lignes à ces dames, les adresses
desquelles sont écrites sur les enveloppes (ci-incluses).
 Dis leur que je t’avais dis d’écrire préférant qu’elles sachent
ce qu’il m’est arrivé plutôt que de rester dans l’angoisse au
sujet de mon sort.
Signe ton nom en mettant que tu avais été mon mécanicien
dévoué depuis mon arrivée sur le front.
Mes effets, papiers, lettres, etc., le tout, il faut mettre de
suite dans mes valises et les remettre personnellement à mon
frère.
Ci-inclus deux chèques comme cadeau en récompense du
boullot que vous et André ont fait si soigneusement sur les
appareils de Bibi et qui m’ont permis à gagner la Médaille
Militaire.
Ces chèques sont payables, à ma mort ou dans le cas que
je reste chez les Boches, à défaut de ce que cela m’arrive—
(espérons-le) à la démobilisation de vous deux.
En cas qu’un de vous devient civil avant l’autre, celui
devenu civil prends son chèque et le présente à la Banque—
où il sera payé.
Bonne poignée de main!
Norman Prince.
Esc. N 124, par Luxeuil-les-Bains, le 6 Septembre, 1916.

From his Mécanicien

Secteur 16, le 25 Octobre, 1916.
Monsieur et Madame Prince:—
Excusez-moi si je suis un peu en retard pour vous donner
quelques détails sur le malheur qui nous frappe en la perte de
Monsieur Norman.
 Il m’avait laissé, juste huit jours avant sa chute fatale,
quelques enveloppes avec adresses écrites par sa main pour
que je vous écrive quelques mots ainsi qu’à quelques amis si
quelque chose lui arrivait. Je vous joins du reste la lettre qui
est un véritable souvenir.
Pauvre Monsieur Norman, les boches n’ont pas pu avoir
raison de lui et n’ont pas eu ce plaisir là.
Il a trouvé la mort après tant de combats affrontés, tant de
dangers, et il en est sorti avec les honneurs à son avantage.
Son dernier départ a été le 12 Octobre, avec son avion de
chasse Nieuport monté avec deux mitrailleuses et avec lequel
il avait abattu un boche le 10, deux jours avant: il est parti à 2
heures faire la protection d’un groupe d’avions de
bombardement très en avant dans les lignes ennemies. Il a
abattu un avion de chasse ennemi à 3 hrs. qui venait attaquer
le groupe et lui barrer la route. Comme toujours, faisant son
devoir avec conscience, il a attendu que tous les avions ont
repassé les lignes avant de rentrer lui-même et à la dernière
minute il pense à atterrir dans le champ d’aviation le plus près
vu que la nuit commençait à tomber.
Il était prêt à faire un atterrissage des plus normal, malgré
l’obscurité, quand le malheur a voulu qu’il touche un cable qui
était au bordure du champ, et dont il ne pouvait soupçonner la
présence et son avion est venu s’écraser sur le sol.
Il a été relevé et aussitôt transporté dans un Hôpital sans
une plainte et sans perdre un instant ses sens, causant avec
un de ses camarades d’escadrille.
Il avait deux jambes fracturées, la droite à la cuisse et la
gauche au-dessus la cheville. Il a été opéré aussitôt, non
sans recommander aux docteurs de bien s’assurer de ne pas
faire une jambe plus courte l’une que l’autre, car il faisait
beaucoup de sport.
On lui a arrangé ses deux jambes et tout était fini à minuit.