FN Pamplet

FOOD AND NUTRITION
TOPIC 1: THE KITCHEN.

SUB TOPIC: THE KITCHEN EQUIPMENT AND UTENSILS.
The kitchen is a working room and, in order for it to be easy and efficient to work in, it must be
well planned. Modern houses tend to have smaller kitchens than older houses do, yet today more
Labour saving equipment is available to put into them. Besides its main functions as a place
where food is stored and prepared for meals, the kitchen may be used for laundering and
cleaning, hobbies and often eating in and entertaining.
NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 1

KICTHEN
SUMMARY
MOST OF ALL REMEMBER:

HYGIENE IN THE KITCHEN.
Food preparation is the main function of the kitchen and it is vital to
maintain high standard of cleanliness at all cost. Everything in the
kitchen must be clean all the time including the roof, wall, sink, units,
cookers, kitchen bin, utensils, work surface, floor, storage areas e.t.c
QN.1. Identify different kitchen layouts.
 U- shaped
 Parallel
 Island
 One-sided kitchen
 L-shaped
QN.2. The kitchen should be designed in such a way that time and energy are not
wasted by moving from one area to another. Show the effective sequence of equipments
in the kitchen.

 Food storage preparation cooking serving cleaning up.
QN.3. Illustrate the points to consider when planning the layout of the kitchen.
 Positioning-should be conveniently located to have good light, open view, should not
be enclosed by other rooms.
 Types of kitchen-choose a suitable type of kitchen. There are three types:
(a) Separate working kitchens-may be enclosed or isolated for meal preparation and
may have facilities for other domestic use.
(b) Working kitchen with dinning spaces- for meal preparation and serving.
(c) Dinning kitchens- for meal preparation, other domestic tasks and activities like
eating and watching television.
 Size and shape- the size should suit the size of the family and should be big enough
to match with its uses. A large kitchen wastes time and energy and a small is cramp
to work in and difficult to keep tidy.
 Ergonomic aspects- Ergonomics is the study of work and its environment in order
to achieve maximum efficiency. The lines joining the center points of the sink,
cooker and refrigerator should form a „work triangle‟ to avoid unnecessary
movements. A sequence of work surface fridge work surface
Sink work surface cooker work surface is very important. The
heights for work surface should not be too low or too high, hipline is better.
 Surfaces- These include kitchen walls, floor coverings and work surface;
(a)Floor coverings should be easy to clean, warm to the feet, slip resistant, quiet, water
proof, durable, resistant to domestic chemicals. Examples of floor coverings are; tiles,
corks (wood), linoleum.
(b) Wall covering should be impervious to smells, easy to clean and hard wearing, heat
and grease resistant. Examples are paint, wall paper and tiles.
( c) work surface should be scratch proof, easy to clean, long lasting heat and chemical
resistant, quiet and cheap. Examples are; plastics, ceramic tiles,stainless steel ,hard
woods.
 Kitchen units-These may be tall,base,wall units, island units, peninsular units

used for storing small equipments,non- perishables, kitchen clothes like tea
towels, oven gloves e.t.c. when making units consider the space,style of the
kitchen, hygiene, height e.t.c.
 Lighting- good lighting is essential to ensure easy work,safety and hygiene in
the kitchen.day light should be adequately supplemented by artificial light e.g
fluorescent light and strip light are best.

