Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Development of concentrated solar and agrivoltaic based system to

generate water, food and energy with hydrogen for sustainable agriculture
Mert Temiz *, Ibrahim Dincer
Clean Energy Research Laboratory (CERL), Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Ontario Tech. University, 2000 Simcoe Street North, Oshawa, Ontario L1G 0C5,
Canada

H I G H L I G H T S

• A new concentrated solar plant on agricultural field is proposed as agri-CSP.

• First and second laws of thermodynamics are used for energy and exergy analysis.
• Three different agrivoltaic orientations and agri-CSP are comparatively assessed.
• A time-dependent analysis is carried out for each hour in a typical year.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water, food and energy together form a critical nexus which is at the core of sustainable development. Agri­
Sustainable agriculture cultural activities are the major consumers of water and energy, while on the other hand, energy generation is
Energy security another major reason for water consumption. With the growing population and economies, there is an increasing
Water security
pressure on water, food and energy nexus and their management. Therefore, it is a necessity to develop dual,
Food security
triple, or multiple benefits from single systems or applications in order to maximize the effective and efficient
Solar energy
Agrivoltaics utilization of sources. It is also necessary to multiply the benefits of the land; agrivoltaics maximize the benefit of
Exergy the land by combining solar photovoltaics and food crops on the same land. Moreover, the process heat is an
Efficiency important useful commodity to multiply the benefits of the integrated energy systems. The concentrated solar
Sustainability power (CSP) systems can generate process heat for many applications, and we propose to use such systems on
agricultural lands and to call this as “agri-CSP”. Moreover, different agrivoltaic orientations are comparatively
assessed with newly suggested agri-CSP. The agrivoltaic and concentrated solar energy systems generate power
and process heat in order to meet electricity, fresh water, space heating, space cooling and hydrogen demands of
a farm community. The first and second laws of thermodynamics are considered while designing and analyzing
the integrated system. Realistic simulations are carried out with software packages where commercially available
products and actual meteorological data are considered. The study results show that a community of 86,000
people with farms in California can be self-sufficient with the proposed system. The agri-CSP is designed to orient
accordingly and generates 1716 MWh of electricity per MWp capacity in a typical year, where a MWp of agri­
voltaic generates 1338.7 MWh of electricity with vertical-fixed orientation, 2040.5 MWh of electricity with
tilted-fixed orientation, 2365.7 MWh of electricity with tracking orientation. Moreover, 959.06 k-tonnes of fresh
water and 290.07 t of hydrogen are additionally generated. The overall energy and exergy efficiencies of the
proposed integrated system are obtained as 59.95% and 41.01% on average in a typical year.

1. Introduction growing global economy, improving life quality, urbanization, mobility,

growing population, industrialization, and digitalization have led to
One of the most critical challenges that human civilization has ever unprecedented growth in global energy demand. When we look at the
faced, climate change, is threatening the balance on the Earth. The energy mixture, fossil fuels represent 80% of global primary energy

