MAKALAH

MORPHOLOGY : The Study Of Words Structure

Disusun Oleh :
Lisa Fitriani (202223027)
Putri Mehran (202223037)
Natasya Quratul Ayuni (202223044)

Dosen Pembimbing : Dr. Nurlaila, S.Pd., M.Pd.

Mata Kuliah : Introduction to Linguistics

FAKULTAS TARBIYAH DAN ILMU KEGURUAN

JURUSAN TADRIS BAHASA INGGRIS
INSTITUT AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI LHOKSEUMAWE
2023/2024
 DAFTAR ISI

DAFTAR ISI ............................................................................................................ i

BAB I PENDAHULUAN ....................................................................................... 1

1.1 Latar Belakang.......................................................................................... 1

BAB II PEMBAHASAN ........................................................................................ 3

2.1 Definition Of Morphology ....................................................................... 3

2.2 Word and Grammar .................................................................................. 5

2.3 Morpheme, Morph and Allomorph, Kinds of Morpheme ........................ 7

2.4 Root, Stem and Base Word .................................................................... 12

BAB III PENUTUP............................................................................................... 16

3.1 Kesimpulan ............................................................................................. 16

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

i
 BAB I
PENDAHULUAN

1.1 Latar Belakang

A treatment of words and word structure must begin by acknowledging

that the definition of words is far from settled. Despite this lack of consensus,

there are points of broad agreement. Most contemporary accounts recognize

the usefulness of distinguishing three types of units, each corresponding to an

established sense of the notion "word." Phonological words or

WORDFORMS are simple sequences nemes of phonemes (or graphemes).

Grammatical words are phonological words with a morphosyntactic

interpretation. Lexical words or LEXEMES correspond to the units that

would be entered in a dictionary. Each of these units has a characteristic role

in the morphology of a language, and each determines a corresponding notion

of "word count." Yet the partial overlap between these notions also raises

escriptive and analytic issues that need to be clarified.

The treatment of words as the smallest meaningful units of language is

also implicit in procedures of phonemic analysis, which distinguish

allophones from phonemes in terms of whether a given phone distinguishes

the meaning of two words. The salience of words reinforces their role as the

primary exponent of form variation in a language. Words are the smallest

grammatical units that are demarcated with any consistency in the speech

stream. They are also the smallest units that can function as utterances in

isolation. Stages of first language acquisition are commonly defined in terms

of the number of words per utterance. Behavioral correlates of word

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frequency, measured both in terms of "types" and "tokens," have been

observed in psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic studies of language

processing. Synchronic, historical, and behavioral evidence also suggests that

words are not only organized into syntagmatic units but also into

paradigmatic collections. On the syntagmatic dimension, words are composed

of morphs and themselves form parts of larger syntactic constructions.

Orthogonal to these structures, inflected and derivational forms exhibit

organization into inflectional paradigms and larger morphological families.

Word structure is thus of central relevance to the "systematic study of

language" and language processing. To set the context for the experimental

and computational studies presented in subsequent sections, this chapter

outlines some of the linguistic issues that arise in describing words and their

structure.

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 BAB II
PEMBAHASAN

2.1 Definition Of Morphology

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with word structure.

Matthews (1991:3) states that, “Morphology, therefore, is the simply a term

for that branch of linguistics which is concerned with the ‘form of words’ in

different uses and contraction”. The object of morphology is term that has

correlation with formation of words. Word formation is creation of a new

word, sometimes it changes the word’s meaning and class. While, Lehmann

(1976) in Srijono (2001:49) stated that “Morphology is the study of

morphemes, their variation, and their combination in words”.

Derivational affixes are part of morphology lesson. In linguistics,

Derivational affix is the word-formation that creates the new meaning and

part speech by addition the affixes which noun is obtained from verb, adverb

is obtained from adjective, verb is obtained from adjective, and adjective is

obtained from noun. “If an affix changes the part of speech of the base, it is

derivational” (Bauer, 1988:12). There are three kinds of affixes. They are

prefix, infix, and suffix. A prefix is an affix attached before a root or stem or

base, like re-, un-, and in-. For example: re-make, un-kind, in-accurate, etc.