 Ventilation-this is necessary to allow steam, odours, grease and heat to escape
from the kitchen to avoid condensation ( which would promote micro-
organism activities), stale air and excessive heat in the room. Open windows
are the simplest and common form of ventilation that cause draught therefore,
a cooker wood, window or wall extractor are recommended.
 Heating- usually, kitchen generate a lot of heat but back-up heating may be
needed in cold weather. Avoid portable heaters and trailing flexes. Electric,
gas or oil radiators can be used.
 Decorations-there is a wide range of utensils, coverings for floors, walls, and
cloths used in the kitchen. Colour is chosen according to the personal taste but
colour that contributes to the coolness of the kitchen should be considered e.g.
cream, pale blue, green, white, yellow. There should be a good colour scheme.
SECTION 1.2 LARGE AND SMALL EQUIPMENT.
There is an enormous range of small and large pieces of equipment available in the kitchen ware
shops. I am pretty sure you have some pieces of equipment in your kitchen.
NOTE:
-it is very important to know the correct names of pieces of equipment you have and there
uses so as to utilize them correctly and for them to last long. Everything is very expensive
these days.
Q.N.4 (a) Make a list of twenty five (25) small and five (5) large pieces of
equipment found in the kitchen.

(b)After making the above list, can you now try to complete the table below
for me?
SMALL EQUIPMENTS USES
Cutting tools Peeling vegetables, slicing, cubing and

chopping.
Cook‟s knives
Paring knives Peeling, trimming and cutting eyes out

of the vegetables
Palette knives Mixing, folding, scraping, turning pan

cakes
Grape fruit knives Segmenting grape fruit and oranges
Potato peelers Peeling fruits and vegetables and

making chocolate curls
Graters Breaking food e.g cheese, apples into a

variety of shapes and sizes.
Kitchen scissors Cutting rind off bacon, chopping or

cutting herbs, making patterns on pastry.
Pastry cutters Cutting pastry, scones and biscuits,

poaching eggs and cooking crumpets
Spoons,lifers and turners wooden Creaming, beating, shaping a cottage

spoons loaf.
Slotted spoon Lifting food from pans, serving food,

removing scum from stork

Spatulas and scrapers Scraping mixtures from mixing bowls, folding
and blending light aerated mixtures.
Tools TO BREAK,CRUSH AND PUREE Mashing cooked potatoes and other root
vegetables
Potato masher
Pestle and mortar Crushing foods to paste or powder

TOOLS FOR SEPARATING Draining vegetables and pasta, washing
and rising fruit and vegetables as a
steamer over a pan of boiling water.
Colanders
Sieves Drum and bowl shaped sieves for sifting

solids and liquids, conical sieves for
liquids.
TOOLS FOR SHAPING AND MOLDING Rolling out pastry into flan tins,
crushing biscuits, and brushing meat.
Rolling pins
Forcing bags Large sizes for mashed potatoes,

meringues, choux pastry, medium for
whipped cream and small for icing.
Pastry brushes Applying glazes e.g milk, egg and syrup

to doughs, pastries and cakes.
Balloon whisk Introducing air into mixtures,e.g

souffle`s, whipped cream, meringues,
beating sauces smooth.

Rotary whisk As for balloon whisk
Chopping board/pastry board For chopping vegetables, rolling out

pastry and carving meat.
BOWLS Mixing ingredients together, e,g, batters,

cakes, pastry and bread.
Mixing bowls
Pudding Mixing ingredients together, cooking

steamed pudding.e.g steak and kidney
pudding.
PLATES AND DISHES Making tarts(e.g. apple),steaming

foods(e.g. fish)
Pie plates
Pie dishes Cooking pies,crumbles,cauliflower
au gratin(using Pyrex dishes)
BAKING TINS Baking biscuits,meringues,bread rolls,

round ones can be used for pizzas as
Baking tins
bases for flan rings
Bread tins Baking bread, cooking pates and meat

loaves
Deep cake tins Baking rich cake mixtures e.g. Dundee

cakes, fruit cake
Shallow cakes tins Sandwich tins for sponges and Victoria

sandwich mixtures,swiss roll tins for
Swiss rolls
Bun tins Baking small cakes,pies,batters,tartlets
Flan rings Making flans and quiches
Roasting pans Roasting joints and vegetables