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Mert.Temiz@ontariotechu.net (M. Temiz), Ibrahim.Dincer@ontariotechu.ca (I. Dincer).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122539
Received 17 August 2023; Received in revised form 1 December 2023; Accepted 20 December 2023
Available online 3 January 2024
0306-2619/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Temiz and I. Dincer
consumption [1], which is the major contributor to global greenhouse
gas emissions. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere distort the energy
balance of the Earth since they trap the heat in order to keep the Earth a
habitable and warm place. However, when carbon dioxide concentra­
tion increases, the atmosphere absorbs more heat, which warms the
globe more than the required. In 2022, the global average temperature
was 1.11 ◦ C warmer than the late 19th-century average, according to
data from [2]. According to the Paris Agreement [3], countries agreed to
keep the Earth’s temperature anomaly at less than 1.5 ◦ C, which is an
important threshold to keep in order to prevent stronger and more
frequent catastrophic climate events. However, the latest observations
show that a 1.5 ◦ C global temperature anomaly may be exceeded
somewhere around the early 2030s. Jurisdictions already set climate
goals in order to minimize greenhouse gas emissions and achieve net
zero emissions; however, more ambitious goals and actions are needed
to prevent irreversible global damages.
From this aspect, solar energy has a very critical role. First of all,
solar energy is a fundamental energy source on Earth; it is unthinkable
that any society or community can sustain their existence without solar
energy. Collecting solar energy to generate power became one of the
cheapest methods among power generation technologies [4], which led
by relatively lower capital [5] and operational costs [6]. Growth of the
solar energy sector accelerated since 2010. An important threshold was
surpassed in 2018, when annual solar power net capacity additions
exceeded 100 GWp. After four years, annual solar power net capacity
additions almost doubled and reached 191.6 GWp in 2022. At the end of
2022, solar energy-based power generation capacity reached 1.05 TWp,
globally [7]. It is important to note that, there are two important chal­
lenges, which prevent mass implementations of solar power plants. The
land footprint and intermittency of solar energy are two major chal­
lenges which need to be addressed. Although solar energy has a low
environmental impact [8], it can be challenging for the countries with
land shortages where a high density of population uses land for a variety
of reasons, from agriculture to housing. Moreover, for the regions with
land scarcity, land can be costly [9], which can drop the economic
feasibility of solar power systems. In order to minimize the land foot­
print of solar energy systems, there are smart approaches available,
especially for solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. As promising solutions,
solar PV systems can be mounted on a variety of surfaces such as water
bodies [10], roofs [11], agriculture fields [12], parking areas [13], or
building façades [14]. Using water bodies for solar PVs exploits the
unutilized water surfaces; on the other hand, roofs, agriculture fields,
and parking areas are already utilized by other purposes, mounting solar
PVs to those surfaces adds additional value and purpose. Especially for
the regions with land scarcity, using lands for dual or multiple purposes
brings a critical advantage.
In order to evaluate the potential of agrivoltaic systems, Dinesh and
Pearce [15] carried out a case study by considering Kansas City (Lat:
39.10◦ , Long: 94.58◦ , Altitude: 311 m) for meteorological data and crop
selection. They used two different simulation models for PV production
and agricultural production in a coupled manner in order to present the
changes in terms of electricity production and crop production. They
comparatively assessed three different agrivoltaic orientations as
ground-mounted, full density, and half density, where they used
different row spacings. According to the electricity output from agri­
voltaic systems, annual energy efficiencies for the ground-mounted, full
density, and half density agrivoltaic arrays are found as 13.53%,
13.49%, and 13.59%, respectively. They used lettuce plants in their crop
model and compared the yield for the seasons of spring and summer.
When there is no PV on the agricultural field, the yield per Ha was found
50.49 tons for summer, and 28.08 tons for spring. For summer, lettuce
yield was calculated as 50.13 tons for their ground-type PV configura­
tion, 29.28 tons for their full density-type PV configuration, and 40.90
tons for their half density-type PV configuration. On the other hand,
spring yields did not change as summer yields, where 1% of weight
reduction was calculated for the half density-type PV configuration and
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Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539
21% of weight reduction was calculated for the full density-type PV
configuration. In another study, Katsikogiannis et al. [16] studied bifa­
cial photovoltaics for agrivoltaic systems. They aimed to overcome the
high solar insolation of conventional PV modules, which create unfa­
vorable conditions for crop growth. They suggested to use bifacial PV
modules in order to exploit their transparency feature for different
crops. They observed that higher transparency of bifacial PV modules
can lead to higher photosynthetically active radiation for the crop and
lower power generation from bifacial PV modules. On the other hand,
low transparency is beneficial for specific crops which need shading
during extreme heat, such as lettuce, spinach, beans, cucumbers, kale,
and potatoes. Apart from the energy and agricultural assessments of
agrivoltaics, environmental and economic assessments were also carried
out in different studies. Agostini et al. [17] assessed both economic and
environmental aspects, where they found 50% higher CAPEX but
partially paid back with additional electricity production. In terms of
environmental impact, they found their agrivoltaic systems have
approximately 20 g of CO2 equivalent per MJ. Ahmed et al. [18] made a
contribution to the literature by studying agrivoltaics with rice as one of
the major crops rather than leafy crops. They developed a three-stage
techno-economic modelling framework for agrivoltaics with rice crops.
Intermittency of solar energy is the other challenge that needs to be
addressed. Energy storage solutions such as, compressed air energy
storage [19], thermal energy storage [20], pumped hydro [21], com­
pressed air [22], hydrogen [23], and battery [24] can mitigate the in­
termittencies. In order to minimize the wastes generated and
compensate for intermittencies, there is a strong need to design inte­
grated processes that help manage the wastes and cover the needs of the
communities. Integrated energy systems connect different processes for
many reasons, mainly to exploit the waste or excess, to multiply the
useful outputs, and to adjust the energy flow due to the demand.
Concentrated solar energy systems can generate thermal energy at high
temperatures, which can be used for a variety of processes at different
temperatures. In the literature, there is an interest from many re­
searchers in concentrated solar energy systems and their applications
with integrated energy systems. Bellos et al. [25] investigated and
optimized a linear Fresnel-based integrated energy system for cogene­
ration of power and cooling effect. In order to generate power and
cooling effect, they used the organic Rankine cycle and absorption
refrigeration cycle, where they utilized heat at different temperatures.
According to their calculation, the energy and exergy efficiencies of the
overall system were found to be 17.54% and 8.3%. They also assessed
the economic viability of their proposed system, where they found low
competitive system with more than 21.4 years of payback period and
3.91% internal rate of return. Another approach is carried out in [26],
where they designed a system with multiple solar energy collecting
technologies and an energy storage system. They used concentrated
solar and photovoltaic systems together in order to design an energy
storage system by employing supercritical carbon dioxide as thermo­
fluid. They considered the first and second laws of thermodynamics from
energy and exergy aspects while assessing their system. According to
their calculations, linear Fresnel concentrated solar energy subsystem,
PV subsystem with fixed structure, and PV subsystem with tracking
structure performed in a range between 9 and 20%, 13 to 15%, and 16 to
18% of exergy efficiencies., respectively. The round-trip efficiency of
their proposed system was found in a range between 50 and 60%.
The current study investigates an integrated system where solar
energy is harnessed via linear Fresnel-type concentrated solar plant on
an agricultural field (agri-CSP) and agrivoltaic subsystem to provide