An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. A suffix is an affix attached

after a root (or stem or base) like –ly, -er, -ist, -s, -ing and -ed. For example:

kind-ly, wait-er, book-s, walk-ed, etc (Katamba, 1993:44). A dictionary is a

kind book that contained the complete vocabularies or words. It is arranged

based on alphabetical order. A dictionary is important for people, especially

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the students. Because you can look for the meaning of words that you want,

likes English to Indonesian. It explains the meaning of vocabularies or words.

It helps the people to know the new vocabularies or words and the meaning of

the vocabularies or words. In addition, it also clarifies about the purpose of

words, the manner saying the words and the example of manner using the

words to make a sentence.

A dictionary has some functions. First, it has the meaning based on the

benefit. Second, it determines the meaning and the usefulness of the word,

and the people pronounce it based on the phonetic transcription. Third, it

explains the word based on the meaning and the usage. The utility of the

dictionary usually helps the people to find the meaning of the word and the

manner using the word its. The dictionary can help us to find the words that

we want. We can control the spelling of the words and look for the standard

language, the synonym or antonym or acronym of the words.

Morphologists look at the pieces that make up words (how many pieces of

meaning are in the word sang?), what processes govern how words are made

(e.g., the Head Movement Constraint), and the relationship between

morphology and other aspects of grammar, like syntax and phonology.

Because morphology is such a broad field, it is (arguably) the most

contentious field. There is a general disagreement about what the field of

morphology is even concerned with. Once central topic of disagreement

concerns how much the fields of morphology and syntax are related.

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 Morphological theory is concerned with details and idiosyncracy. It is

fairly easy to create a theory that captures the general pattern, but it is much

more difficult to create a theory that captures all the data, including all the

exceptions to the pattern. Just taking English past tense as the canonical

example, we can generally say that English past tense is formed by suffixing -

ed to the end of the verb, e.g., walked. But there are number of exceptions in

English. The partially suppletive verbs, like teach ~ taught, bring~brought,

seek~sought, fight~fought, etc are one issue. In what way are the non-past

and past forms related to each other? Moreover, note that all of these verbs

have similar past tense forms, ending in –ought. Is there any sense that these

forms are a (synchronic) natural class?; And then what do we do with the

fully suppletive forms like go~went?; Do we say that there are two pieces of

meaning in went (go+past)?; Some morphologists say yes, and some say noe.

2.2 Word and Grammar

Morphemes can be either single words (free morphemes) or parts of words

(bound morphemes).

A free morpheme can stand alone as its own word, for example:

1. gentle

2. father

3. licence

4. picture

5. gem

A bound morpheme only occurs as part of a word

1. -s as in cat+s

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 2. -ed as in crumb+ed

3. un- as in un+happy

4. mis- as in mis-fortune

5. -er as in teach+er

Morphemes can also be divided into inflectional or derivational

morphemes.Inflectional morphemes change what a word does in terms of

grammar, but does not create a new word.For example, the word <skip> has

many forms: skip (base form), skipping (present progressive), skipped (past

tense).The inflectional morphemes -ing and -ed are added to the base word

skip, to indicate the tense of the word.If a word has an inflectional morpheme,

it is still the same word, with a few suffixes added. So if you looked up

<skip> in the dictionary, then only the base word <skip> would get its own

entry into the dictionary. Skipping and skipped are listed under skip, as they

are inflections of the base word. Skipping and skipped do not get their own

dictionary entry.

Another example is <run>: run (base form), running (present progressive),

ran (past tense). In this example the past tense marker changes the vowel of

the word: run (rhymes with fun), to ran (rhymes with can). However, the

inflectional morphemes -ing and past tense morpheme are added to the base

word <run>, and are listed in the same dictionary entry.

Derivational morphemes are different to inflectional morphemes, as they

do derive/create a new word, which gets its own entry in the dictionary.

Derivational morphemes help us to create new words out of base words.For

example, we can create new words from <act> by adding derivational

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prefixes (e.g. re- en-) and suffixes (e.g. -or).Thus out of <act> we can get

re+act = react en+act = enact act+or = actor.Whenever a derivational

morpheme is added, a new word (and dictionary entry) is derived/created.