SAUCEPANS,KETTLES AND Boiling and simmering foods
CASSEROLES
Saucepans
Milk pans Heating milk
Kettles Boiling water
Casseroles Stewing and casseroling
FRYING PANS Cooking pancakes, omelets ,fried eggs
Shallow
Deep Cooking chips ,scotch eggs or batter-

coated fish
MEASURING EQUIPMENT Measuring weight
Scales
Measuring spoons Measuring volume of small quantities
Measuring cups Measuring volume
Liquid and dry measures Measuring of volume
Thermometers Measuring of temperatures

ELECTRICAL Heating water ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
APPLIANCES
Kettle
- Saves time and -takes up work
energy surface space.
- Leaves hob unit
free for cooking
- Can be used in
other rooms
Coffee percolator For making coffee -coffee never boils
-As above
Filter coffee maker For making coffee -As above
-Easier to clean due to

filter papers.
Multi - cookers Can be used as a Bain -Energy saving -Uses more working
– Marie, a slow surface as it is big
-Useful if conventional
cooker, double boiler
oven is full
and warmer.
-Can be used in other
- For roasting
rooms
,baking ,frying,
braising,
casseroling and
steaming
SLOW COOKING - Can be used -Good for people coming

POTS for casseroles, back at different times.
risotto, baked
-Saves energy
custards, tea
bread and cake, -Food can be left for
jams chutneys cooking
and heating
garlic and herb -For batch cooking and

breads time saving
CONTACT -To toast sandwiches -Useful if the cooker is -Difficult to clean

GRILLS fully occupied.
-To grill meat, cook -takes up extra space
Sandwich toaster casserole, bake - Can be used in different if used as an addition
scones and cakes and parts of the house. to a conventional
cook frozen meats. grill.
Deep fryer -Can be used to -Food does not burn due - Expensive
blanch vegetables, to to thermostat control
-Large and takes up
cook stews and soup
-the indicator on the side more work and
apart deep fat frying
helps not to over fill. storage space.
food
-Charcoal fitter reduces
cooking smells
-easy to clean if with a

special filter.
Blenders(liquidizers - To make -Saves food preparation -use only small

) purees, batters, time. quantities only.
bread crumbs
-Some heat up foods like
and grind nuts.
sauces, soups and purees
- Some have
coffer grinding
attachments
Hand mixers -used to mix, whisk -Different mixing vessels -Designed to copy
and beat small can be used with small quantities
quantities only.
- saves time
- Hand held
Microwave ovens -for catering of food -Saves time and energy -initial cost can not be
in a faster way. high
-can be used to thaw
-For heating food foods. -not a complete
substitute for a
rapidly -Uses less electricity. convectional cooker
e.g cant boil eggs,
-saves money
cant fry fish or chips,
-very clean brown meat or pastry,
biscuits,
-easy to use and clean
Batter or meringue.
-cuts down cooking
Cannot soften tough
smells and condensation meat.
-Retains flavor and
vitamins
-can be used in rooms

other than kitchen
- Germs are destroyed.
Food processor -to chip, liquidize, - Much faster than -Heavy to move
grate, table mixer
-Not for whisking egg
- May carry out
Slice and may whip, whites
specialized
whisk or knead
functions -timing is critical
depending on the
type. -cant copy with large
quantities as a table
mixer
Q.N.5. Demonstrate the choice, use and care of large equipment.

A.COOKERS-CHOICE
1. The size in relation to the family needs and space in the kitchen
2. The cost according to the budget and usage of the cooker
3. Features required e.g automatic timing, self-cleaning, oven lining e.t.c
4. Type of fuel required wood, gas, electricity e.t.c
5. Food design features e.g easy to clean, easy to operate , pans support on the hob.
USE AND CARE
1. Use with care
2. Clean the cooker after each and every use
3. Use economically.
B.REFRIGERATOR-CHOICE
1. Size and capacity according to need.
2. Storage arrangement inside the kitchen.
3. Space available in the kitchen.
4. Star rating for frozen food compartment
5. Easy to clean and operate
6. Additional features e.g automatic defrosting.
7. Choose absorption type its quiet (not compression type)
CARE
1. Defrost it whenever necessary.
2. Observe rules for using a refrigerator.
3. Clean it frequently.