process heat and power to the integration of power generation, ab­
sorption refrigeration cycles, desalination, hydrogen generation sub­
systems. In order to compensate for intermittencies, molten salt thermal
energy storage and pumped-hydro energy storage systems are inte­
grated. The overall system is technically assessed by considering the first
and second laws of thermodynamics from energy and exergy points of
views. In order to address dynamic challenges when operating the
M. Temiz and I. Dincer
system, each hour in a typical meteorological year is considered and
analyzed in the study. The current study is designed to have multiple
novelties and make unique contributions to the state of the art as
follows:
• combining agrivoltaics with concentrated solar systems on agricul­
tural fields to generate multiple useful outputs to cover the needs for
sustainable agriculture as a new concept,
• comparative assessment of different agrivoltaic orientations (fixed-
vertical, tracking, and fixed tilted) for different agricultural fields to
determine the optimum operating conditions and positions, and
• performing time-dependent (dynamic) performance assessments and
evaluations of such an integrated system for the entire year.
The key objectives of this study are two-fold as listed:
• to develop a solar-based integrated energy system on the agricultural
field with energy storage for multigeneration, and
• to analyze the system with energy and exergy approaches of ther­
modynamics, to simulate subsystems with the realistic simulation
software packages using actual data, and to carry out time-
dependent analysis in order to address viability and performance
of the proposed system in changing conditions.
2. System description
The proposed system uses three different agrivoltaics and a newly
suggested agri-CSP in order to harness solar energy. Linear Fresnel-type
agri-CSP collects solar energy via linear Fresnel mirrors and focuses
sun’s rays on the collector line to heat the thermofluid passing through
the line. The transferred heat from the sun to thermofluid is used to drive
the integrated subsystems, namely, power generation cycle, Li-Br ab­
sorption refrigeration cycle, multi-effect desalination unit, and other
heat-required processes in agricultural related activities such as space
heating, fish farm heating, and greenhouse heating. On the other hand,
agrivoltaic systems in three different orientations are designed to
generate power for both direct-need of electricity as well as needs for the
processes such as hydrogen generation via anion-exchange membrane
(AEM) electrolysis (see Fig. 1).
Additionally, there are storage systems for both heat and power
storage purposes. Molten salt heat storage system is coupled with the
linear Fresnel Agri-CSP to improve the reliability of heat generation and
stabilize the heat supply. On the other hand, a pumped-hydro energy
storage system is used in order to store excess power by pumping water
to an upper reservoir and use it by driving pump turbine via moving
water from upper to lower reservoir.
A comparative assessment is carried out between three different
agrivoltaic orientations (fixed-vertical on East-West axis, tracking-
horizontal on North-South axis, fixed-tilted on East-West axis) and an
agri-CSP (linear-Fresnel on North-South axis) system in order to simu­
late their electricity generation performances in a typical meteorological
year. It is critical to choose the correct orientation to maximize the en­
ergy generation as well as crop production. Agrivoltaic systems are used
in three different orientations in order to use those with different agri­
cultural products. The first agrivoltaic orientation that used in the sys­
tem is the fixed-vertical agrivoltaic orientation, which has vertically
aligned PV modules with 5 m of pitch distance between each row, which
will give enough space (5 m-wide arable land) when industrial har­
vesters are considered. Each PV module has 2.13 m of length and 1.05 m
of width where two horizontal PV modules are used in a row. Arable
crops are more suitable for this application when the shading profile and
free upper space is considered. The second agrivoltaic orientation used
in this study is the tracking agrivoltaic orientation, where single-axis
horizontal tracking structure with 6 m of height is installed on the
agricultural field. Pitch distance is given as 3 m between each tracking
row. Each tracking row is considered at 60 m of length and there is an I-
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Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539
Profile Européennes (IPE) 160 for each 6th meter where 11 IPE 160 is
used for each row. Tracking rows does not limit the harvesting path,
however, IPEs limit the harvesting path to 6 m of width, which is ideal
for the currently available industrial harvesters. Tracking axis is
considered on north-south with +/− 52◦ tracking angles. The third
agrivoltaic orientation has a fixed tilt angle during the entire year and
called as the fixed-tilted angle agrivoltaic orientation. PV modules are
placed with a tilt angle according to the specific location’s optimum tilt
angle for the entire year. Specifically for the case study carried out in this
paper, Avila Beach, California location is considered, therefore 32◦ of tilt
angle is determined as the optimum tilt angle. Note that the height,
length and row spacings are used same as the tracking-horizontal agri­
voltaic, but on East-West axis instead of North-South axis. Therefore, the
harvesting path is suitable for the industrial harvesters. The crop type
can vary for the second and third agrivoltaic orientations. However,
more shading can be provided compared to the first agrivoltaic orien­
tation, therefore, the second and third agrivoltaic orientations can be
more suitable for the heat tolerant crops such as okra, corn, tomatoes,
eggplant lettuce, etc. In addition to three agrivoltaic orientations, a
linear Fresnel-type agri-CSP is considered to be used above the agri­
cultural field. The input and output temperatures for the linear Fresnel is
used as 440 ◦ C and 230 ◦ C. In the integrated system, all of the agrivoltaic
orientations and the agri-CSP are used together, in order to generate
process heat with agri-CSP and enable to use wider range of crops on
different agrivoltaic fields, since these orientations are suitable for
different group of crops.
Bifacial PV modules have many advantages when they used for
agrivoltaic applications. Higher than typical PV module height improve
the bifacial gain. Moreover, when less shading is needed high trans­
parency bifacial PV modules can be used for mitigating the negative
effects of shading. However, the proposed system employs Canadian
Solar CS3W-440 PB with no significant module transparency in all of the
agrivoltaic orientations. On the other hand, bifacial gain is significant
with 70% of bifaciality factor.
In terms of operational characteristics, an operational algorithm is
developed and considered. Especially energy storage systems possess
high importance for smooth operations. A pumped-hydro storage system
is used in a more dynamic mode compared to the molten salt storage
system. This pumped-hydro storage is expected to respond to the de­
mand in a few minutes [27], which makes it a better option for the
dynamic mode compared to the molten salt storage system [28]. For
faster responses to the intermittencies, pumped-hydro storage system
can face with higher losses in terms of friction loss, winding loss, volume
loss, loss in socket ring, etc. Larger load data and intermittency pre­
diction can help to mitigate dynamic energy storage operations. On the
other hand, for smaller communities, loads will be more dynamic. In a
more dynamic load, faster responses from the energy storage systems
will be needed. Hydrogen-based energy storage system can be suggested
in those cases. The proposed system already has an AEM electrolyzer;
therefore, an additional fuel cell system can help to mitigate more dy­
namic loads.
Hydrogen and fresh water are highly important for agricultural
sector. Fresh water is important especially for the areas with water
scarcity. Moreover, hydrogen can be used as an energy carrier medium
for both energy storage and energy transportation purposes for further
activities. Also, hydrogen is an alternative fuel for transportation, which
can be sold to generate further income for the owner of the proposed
system. On the other hand, hydrogen is an important feedstock for food
processing industry. Generating both hydrogen and fresh water along
with crops can significantly improve the self sufficiency of high-value
food generation process. The schematic of the newly developed opera­
tional algorithm for the current study, further clarifies the decision-
making process to run/pause operations of the certain subsystems (see
Fig. 2).
A case study (see Table 1) is carried out for Avila Beach, California,
the United States location. Meteorological conditions and load
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Fig. 1. A layout of the proposed system.