Morphology is also used to gain a better grasp of the nature of linguistic

rules and the internal organization of natural language grammar. As a result,

we may learn more about the architecture of the human language faculty as

well as the nature of rule-governed innovation in the domain of language.

Morphology, as a subdiscipline of linguistics, attempts to provide sufficient

language description, build a suitable language typology, and contribute to

debates on grammar organization and mental representation of linguistic

competence.

It is an example of a word-formation template, the tripartite structure

serves to emphasize that morphology is not a module of grammar on the same

level as the phonological or syntactic modules, which are each concerned

with a single component of linguistic structure. Morphology is a type of word

grammar that is similar to sentence grammar in that it deals with the

interactions between three different types of information in a sentence. The

only difference between morphology and sentence grammar is that

morphology is concerned with the domain of linguistic entities, whereas

sentence grammar is concerned with the structure of sentences.

2.3 Morpheme, Morph and Allomorph, Kinds of Morpheme

a. Morpheme
Morphemes are the indivisible basic units of language, much like the

atoms which physicists once assumed were the indivisible units of matter.

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English speakers borrowed morpheme from French morphème, which was

itself created from the Greek root morphē, meaning "form." The French

borrowed -ème from their word phonème, which, like English phoneme,

means "the smallest unit of speech that can be used to make one word

different from another word." The French suffix and its English equivalent

-eme are used to create words that refer to distinctive units of language

structure. Words formed from -eme include lexeme ("a meaningful

linguistic unit that is an item in the vocabulary of a language"), grapheme

("a unit of a writing system"), and toneme ("a unit of intonation in a

language in which variations in tone distinguish meaning").

b. Morph and Allomorph

In linguistics, a morph is a word segment that represents one

morpheme (the smallest unit of language that has meaning) in sound or

writing. It's a written or pronounced portion of a word, such as an affix (a

prefix or suffix). For example, the word infamous is made up of three

morphs—in-, fam(e), -eous—each of which represents one morpheme.

The word has two affixes, both a prefix (in-) and a suffix (-eous) attached

to a root word.

Although a morpheme is an abstract unit of meaning, a morph is a

formal unit with a physical shape. A morpheme is the description of what

a morph is or does to a word. Author George David Morley explains: "For

example, the morpheme meaning 'negative forming' is evidenced in

adjectives by the morphs un as in unclear, in - inadequate, im - immoral, il

- illegal, ig - ignoble, ir - irregular, non - non-existent, dis - dishonest."

("Syntax in Functional Grammar: An Introduction to Lexicogrammar in

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Systemic Linguistics”). When something has multiple ways that a sound

can be created, these are its allomorphs.

Allomorphs are a variant of morphemes. An allomorph is a unit of

meaning that can change its sound and spelling but doesn't change its

meaning and function.

1. Past Tense Allomorph

In English, regular verbs use the past tense morpheme -ed; this

shows us that the verb happened in the past. The pronunciation of this

morpheme changes its sound according to the last consonant of the

verb but always keeps its past tense function. This is an example of an

allomorph.

2. Plural Allomorph

Typically we add 's' or 'es' to most nouns in English when we want

to create the plural form. The plural forms 's' or 'es' remain the same

and have the same function, but their sound changes depending on the

form of the noun. The plural morpheme has three allomorphs: [s], [z],

and [ɨz].When a noun ends in a voiceless consonant (i.e. ch, f, k, p, s,

sh, t, th), the plural allomorph is /s/.

c. Kinds of Morpheme
A morph that can stand alone as a word is called a free morph. For

example, the adjective big, the verb walk, and the noun home are free

morphs. Don't need to be attached to any other morphemes to get their

meaning. Most words are free morphemes, such as the above-mentioned

words house, book, bed, light, world, people, and so on.

Free morphemes fall into two categories:

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 1. Lexical morphemes

Lexical morphemes are words that give us the main meaning of a

sentence, text or conversation. These words can be nouns, adjectives

and verbs. Examples of lexical morphemes include:

* house

* book

* tree

* run

2. Functional morphemes

Functional (or grammatical) morphemes are mostly words that

have a functional purpose, such as linking or referencing lexical words.

Functional morphemes include prepositions, conjunctions, articles and

pronouns. Examples of functional morphemes include:

* and

* but

* when

* because

A morph that can't stand alone as a word is called a bound morph.