C. SINK-CHOICE
1. A double sink is better for easy working.
2. Easy to clean-good finish (stainless steel)
CARE
1. Avoid putting scraps of food. Tea leaves, hot fat down the sink to avoid
blockage.
2. More often pour hot water on the sink-outlet
3. If blocked, unblock by:
 Pushing a soft wire gently down the plug hole to remove the blockage.
 Use special sanction tool to try to shift the blockage
 Place a bucket underneath the U-bend under the sink.
 Undo the screw examine carefully.
 When unblocked, flush hot water down to remove any debris.
4. Pour bleaches or disinfectants down the sink regularly to destroy bacteria.
Q.N.6. Explain on the positioning of large equipment in the kitchen.
 The cooker should not be placed near the window with a curtain to avoid
accidents like fires; neither should it be placed near the door way to prevent
accidents.
 The sink must be placed under the window for allowing odours from the
food to move out quickly and also for a good view.
 The refrigerator should be placed in the corner away from the cooker.
 Working tables may be in the center to minimize movements.

SUB- TOPIC: SAFETY IN THE KITCHEN
Homes are very dangerous places. Most of these accidents are falls and the most
vulnerable groups are the elderly and young children.
What causes accidents?
First aid is given to:
(a) preserve life

(b) prevent the condition worsening and
(c) Prevent bleeding.
First aid is not medical aid. The action of a person giving first aid should be limited
to:
(i) Clearing airways- mouth, nose e.t.c; (ii) making sure the patient is
breathing; (iii)stopping bleeding.
THE KISS OF LIFE.
1. Lay the patient on his back, loosen tight clothing. Ensure that mouth and
throat are not blocked, food or false teeth.
Fig.10.1 The Kiss of life.
Q.N.7. define first aid?
 First help given to a casualty before the arrival of a medical expert.

 The assistance given to any person suffering from a sudden illness or injury,
with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening,
and/or promote recovery.
Q.N.8.What is contained in the first aid kit?

 Adhesive plasters for minor cuts and graizes.
 Prepared wound dressings
 Sterilized cotton wool
 Gauze bandages in a roll
 Triangular bandages for slings
 Crepe bandages
 Safety pins
 Tweezers/razor blade.
 Scissors
 Roll of surgical tape
 Antiseptic solution to clean wounds
 Antiseptic cream.
 Pain killer
 Medicated soap

 A small blanket
 A booklet on basic first aid information
 A clinical thermometer
 Surgical spirit
Q.N.9. List different dangers that can occur in the kitchen.

1. floor and floor coverings: if floors are wet, or highly polished, uneven floors or if floor
coverings are badly joined or loose or untidy floors. This cause falls leading to injury and death.
2. Faulty, electrical appliances, kitchen clothes near heat, flammable goods near heat, chip pans.
These cause fires or electric shock.
3. Hot liquids, hot equipment and steam. These cause burns and scalds.
4. Unlock able poisonous liquids /medicines e.g over dose medicine or wrong medicines or using
contaminated cloths and sinks, or household bleaches or chemicals, or weed killers and
pesticides or dry cleaning fluids or solvents. These cause poisoning.
5. Dark working surfaces. These may cause cuts and falls.
Bad lighting: causing accidents like cuts.
Sharp equipment causing, cuts or bruises.
Storage: high or higher storage parts which may cause falls, fractures.
Q.N.10. Detect the safety precautions to adhere to while in the kitchen.
 .mop up water immediately and dry thoroughly

 Never polish floor to a high gloss or use non slip polish.
 Do not place any rug or mat on a highly polished or very slippery floor.
 Floors should be smooth and even.
 Tidy up floor-no trailing cables e.t.c
 The kitchen must be adequately lit.
 Avoid putting kitchen clothes near a source of heat.
 Turn off electrical appliances when not in use.
 Do not leave items such as dry cleaning fluids near heat source.
 Never leave items chip pans or hot fat unattended. Avoid filling pans with fat.