4
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Fig. 2. The operational algorithm and flowchart of the integrated system.

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M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Table 1 Advisor Model (SAM) from National Renewable Energy Laboratory

The design parameters considered in the case study. (NREL) is used for the simulation of linear Fresnel-type agri-CSP on the
Location Avila Beach, California, the United States same location. Apart from the typical simulations, the geometric ori­
entations of both agrivoltaic and agri-CSP systems are simulated with
Main focus Sustainable farming with solar energy
Population 86,000 given dimensions in system description section.
Electricity load 484 GWh/year For the analysis of the system by considering first and second laws of
Cooling load 256 GWh/year thermodynamics, there are assumptions are made. Besides the pumped-
Heating load 725 GWh/year hydro energy storage, potential and kinetic energy changes are neglec­
Energy Source Sun
Electricity generation methods Rankine cycle, PV conversion
ted in the proposed system. The isentropic efficiencies are considered as
Heating and cooling generation 85% for pumps, compressors and turbine, 90% for electric generator.
Heat recovery, Absorption refrigeration
methods The balance equations are used in order to determine mass, energy, and
Heat generation for processes
Linear-Fresnel-based concentrated solar exergy inputs and outputs to and from each component of the proposed
system
system. The general balance equations for energy, entropy, and exergy
Hydrogen generation method Anion exchange membrane electrolyzer
Freshwater generation Multi effect desalination are given below. For the specific mass, energy, entropy, and exergy
PV module type Bifacial PV balance equations, Table 2 is provided to tabulate them:
Annual solar intensity (GHI) 1882.3 kWh/m2 year
∑ ∑ ∑ ( V2
)
Q̇i + Ẇi + ṁi hi + i + gZi
i i i
2
characteristic is considered due to the selected location. A local com­ ∑ ∑ ∑ ( )
V2
munity is considered where 86,000 people live and need 484 GWh of = Q̇o + Ẇo + ṁo ho + o + gZo (1)
2
electricity, 256 GWh of cooling and 725 GWh of heating in a typical o o o

meteorological year by using the dataset of end-use load profiles for the
∑ ∑Q̇net ∑
U.S. building stock from the Open Energy Data Initiative [29], as shown ṁi si + + Ṡgen = + ṁo so (2)
in Fig. 3. i net
T b o

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
3. Analysis ĖxQ̇i + Ẇi + ṁi exi = ĖxQ̇o + Ẇo + ṁo exo + Ėxd (3)
i i i o o o

In order to analyze the system, the first and second laws of ther­ For the AEM electrolyzer, the basic chemical reaction is considered
modynamics is considered from energy and exergy points of views. Each as follows:
component of the system and each state point connects the components
1
are analyzed. Thermophysical properties are found for each state point H2 O + Ein = H2 + O2 (4)
2
in order to find energy and exergy inputs for each component. Sub­
systems and the overall integrated system is also analyzed to find overall The enthalpy and entropy changes for the electrolysis process can be
energy and exergy inputs. expressed as follows:
Variety of software packages are considered to analyze and simulate
ṄH2 O hH2 O + ΔḢEl = ṄH2 hH2 + ṄO2 hO2 (5)
different subsystems within the proposed system. Agrivoltaic systems
are analyzed by using PVSyst software package [30]. Meteorological
and
data is obtained from Meteonorm 8.0 database for Avila Beach, Cali­
fornia at 35.17 latitude, − 120.74 longitude in decimal degrees. System

Fig. 3. Variations of non-thermal electrical, heating, and cooling loads of the proposed community.

6
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Table 2
The balance equations written for each component.
Component Mass balance Energy balance equations Entropy balance equations Exergy balance equations
equations