Bound morphemes, however, cannot stand alone. The most common

example of bound morphemes are suffixes, such as -ing, -est. the endings -

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er (as in bigger), -ed (as in walked), and -s (as in homes) are bound

morphs (or affixes).

Morphemes structure are made up of two separate classes.

a. Bases (or roots)

A morpheme's base is the main root that gives the word its meaning.

b. Affixes
On the other hand, an affix is a morpheme that can add changes or

modifies the meaning of the base.

Morpheme Affixes:

1. Affixes are bound morphemes that occur before or after a base

word. They are made up of suffixes and prefixes.

2. Suffixes are attached to the end of the base or root word. Some of

the most common suffixes include -er, -or, -ly, -ism, and -less.

3. Prefixes come before the base word. Typical prefixes include ante-,

pre-, un-, and dis-.

4. Derivational affixes are used to change the meaning of a word by

building on its base. For instance, by adding the prefix 'un-' to the

word 'kind', we got a new word with a whole new meaning. In fact,

'unkind' has the exact opposite meaning of 'kind'.Another example

is adding the suffix '-or' to the word 'act' to create 'actor'. The word

'act' is a verb, whereas 'actor' is a noun.

5. Inflectional affixes only modify the meaning of words instead of

changing them. This means they modify the words by making them

plural, comparative or superlative, or by changing the verb tense.

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2.4 Root, Stem and Base Word
a. Definition and Type of Root

According to Hu Zhuanglin, “A root is the base form of a word that

cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. It is that part of

the word that remains when all the affixes are removed”.Wen Xu also

believes that “A root is the irreducible core of a word, with absolutely

nothing else attached to it. It is the part that must always be present,

possibly with some modifications”. From these two definitions, three

points should be noted as follows:

First, a root is the unanalyzable and unchangeable part of a word

conveying the main lexical meaning of the word, which defies further

analysis, otherwise, its original identity will be lost or changed, for

example, “desk” couldn’t be divided into “de-” and “-sk” since there is no

relationship between these two parts and the whole word. Second, a root is

the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed and the affixes

include both inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.

About inflectional affixes, they are mainly the grammatical markers

and there are eight types, the possessive case of nouns “-’s” as in

“people’s”, the third person singular present “-s” of verbs as in “he buys

wine”, the past tense “-ed” as in “he bought wine”, the past participle “-

ed” as in “he has bought wine”, the present participle “-ing” as “he is

buying wine”, the comparative degree of adjectives or adverbs “-er” as in

“happier” and and their superlative degree “-est” as in “happiest”.

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 While the derivational affixes mainly refer to prefixes and suffixes as

“un-”in “unhappy” and “-ly” in “happily”. So, by removing all the affixes,

the root is found as “fruit” in “unfruitfulness”, “teach” in “teachers” and

“care” in “carelessness”. Third, every word contains a root morpheme

whether it is free or bound. “Free root morphemes are those that can stand

by themselves and are the base forms ofwords”, as “mate” in “classmate”

“deskmate” “roommate” and “schoolmate”.

To the contrary, bound root morphemes can’t constitute words by

themselves, there must be some other affixes attached to them, such as “-

ceive” in “receive”, “perceive”, and “conceive” or “-tain” in “retain”,

“contain” and “maintain”. In English language, most roots are free

morphemes and bound root morphemes are relatively a few in number.

b. Definition and Type Stem

A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an

inflectional affix can be added or any form to which an inflectional affix is

attached is a stem.From the definitions, it is learned that a stem is part of

aword left when all inflectional affixes are removed. For example, “girl”

in “girls”, “eat” in “eating” and “old” in “older”, are all stems by deleting

the inflectional affix such as the plural form “-s”, the present participle “-

ing” and the comparative degree “-er” respectively. Besides, a stem is also

the part of a word that is common to all its inflected variants just as “take”

is the stem to all its inflected forms “takes”, “took”, “taken” and “taking”

and “rich” is the stem to “richer” and “richest”.

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 A stem can be further classified into three types as follows:

First, a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as “class” in

“classes”, “pick” in “picks” and “sweet” in “sweeter”.