 Handles for Saucepans (pots) with hot liquids should not be placed where they
can be pushed off the stove.
 Never move about with hot water in a kettle.
 Use oven gloves which are strong and have no holes.
 Use wooden spoons to stir hot liquids.
 Never leave utensils close to a part of the cooker which is on.
 Having locking medicine cupboards and buy bottles with child proof cups.
 Have separate clothes for separate jobs.
 Before leaving the chemists make sure you understand the dosage required.
 Spray carefully the pesticide, remove all foods.
 No electrical appliance should be used close to water and do not switch on with
hot hands.
 Store sharp utensils safely.
 Cover garden fish ponds with a firm guard.
 Cover naked wires (electric).
Q.N.11 .State common accidents in the kitchen.
BURNS AND SCALDS

1. Cool the whole area with cold water for several minutes to kill the pain and reduce risk of
blistering.
2. Do not remove clothing that has been burnt.
3. Remove clothing that has been soaked in a corrosive chemical (protect your own hands first).
4. Remove jewelry if possible as the area may swell.

5. Cover the area with a clean cloth to reduce the risk of infection.
6. Lie patient down and keep them warm.
7. Badly burned patients may be given sips of water.
8. Protect blisters, do not burst them.
9. If clothing catches fire, throw patient to the floor and smother flames with a rug or blanket.
CHOKING

1. A series of sharp blows between the shoulder blades may dislodge the obstruction. try to get to
the person to bend over so that the head is lower than the chest.
2. If this doesn‟t work, try to hook out the obstruction with the finger.
3. Small children should be turned upside down and hit on the back.
4. As a last resort, use the Heimlich maneuver.
5. Stand or knee behind the patient, with one arm around their abdomen. Hold your fist with your
other hand. Pull both hands towards you quickly, thrusting your elbows inwards and outwards to
compress the patient‟s abdomen. The aim is to push out and dislodge the obstruction. This may
cause internal injury to a young child and should only be used for older children and adults.
ELECTRIC SHOCK
1. If possible switch off the power supply. Do not touch the patient until is done.
2. If this is not possible, push the patient away from the appliance with a wooden handle or stick.
3. Look for signs that the patient is breathing, and if necessary begin resuscitation.
POISONING
The following can all cause poisoning:
-acids
-bleach
-carpet cleaner
-detergents
-lavatory cleaner
-paraffin
-oven cleaner
-petrol
-shoe polish e.t.c
-petrol.
1. Telephone for ambulance
2.Do not induce vomiting.

3. Dilute the poison by giving tepid milk or water in sips.
4. Wipe face and lips gently with cloth or sponge.
5. Do not pour water into the mouth of unconscious patient as this may choke them.
If the patient has swallowed pills, try to make them vomit by putting fingers into their throat. Do
not give salt water or anything else to make them vomit.
SHOCK
Shock is a medical term used to describe the effect on the body of a large loss of blood or other
body fluid following severe bleeding, burning, heart failure, persistent vomiting or diarrhea, or
an emergency operation. The symptoms of shock are:
-cold, clammy skin, heavy sweating, faintness, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, confusion,
anxiety, thirst, shallow breathing and weak pulse.
This is a serious situation and should be treated immediately.
1. Lie patient down with feet raised and head on one side.
2. Try to stop the loss of blood or fluid.
3. Call for medical help.
4. Loosen tight clothing. Do not move unnecessary.
5. Cover patient with a blanket.
6. Do not give anything to drink.
In all cases of injury, seek medical advice when first aid has been administered.
RESUSCITATION.
If someone has stopped breathing it is important to start mouth-to-mouth resuscitation before

medical help arrives in order to save their life. The brain suffers damage if it without oxygen for
more than three minutes and death will follow soon after:
What to do:
1. Check the patient‟s breathing. if it has stopped.