Each pump ṁi = ṁo ṁi hi + Ẇp = ṁo ho ṁi si + Ṡgen,p = ṁo so ṁi exi + Ẇp = ṁo exo + Ėxd,p
Q̇
ṁ16 s16 + AGRI− CSP + Ṡgen,AGRI− =
Agri-CSP ṁ16 = ṁ17 ṁ16 h16 + Q̇AGRI− CSP = ṁ17 h17 TDH17,b
CSP
ṁ16 ex16 + ĖxQ̇AGRI− CSP = ṁ17 ex17 + Ėxd,AGRI− CSP
ṁ17 s17
ṁ30 h30 = Ẇlpst
Low pressure steam ṁ30 = ṁ31 ṁ30 s30 + Ṡgen,lpst = ṁ31 s31 + ṁ32 s32 + ṁ30 ex30 = Ẇlpst + ṁ31 ex31 + ṁ32 ex32 +
+ ṁ31 h31 + ṁ32 h32 + ṁ33 h33 +
turbine + ṁ32 + ṁ33 + ṁ34 ṁ33 s33 + ṁ34 s34 ṁ33 ex33 + ṁ34 ex34 + Ėxd,lpst
ṁ34 h34
High pressure steam
ṁ19 = ṁ20 ṁ19 h19 = Ẇhpst + ṁ20 h20 ṁ19 s19 + Ṡgen,hpst = ṁ20 s20 ṁ19 ex19 = Ẇhpst + ṁ20 ex20 + Ėxd,hpst
turbine
Each expansion valve ṁi = ṁo ṁi hi = ṁo ho ṁi si + Ṡgen,XV = ṁo so ṁi exi = ṁo exo + Ėxd,XV
ṁ13 + ṁ14 = ṁ15 , ṁ17 h17 + ṁ13 h13 + ṁ14 h14 = ṁ17 s17 + ṁ13 s13 + ṁ14 s14 + Ṡgen,HEx1 = ṁ17 ex17 + ṁ13 ex13 + ṁ14 ex14 = ṁ15 ex15 +
Heat exchanger 1
ṁ17 = ṁ18 ṁ15 h15 + ṁ18 h18 ṁ15 s15 + ṁ18 s18 ṁ18 ex18 + Ėxd,HEx1
ṁ11 = ṁ13 , ṁ22 = ṁ11 h11 + ṁ22 h22 = ṁ13 h13 + ṁ11 s11 + ṁ22 s22 + Ṡgen,HEx2 = ṁ13 s13 + ṁ11 ex11 + ṁ22 ex22 = ṁ13 ex13 + ṁ30 ex30 +
Heat exchanger 2
ṁ30 ṁ30 h30 ṁ30 s30 Ėxd,HEx2
ṁ12 = ṁ14 , ṁ18 = ṁ12 h12 + ṁ18 h18 = ṁ14 h14 + ṁ12 s12 + ṁ18 s18 + Ṡgen,HEx3 = ṁ14 s14 + ṁ12 ex12 + ṁ18 ex18 = ṁ14 ex14 + ṁ19 ex19 +
Heat exchanger 3
ṁ19 ṁ19 h19 ṁ19 s19 Ėxd,HEx3
ṁ15 = ṁ16 , ṁ39 = ṁ15 h15 + ṁ39 h39 = ṁ16 h16 + ṁ15 s15 + ṁ39 s39 + Ṡgen,HEx4 = ṁ16 s16 + ṁ15 ex15 + ṁ39 ex39 = ṁ16 ex16 + ṁ17 ex17 +
Heat exchanger 4
ṁ17 ṁ17 h17 ṁ17 s17 Ėxd,HEx4
Heat exchanger 5 ṁ1 = ṁ2 , ṁ9 = ṁ7 ṁ1 h1 + ṁ9 h9 = ṁ2 h2 + ṁ7 h7 ṁ1 s1 + ṁ9 s9 + Ṡgen,HEx5 = ṁ2 s2 + ṁ7 s7 ṁ1 ex1 + ṁ9 ex9 = ṁ2 ex2 + ṁ7 ex7 + Ėxd,HEx5
Heat exchanger 6 ṁ4 = ṁ6 , ṁ10 = ṁ8 ṁ4 h4 + ṁ10 h10 = ṁ6 h6 + ṁ8 h8 ṁ4 s4 + ṁ10 s10 + Ṡgen,HEx6 = ṁ6 s6 + ṁ8 s8 ṁ4 ex4 + ṁ10 ex10 = ṁ6 ex6 + ṁ8 ex8 + Ėxd,HEx6
ṁ33 = ṁ63 , ṁU3 = ṁ33 h33 + ṁU3 hU3 = ṁ63 h63 + ṁ33 s33 + ṁU3 sU3 + Ṡgen,HEx7 = ṁ63 s63 + ṁ33 ex33 + ṁU3 exU3 = ṁ63 ex63 + ṁU4 exU4 +
Heat exchanger 7
ṁU4 ṁU4 hU4 ṁU4 sU4 Ėxd,HEx7
Condenser 1 ṁ53 + ṁ34 = ṁ54 ṁ53 h53 + ṁ34 h34 = ṁ54 h54 ṁ53 s53 + ṁ34 s34 + Ṡgen,Cond1 = ṁ54 s54 ṁ53 ex53 + ṁ34 ex34 = ṁ54 ex54 + Ėxd,Cond1
Reheater 1 ṁ55 + ṁ63 = ṁ35 ṁ55 h55 + ṁ63 h63 = ṁ35 h35 ṁ55 s55 + ṁ63 s63 + Ṡgen,RH1 = ṁ35 s35 ṁ55 ex55 + ṁ63 ex63 = ṁ35 ex35 + Ėxd,RH1
ṁ32 = ṁ56 , ṁ36 = ṁ32 h32 + ṁ36 h36 = ṁ56 h56 + ṁ32 s32 + ṁ36 s36 + Ṡgen,RH2 = ṁ56 s56 + ṁ32 ex32 + ṁ36 ex36 = ṁ56 ex56 + ṁ37 ex37 +
Reheater 2
ṁ37 ṁ37 h37 ṁ37 s37 Ėxd,RH2
ṁ21 + ṁ31 + ṁ38 = ṁ38 h38 + ṁ21 h21 + ṁ31 h31 = ṁ38 s38 + ṁ21 s21 + ṁ31 s31 + Ṡgen,RH3 = ṁ38 ex38 + ṁ21 ex21 + ṁ31 ex31 = ṁ39 ex39 +
Reheater 3
ṁ39 ṁ39 h39 ṁ39 s39 Ėxd,RH3
ṁ52 = ṁ53 , ṁ25 = ṁ52 h52 + ṁ25 h25 = ṁ53 h53 + ṁ52 s52 + ṁ25 s25 + Ṡgen,MED = ṁ53 s53 + ṁ52 ex52 + ṁ25 ex25 = ṁ53 ex53 + ṁU5 exU5 +
MED desalination
ṁU5 + ṁ23 ṁU5 hU5 + ṁ23 h23 ṁU5 sU5 + ṁ23 s23 ṁ23 ex23 + Ėxd,MED
LiBr Absorption ṁ56 = ṁ52 , ṁU2 = ṁ56 h56 + ṁU2 hU2 = ṁ52 h52 + ṁ56 s56 + ṁU2 sU2 + Ṡgen,AC = ṁ52 s52 + ṁ56 ex56 + ṁU2 exU2 = ṁ52 ex52 + ṁU1 exU1 +
Chiller ṁU1 ṁU1 hU1 ṁU1 sU1 Ėxd,AC