Second, a stem may be made of two root morphemes as in a

compound, as “classroom” in “classrooms” and “pickup” in “pickups”,

which is a compound stem.

Last, a stem can be a root morpheme plus one or more derivational

morpheme(s) as “handful” in “handfuls”, “naturalize” in “naturalizing”

and “understatement” in “understatements”, which is a derived stem.

c. Definition and explanation of base

A base, “often used as an all-purpose term, refers to a form to which

affixes of any kind(both derivational and inflectional) can be added”. To

know more about it, there is an example below:

* “nation” (base = root = stem)

* “national” (base = root + a suffix = stem)

* “international” (base = root + a prefix &a suffix = stem)

* “internationalist” (base = root + a prefix &two suffixes = stem)

In “national”, “nation” is a root because it couldn’t be further analyzed,

“nation” can be a stem as the plural form “-s” can be added to it and

“nation” is a base because it can be added either an inflectional morpheme

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“-s” or a derivational morpheme “-al”. Here, a base, a root and a stem can

be the same form.

In “international”, “national” is not a root because it can be further

divided into smaller morphemes as “nation” and “-al”, but can be a stem

since the inflectional affix “-s” can be added to it when it is used as a

noun, which means “a citizen of a particular country” and thus it is a base

for the same reason. Here, the base is the stem, or the root plus a suffix.

In “internationalist”, “international” can be a stem because the

inflectional morpheme “-s” can be attached to it to show plurality when it

is used as a noun, meaning “a player who takes part in a sports

competition against another country”, and thus, also a base. Here, the base

is the stem, or the root plus a prefix and a suffix.

In “internationalists”, “internationalist” is both a stem and a base

because the plural form “-s” is attached to it. In this case, the base is also

the stem, or the root plus a prefix& two suffixes.

So, to conclude what has been mentioned above, from the perspective

of root, the base can be a root as “nation” in “national”, a root plus one

suffix as “national” in “international”, a root plus both a prefix and a suffix

as “international” in “internationalist” or a root plus both a prefix and two

suffixes as “internationalist” in “internationalists”. While from the

perspective of stem, the base is the same as a stem as “nation” in

“national”, “national” in “international”, “international” in

“internationalist” and “internationalist” in “internationalists”.

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 BAB III
PENUTUP

3.1 Kesimpulan
Morphology is the study of words and their parts. Morphemes, like
prefixes, suffixes and base words, are defined as the smallest meaningful
units of meaning. Morphemes are important for phonics in both reading and
spelling, as well as in vocabulary and comprehension.The terms of “root,
stem and base” are basic and important in morphology which will help
students to have a rational understanding of word formation and facilitate
their vocabulary learning, memorization, word meaning guessing and
enlargement. The identification of “root” is to remove all the affixes, the
identification of “stem” is to remove the inflectional morpheme(s) and the
identification of “base” is to remove one of its affixes. The root may be the
same as a stem or a base and all roots are bases. A stem is usually a root or a
root plus one or more derivational morpheme(s) and all stemsare bases while
a base may be the same as a root or a stem or just only be a base itself as
mentioned above.

Roots typically belong to a lexical category, which can be found in the

dictionary. When identifying the root, it’s unnecessary to go beyond the
English word to trace its Latin origin. When words have no inflectional
morpheme attachment, stem will not be discussed. As for “base”, when words
have both an inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme(s),
inflectional morpheme will be removed first and then derivational
morphemes, when words have two or more derivatioanl suffixes, the suffix
from the end of the word will be removed one by one and when words have
both derivational prefix(es) and suffix(es), which one of the affixes should be
removed first depends on the contribution each affix makes to the formation
and meaning of the word and usually the order of removing the affixes is just
contrary to the order of adding the affixes to the word.

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 DAFTAR PUSTAKA

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Hu, Zhuanglin. 2011. Linguistics: A Course Book (Fourth Edition), 53–54.

Beijing: Peking University Press.

Liu, Runqing, and Xu Wen. 2006. Linguistics: A New Coursebook, 53.

Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

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(Sixth edition), 701, 702, 1928. Beijing: The Commercial Press.

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Peking University Press.

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University Publishing Group.

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Central China Normal University Press.