2. Clear the mouth by removing false teeth, dirt or any other objects.
3. Bend the head back with one hand and push the jaw upwards with the other to lift the tongue
away from the back of the throat.
4. Squeeze the nostrils together, place your mouth over the patient‟s mouth, and blow gently.
Watch for chest to rise.
5. Let the chest fall (take your mouth away) then repeat about fifteen times a minute, continuing
until the patient starts to breathe again or until help arrives.
6. Place the patient in the recovery position, with the head to one side in case of vomiting, and
one arm underneath to prevent the patient rolling on to his or her back.
7. If the heart has stopped pumping, it will need to be massaged. Press on the lower half of the
breast bone using the heel of one hand and the other on top. Press about once a second five
times, then continue mouth-mouth resuscitation. Repeat until the heart starts beating and
breathing is continuous.
QUESTIONS ON FIRST AID

1. Define First Aid?
2. What is the importance of first Aid box in the Kitchen
3. Outline some precautions you would take on the following dangers in the kitchen?
(i) Cleaning materials
(ii) Fires;
(iii) Tablecloths
4. How would you treat the following?
(i) A scald on the arm;
(ii) Electric shock;
(iii) Severe bleeding from a cut finger;
(iv) Poisoning.
5. List down the contents of a First Aid Box and explain the use of each content.
TOPIC 2: PRINCIPLES OF FOOD AND NUTRITION.

SUB-TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND NUTRITION.
Nutrition in a simpler term is „feeding‟ Food is vital to life. A human being needs food in order
to sustain his/her life. Some few foods can be eaten raw and most of other foods require cooking.
Different foods contain different or similar nutrients in varying quantities.

THEREFORE
- It is important to know what food is, the nutrients they contain, the role the nutrients play
in our bodies, the hygienic handling of food as it is being prepared, cooked and served.
- It is also vital to carter for each and every individual in accordance with human stages of
growth, hence the subject food and nutrition.
PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION
NUTRITIONAL TERMS.
a. Nutrition: the study of food and how it is used up by the body.
b. Food: Is anything solid or liquid which when eaten or drunk provides the body with nutrients
to sustain life.
c. Diet: The food that a person normally eats every day. We also have special diets like slimming
diet, low fat diets, high protein diet e.t.c.
d. Balanced diet: The diet that provides the correct amount of nutrients for the needs of an
individual.
e.Malnutrition: This is the incorrect or unbalanced intake of nutrients.
f. Under-nutrition: When the body receives an insufficient total amount of nutrients.
g. Nutrients: Are chemical substances which make up food.
h. Dietetics: This is the study of nutrition in relation to the human body both in health and
illness.
i. Metabolism: is the total of the chemical reactions by which nutrients are used to provide
energy and materials for growth and maintenance of body cells.
j. Basal metabolic rate: The rate at which energy is used when the body is completely at rest.
K .Menu: French term meaning the list of dishes.
l. Macro-nutrients: Nutrients the body needs in relatively large amounts e.g proteins,
Carbohydrates.

m. Micro-Nutrients: Nutrients needed in relatively small amounts e.g Vitamins, essential fatty
acids and trace elements like zinc, iodine, copper etc.
n. Meal: A meal is food prepared to be eaten at a time. It should be balanced, that is, it must
contain all the food groups such as energy giving nutrients, body building nutrients and for
protection against diseases and infections. A meal is good, when it is appetizing, enjoyable,
attractively served and satisfying.
o. Entertainment: It is a careful, systematic and warm coherent process of welcoming guests of

visitors.
p. Hostessing : It is a way of receiving or entertaining visitors in a formal way.
q. Buffet Service(serve yourself):buffet service is do-it-yourself service. Suitable for breakfast,

luncheon, dinners and brunches.
r. Table etiquette: refers to the behavioral patterns of individuals during meal times at the table.
s. Meal planning: is the pre-arrangement and or considerations given to some basic elements
and factors existing among or within family members before a meal is prepared for consumption.
Q.N.12. define the following nutritional terms.
a. Food
b. Nutrients
c. Meal
d. Menu
f .Entertainment
g. Hostessing