ṄH2 O sH2 O + ΔṠEl = ṄH2 sH2 + ṄO2 sO2
where ΔḢEl denotes the rate of the enthalpy change and ΔṠEl denotes the
rate of the entropy change.
A comparative assessment is carried out between three different
agrivoltaic orientations (fixed-vertical on East-West axis, tracking-
horizontal on North-South axis, fixed-tilted on East-West axis) and an
agri-CSP (linear-Fresnel on North-South axis) system in order to simu­
late their electricity generation performances in a typical meteorological
year. It is critical to choose the correct orientation to maximize the en­
ergy generation as well as crop production. Agrivoltaic systems are used
in three different orientations in order to use those with different agri­
cultural products. The first agrivoltaic orientation that used in the sys­
tem is the fixed-vertical agrivoltaic orientation, which has vertically
aligned PV modules with 5 m of pitch distance between each row, which
will give enough space (5 m-wide arable land) when industrial har­
vesters are considered. Each PV module has 2.13 m of length and 1.05 m
of width where two horizontal PV modules are used in a row. Arable
crops are more suitable for this application when the shading profile and
free upper space is considered. The second agrivoltaic orientation used
in this study is the tracking agrivoltaic orientation, where single-axis
horizontal tracking structure with 6 m of height is installed on the
agricultural field. Pitch distance is given as 3 m between each tracking
row. Each tracking row is considered at 60 m of length and there is an I-
Profile Européennes (IPE) 160 for each 6th meter where 11 IPE 160 is
used for each row. Tracking rows does not limit the harvesting path,
however, IPEs limit the harvesting path to 6 m of width, which is ideal
for the currently available industrial harvesters. Tracking axis is
considered on north-south with +/− 52◦ tracking angles. The third
(6) agrivoltaic orientation has a fixed tilt angle during the entire year and
called as the fixed-tilted angle agrivoltaic orientation. PV modules are
placed with a tilt angle according to the specific location’s optimum tilt
angle for the entire year. Specifically for the case study carried out in this
paper, Avila Beach, California location is considered, therefore 32◦ of tilt
angle is determined as the optimum tilt angle. Note that the height,
length and row spacings are used same as the tracking-horizontal agri­
voltaic, but on East-West axis instead of North-South axis. Therefore, the
harvesting path is suitable for the industrial harvesters. The crop type
can vary for the second and third agrivoltaic orientations. However,
more shading can be provided compared to the first agrivoltaic orien­
tation, therefore, the second and third agrivoltaic orientations can be
more suitable for the heat tolerant crops such as okra, corn, tomatoes,
eggplant lettuce, etc. In addition to three agrivoltaic orientations, a
linear Fresnel-type agri-CSP is considered to be used above the agri­
cultural field. The input and output temperatures for the linear Fresnel is
used as 440 ◦ C and 230 ◦ C. In the integrated system, all of the agrivoltaic
orientations and the agri-CSP are used together, in order to generate
process heat with agri-CSP and enable to use wider range of crops on
different agrivoltaic fields, since these orientations are suitable for
different group of crops.
A total of 75 MWp bifacial PV plant is simulated for each location on
PVsyst. The hourly data are generated through built-in Meteonorm al­
gorithm. Irradiance and temperature components in the simulation is
modeled based on Aguiar and Collares-Pereira [31], Scartezzini [32]
models with Perez transposition model [33]. In order to prevent any
losses due to high nominal ratio, nominal ratio is kept at 1.00 which
means inverter capacity is kept equal to PV module capacities. However,
in commercial projects it can be increased to 1.10 especially for projects

7
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

in 75◦ N and 60◦ N where lower irradiations are available. The system is divert and shift energy flow, an operational algorithm is developed and
proposed into 1 MWp PV plant arrays. Each array is simulated with 2499 used on the spreadsheet.
units of LG 400 N2T-A5 [34] 400 Wp bifacial PV modules which con­
nected in 17 series with 147 strings into 100 units of SUN2000-100KTL- 4. Results and discussion
M1 Huawei inverters [35]. Unlimited horizontal trackers are considered
as the PV table structure in the system. Each PV module is considered to The proposed overall system, subsystems, components, and units are
be placed on single module on east-west axis and 42 modules on south- analyzed with various approaches. Agrivoltaic systems are compara­
west axis. Pitch distance or tracker spacing is set at 5 m in the default tively assessed in order to see the performance of different agrivoltaic
case. 3, 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-m pitch distances also simulated. Collector width orientations. Moreover, agri-CSP system’s performance is compared
is taken from the module datasheet. Axis height above ground is taken as with agrivoltaic orientations. A case study is carried out, where the
3 m. proposed integrated system is simulated for a community in Avila Beach,
The GHI that reached on bifacial PV plant are expressed as: California, the United States. Community with farmers is scaled to
86,000 people where 484 GWh of electricity, 256 GWh of cooling and
Q̇GHI,BiPV = q̇GHI NBiPV ABiPV (7)
725 GWh of heating are needed in a typical meteorological year.
The exergetic input of the GHI on bifacial PV plant is calculated with Before scaling the subsystems to meet community’s loads, simula­
the Parrot’s model [36] which applied to find the theoretical upper limit tions are carried out for a base capacity. Agrivoltaic orientations for
of solar conversion efficiency. vertical fixed, tilted fixed, and horizontal tracking structures are simu­
( ( )4 ) lated for a MWp base capacity. Fig. 4 depicts how different agrivoltaic
4 To 1 To orientations react to different solar energy availabilities. There are two
(8)
1
˙ Q̇
Ex = Q̇ 1 − (1 − cosδ ) 4
+
key factors effect the electricity generation from different solar energy
GHI,BiPV
GHI,BiPV
3 Tsun 3 Tsun
radiations, (i) solar angle, (ii) operating temperature. The main differ­
where the ambient temperature, the solar disc half-angle and the ence between agrivoltaic orientations is the collecting angle of solar
equivalent solar temperature are denoted with To , δ, Tsun respectively. energy. Alignment of the modules create the angle difference while
The equivalent solar temperature is considered at 5780 K. collecting solar energy. Moreover, the operating temperature is also
For the exergy efficiency, the solar exergy is calculated by consid­ related with the electricity generation due to the temperature coeffi­
ering Parrot’s theoretical model [36] for the upper limit of convertible cient. When we add a MWp of agri-CSP to the illustration, monthly and
solar energy. The energy and exergy efficiencies of the agrivoltaic sys­ annual performances are presented in Fig. 5. When we look at the
tems can be written as follows: agrivoltaic with vertical-fixed orientation, an interesting result is
available. Especially in December and January, vertical-axis orientation
ẆAV produced more electricity than the horizontal-tracking orientation due
ηenergy,AV = (9)
q̇GHI Amodule to lower elevation of sun. The maximum monthly production of agri­
voltaic with vertical-fixed orientation is in the month of October with
and
133.6 MWh electricity per a MWp of capacity. On the other hand,
ẆAV minimum monthly electricity generations from vertical-fixed orienta­
ηexergy,AV = ( ( )4 ) (10) tion are occurred during the summer months. In the month of June, 87.4
q̇GHI Amodule 1 − 4 To
3 Tsun
(1 − cosδ )1/4 + 13 To
Tsun MWh of electricity is generated from a MWp of capacity, which is the
lowest monthly electricity generation among the agrivoltaics. In fact,
The linear fresnel-type agri-CSP generates process heat for the inte­ the month of June has the highest global horizontal irradiance among
grated system for the generation of variety of multiple useful outputs. the months, however, vertical orientation is not a good match altitude
angle of sun during summer months. Agrivoltaic with fixed-tilted angle
Q̇Agri− CSP performed better than the vertical-fixed orientation. The maximum
ηenergy,Agri− = (11)
monthly generation of the fixed-tilted angle orientation is on the month
CSP
q̇GHI ALF
of May with 204.6 MWh of electricity. Among the agrivoltaic orienta­
and tions, agrivoltaic with horizontal axis tracking orientation performed
the best in terms of electricity generation for MWp of capacity. In a
Q̇Agri−
(12) typical year, fixed-tilted angle orientation is generated 2040.5 MWh of
CSP
ηexergy,Agri− CSP = ( ( )4 )
q̇GHI ALF 1 − 4 To
(1 − cosδ ) 1/4
+ 1 To electricity, agrivoltaic with tracking axis orientation generated 2365.7
MWh of electricity. During the month of July, monthly generation is
3 Tsun 3 Tsun

peaked, and 278.1 MWh of electricity is generated. When we look at the

In order to calculate the overall energy and exergy efficiencies for the
integrated system, inputs are considered as agri-CSP’s linear Fresnel
reflector area and total agrivoltaic module area, outputs are considered
as electricity, space heating, space cooling, fresh water, and hydrogen.
The overall energy and exergy efficiencies are calculated as follows:
ẆEl,net + ṁH2 LHVH2 + ṁfw hfw + Q̇District Heating + Q̇District Cooling
ηen,ov =
q̇GHI Amodule + q̇GHI ALF
ẆEl,net + ṁH2 exH2 + ṁfw exfw + Ex˙ Q District Heating + Ex˙ Q District Cooling
ηex,ov = ( ( ) )
(q̇GHI Amodule + q̇GHI ALF ) × 1− 4 To
3 Tsun
(1 − cosδ )1/4 + 13
Tsun
For the time-dependent analysis, a spread-sheet software package is
used. Calculations are carried out for each hour in a typical meteoro­
logical year according to the load and meteorological data. In order to
agricultural solar energy systems in this study, In a typical year, fixed-
vertical angle orientation is generated 1338.7 MWh of electricity,
fixed-tilted angle orientation is generated 2040.5 MWh of electricity,
agrivoltaic with tracking axis orientation generated 2365.7 MWh of
electricity, agri-CSP generated the lowest amount of electricity for a
MWp of capacity in a typical year, with 1276.1 MWh of electricity. When
(13) the agri-CSP system is used for sole electricity, 1716 MWh of electricity
can be generated in a typical year, which ranks the agri-CSP between
vertical and tilted angle fixed agrivoltaic orientations. Solar energy to
4 electricity conversion efficiencies of the proposed agrivoltaics and agri-
To
CSP are found as 14.01% for fixed-vertical agrivoltaic, 21.36% is found
for the fixed-tilted angle agrivoltaic, 24.76% is found for the horizontal
(14) axis tracking agrivoltaic, and 12.2% is found for the agri-CSP. According
to Dinesh and Pearce [15], annual energy efficiencies for the ground-
mounted, full density, and half density agrivoltaic arrays were found
as 13.53%, 13.49%, and 13.59%, respectively. There is a significant
bifacial gain which improves the system performance. Bifacial gains are

8
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Fig. 4. The normalized electricity production of the agrivoltaic plant by solar intensity.

Fig. 5. The normalized electricity production of the agrivoltaic plant for different orientations.

found as 32.16% for fixed-vertical agrivoltaic, 9.27% is found for the
fixed-tilted angle agrivoltaic, 6.84% is found for the horizontal axis
tracking agrivoltaic. In the literature, 20% [37–39], 29% [40], and 25%
[41] bifacial gains are found. More reflective crops can improve the
bifacial gains. It is important to note that, agri-CSP not only generates
electricity, but also generates other useful outputs, such as space cool­
ing, fresh water, and space heating. Fig. 6 shows the heat generation
performance of the agri-CSP at different solar intensities. Moreover,
Table 3 is provided in order to validate and compare the results,
regarding the agrivoltaic and agri-CSP systems.
In order to store excess energy and use when it is needed, molten salt
thermal energy storage and pumped-hydro storage systems are used in
the integrated system. Their activities are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. Both
energy storage and energy generation capacities are arranged according
to the community load. The proposed system capacities are determined
in order to make the community self-sufficient and not to waste any