TOPIC: FOOD AND NUTRIENTS
Do you know that there are three main groups of food?
These are:
1. Body Building foods-These build the body and repair worn out tissues e.g chicken, beef e.t.c
2. Energy giving foods: These provide energy and warmth to the body e.g bread, butter e.t.c
3. Protective foods: These protect our bodies against diseases e.g oranges, rape e.t.c.
NUTRIENTS
There are five main groups of nutrients. These are;
1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates
3. Fats
4. Vitamins
5. Mineral salts
6. Water and Roughage are not nutrients but are vital to life.
PROTEINS (BODY BUILDING FOODS)
Proteins are a first class nutrient. Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are chemical
substances. Amino acids are in turn composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and sometimes also sulphur, phosphorus and iron. Proteins are essential for life as all
living cells are built up of protoplasm that consists of proteins among other substances.
AMINO ACIDS
CHEMISTRY OF PROTIENS
There are many different proteins and they are all complex molecules which contain these
elements:
Oxygen (O) Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H ) Nitrogen (N )
And sometimes:
Sulphur (S) Phosphorus (N)

These are simpler chemical substances that make up proteins made up of small units joined
together like links in a chain. These units are called amino - acids. There are twenty-two (22)
different amino acids and different proteins contain different numbers and combinations.
Fig 10.4 protein chain
Some of these 22 amino acids are known as essential amino acids and others are called non-
essential amino acids.
Essential Amino-Acids: are not made by the body and the body must receive through the diet.
Non-essential Amino Acids: are manufactured by the body.
Ten are indispensable (essential) for growth and repair in children while eight are
indispensable for repair and maintenance in adults. Meaning they must be obtained from foods
containing protein in the diet, as they cannot be made in the body.
Proteins are classified in two groups namely:
1.First class:- Animal proteins: are complete or high biological value proteins which are said
to be indispensable amino – acids (IAAs).They are found in animal foods like : meat, cheese,
fish, milk, eggs ,flying insects like inswa, inshonkonono and soya beans.
2. Second class: vegetable proteins, incomplete or low biological value proteins which are also
called indispensable amino – acids (IAAs).They are found in foods like: cereals, e.g. wheat,
rice, Oat and gelatin.
Pulses, e.g. peas, beans, lentils
Some nuts, vegetables (a little)
Quorn mycoprotein.
However, there are two exceptions to this:
The only plant which has high biological value (HBV) is Soya beans and
Low biological value (LBV) in animals as gelatin.
PROTEIN NAMES
Each protein has its chemical name.
PROTEIN NAME WHERE FOUND
Collagen Meat, fish( connective tissue)

Myosin Meat, fish (muscle tissue)
Elastin Meat(muscle fibres)
Caseinogens Milk, cheese
Lactabulmin Milk
Lactoglobulin Milk
Ovalbumin Egg white
Mucin Egg white
Lipovitellin Egg York
Gluten(glutenin) Wheat
Gliadin Wheat
Zein Maize
Hordenin Barley
Functions of proteins
1. Protein is vital for growth, maintenance and repair of the body.
2. Protein performs as a secondary source of energy.
3. Helps in the production of body fluids such as blood cells, enzymes, hormones.
4. Helps in the production of anti-bodies.
5. Carbohydrates and fats sometimes called protein sparer because their presence means proteins
can be used for building.
Digestion of proteins
No digestion takes place until the food reaches the stomach.
In the stomach enzyme pepsin changes protein to peptides, in the presence of hydrochloric acid
(HCL).
In the duodenum enzyme trypsin from the pancreatic juices changes proteins to peptides.