9
M. Temiz and I. Dincer
energy. Therefore, agrivoltaic and agri-CSP system capacities are
designed by considering to store enough energy for electricity, heating,
and cooling load of the community. On the other hand, pumped-hydro
storage and molten salt thermal energy storage systems are designed
to compensate all the intermittencies to continuously meet the load in a
typical year. Moreover, electrolysis and desalination systems are
designed to utilize all excess energy for generate and store something
useful. When a typical year considered, in order to make the community
self-sufficient, a 20 MWp of vertical-fixed agrivoltaic, a 10 MWp tilted-
fixed agrivoltaic, a 35 MWp of tracking agrivoltaic, a 1100 MWth of
agri-CSP, a 40,000 MWh of pumped-hydro storage, and a 400,000 MWh
of molten salt thermal energy storage capacities are used. Between the
160th and 210th days of the typical year, pumped-hydro storage
charging happened at its highest capacities due to the high excess en­
ergy. Pumped-hydro storage system is used in a dynamic operation with
high flexibility. However, stability and high-efficiency can be chal­
lenged in long term operations when it is used in a more dynamic
operation with high response times. On the other hand, molten salt
thermal energy storage started charging from the second quarter of the
year up until the last quarter. According to the operational algorithm,
hydrogen and water generations started only if the storage capacities are
full and there is an excess energy. Fig. 9 shows the hydrogen and fresh
water generations both daily and cumulative. In a typical year, 959.06 k-
tonnes of fresh water and 290.07 t of hydrogen are generated. Fresh
water and hydrogen production is carried out during a limited period of
the year, since the proposed system is designed in a way to run hydrogen
and fresh water generation systems when there is both excess energy and
energy storages are full. This typically happens during the summer
months since the only source of the proposed system is solar energy.
Moreover, hydrogen and fresh water can be stored for long periods,
which enables to keep those throughout the year. For this reason, dy­
namic load data is not considered for hydrogen and fresh water, since
there is no significant loss for long term storage of these useful outputs.
In a typical year, the average energy and exergy efficiencies are
found as 59.95% and 41.01% for the overall system. When we look at
the monthly energy and exergy efficiencies, The maximum monthly
Fig. 6. The solar heat generation from linear Fresnel system by solar intensity.
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Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539
energy efficiency is calculated for the month of March with 62.63% of
average energy efficiency. During the month of October, the maximum
monthly exergy efficiency is found as 43.64% in average. Figs. 10 and 11
shows the energy and exergy efficiencies due to the solar intensity and
ambient temperature. There is a significant difference between the en­
ergy and exergy efficiencies. This energy and exergy efficiency differ­
ence is mainly caused by generating low exergy outputs and having high
exergy outputs, in other words, space heating and space cooling has
significantly lower exergy content due to the source temperatures, on
the other hand, solar energy has a high exergy content since solar energy
source temperature is high as 5780 K.
5. Conclusions
Different agrivoltaic designs are comparatively assessed and a novel
agri-CSP system is introduced with an integrated energy system along
with thermal energy storage and pumped-hydro storage systems. The
main motivation behind the design of the integrated system is to address
water, food and energy stresses by gaining multiple benefits from a
single application. Agrivoltaic and agri-CSP systems generated power
and process heat for variety of processes to generate electricity, space
heating, space cooling, fresh water, and hydrogen for a community with
farms. The land footprint is significantly reduced by using the upper
space of the agricultural lands as well as having multiple generation
enable less component and area usage. Moreover, the production of
waste is prevented by having a multiple generation.
• The proposed system generates enough energy on time for 86,000
people where 484 GWh of electricity, 256 GWh of cooling and 725
GWh of heating are needed in a typical meteorological year.
• Apart from the electricity, cooling, and heating, the proposed system
generated 959.06 k-tonnes of fresh water and 290.07 t of hydrogen.
• Agrivoltaic orientations and agri-CSP generates different electricity
in a typical year, where a MWp of capacity generates 1338.7 MWh of
electricity with vertical-fixed orientation, 2040.5 MWh of electricity
with tilted-fixed orientation, 2365.7 MWh of electricity with
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Table 3
Comparison of the current study results with the data obtianed from literature studies.
Parameter Current Study Current Study Current Study Current Study (Agri- [15] (a: ground [15] (b: farm [15] (c: farm [42] (vertical
(AV vert) (AV track) (AV tilt) CSP) mounted) half density) full density) fixed

Solar Energy Collector Bifacial PV Bifacial PV Bifacial PV Linear-Fresnel Monofacial PV Monofacial PV Monofacial PV Bifacial PV
Technology Concentrating
Collector
Tilt Angle (◦ ) 90◦ 0◦ 32◦ 0◦ 25◦ 25◦ 25◦ 35◦
Albedo 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Not available Not available Not available Not available
Row Spacing 5m 3m 3m 3m 6m 6.4 m 3.2 m 5m
Elevation 1m 6m 6m 6m 1m 4m 4m 4m
Axis Orientation East-West North-South East-West North-South East-West East-West East-West East-West
Structure Type Fixed Tracking Fixed Tracking Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed
Normalized Electricity 1339 2366 2041 1276 1294 1290 1300 650 to 1000
Production (MWh/
MWp year)
Bifacial Gain 32.16% 6.84% 9.27% Not applicable Not available Not available Not available Not available
Energy Storage Type Pumped- Pumped- Pumped- Pumped-hydro, Not available Not available Not available Not available
hydro hydro hydro molten salt
Time Step of the Each hour in Each hour in Each hour in Each hour in a typical Each hour in a Each hour in a Each hour in a Each hour in
Analysis a typical year a typical year a typical year year typical year typical year typical year a typical year
Annual Energy 14.01% 24.76% 21.36% 12.2% 13.53% 13.49% 13.59% Up to 19.42%
Efficiency of
Agrivoltaics

Fig. 7. The pumped-hydro energy storage charging, discharging and storage levels throughout the year.

tracking orientation. Moreover, agri-CSP system generates 1276.1
MWh of electricity with the integrated system while supplying heat
to other processes, and 1716.1 MWh of electricity when it is used for
single purpose.
• The maximum monthly energy efficiency is found in the month of
March as 62.63% and the maximum monthly exergy efficiency is
found in the month of October as 43.64%, in average.
• The overall energy and exergy efficiencies found as 59.95% and
41.01% for the overall system.
For future studies, agri-CSP is introduced in this paper has an enor­
mous potential in agricultural and energy markets, which enables to
multiply useful outputs and adds value to the agricultural products by
enabling value-added agricultural activities such as greenhouse, food
drying, food processing etc. This study shows the pressure on water,
food, and energy insecurities can be mitigated by having multiple ben­
efits from single applications, which allows to meet variety of sustain­
able development goals (SDG), such as the 2nd SDG “Zero Hunger”, the
6th SDG “Clean Water and Sanitation”, the 7th SDG “Affordable and
Clean Energy”, the 11th SDG “Sustainable Cities and Communities”, the
12th SDG “Responsible Consumption and Production”, and the 13th
SDG “Climate Action”.

11
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Fig. 8. The molten salt storage charging, discharging and storage levels throughout the year.

Fig. 9. The hydrogen and water production capacities during the year.

12
M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

Fig. 10. The overall energy efficiency variations of the integrated system.

Fig. 11. The overall exergy efficiency variations of the integrated system.

Nomenclature s specific entropy (kJ/kg K)

Ṡ entropy rate (kW/K)
E total energy (kJ) T temperature (◦ C)
ex specific exergy (kJ/kg) V overpotential (V)
Ėx exergy rate (kW) w water, work
F Faraday constant (C/mol) Ẇ power generation rate (kW)
G Gibbs free energy (J) X mass ratio of component
g gravitational acceleration (m s− 2)
h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Subscripts
LHV lower heating value (kJ/kg)
ṁ mass flow rate (kg/s)
b boundary
Ṅ molar flow rate (mol/s)
c compressor
P pressure(kPa)
com community
Q heat (kJ)
d destruction
Q̇ heat rate (kW) DHW domestic hot water
S total entropy (kJ /K) El electricity

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M. Temiz and I. Dincer Applied Energy 358 (2024) 122539

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