In the small intestines enzyme erepsin changes peptides to amino acids.
Amino acids are absorbed into the blood capillaries of the villi of the small intestines. Proteins
are not absorbed in the body.
Amino acids in excess of the body‟s needs are deaminated in the liver to give two parts:
(a)Nitrogen-containing part which becomes urea and is excreted by kidneys
(b) The remaining network of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is oxidized to produce
energy.
A mixture of high biological (HBV) and low biological value proteins(LBV).
Effects of cooking on proteins.
1. Proteins coagulate when heated.
2. Overcooking will denature protein and make it difficult to digest.
3. Partial coagulation of milk proteins forms the skin on boiled milk and the scum left in the milk
pan.
4. Egg white sets at approximately 600C just before the egg York.
5. The muscle protein of meat, myoglobin, changes from red to a brown colour.
6. The meat proteins, myocin and actin, coagulate and shrink.
7. Moist heat converts insoluble collagen, the connective tissue in meat, to soluble gelatin.
8. Fish proteins coagulate at approximately 600C. Collagen is converted into gelatin.
9. The gelatin in flour after being stretched by raising agent sets to give structure to baked goods
such as bread and cakes.
N.B HBV proteins are sometimes called „complete‟ proteins and low biological value (LBV) are
called „incomplete‟.
QUESTIONS ON PROTEINS
Q.N.12. 1 what are the functions of proteins
2. Name the chemical elements found in proteins.
3. Define an amino acid
4. Describe amino acids

5. How many indispensable amino-acids do :
(a) Adults require?
(b)Children require?
6. Explain why the following have a high requirement for proteins;
(a) Children
(b) Pregnant women
(c) Adolescents
7. Outline low biological value protein and in which foods are they manly found.
8. Identify low biological value proteins and in what foods are they found?
9. Demonstrate how low biological value foods can be made more valuable to the body.
10. Name two proteins found in ;
(a) Meat
(b) Milk
(c) Eggs
(d) Cereals
11. Describe the effect of heat on meat, egg and milk proteins.
FATS
Fats are solids at room temperature while oils are liquids at room temperature.
CHEMISTRY OF FATS
Fats are made up of elements; carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are composed of 1 unit of
glycerol + 3units of fatty acids. These elements make up molecules of glycerol and fatty acids
which combine to form fat molecules.
TYPES OF FATS
There are many fatty acids known, each with its own chemical name. Fatty acids may be either
saturated or un saturated according to the arrangement of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS:
These have all the carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen atoms and cannot accept any more.
Mostly, they are found in fats which are solid at room temperature; e.g
butyric acid in milk and butter,
Palmitic acid in animal fats
Lauric acid in dairly foods and coconut oil
Stearic acid in beef fat.
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
These have some of the carbon atoms not saturated with hydrogen atoms and are joined to others
by a double bond.
They could accept more hydrogen atoms. Unsaturated fatty acids may be either mono-
unsaturated that is, if there is one double bond or poly unsaturated if there are more than one
double bond present. The more double bonds the fewer the hydrogen atoms.
Mono unsaturated fatty acids are found in olive oil, peanut oil, blended vegetable oils and
Poly unsaturated fatty acids are found in sunflower oil, corn oil, fish oil and other vegetable oils.
N.B most fats have a mixture types of fat acids. Unsaturated fatty acids may made saturated by
the addition of hydrogen ions - hydrogenisation.
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) –cannot be made by the body so they must be included in the diet.
They are needed for the building of cell membranes. They are found in some seed oils-
sunflower, soya, maize, in the oils of fat fish and in dark green vegetables. A deficiency is
unlikely. EFA are linoleic acid,linolenic and arachidonic acid. The last two can be made from
linoleic acid.
SOURCES OF FATS AND OILS.
Fats and oils are obtained from plants and animals.
Animal sources Plant sources
Lard or bacon fat(pigs),suet(cattle),dripping, Cotton seed oil, maize oil, sesame oil, olive oil,
cream(fat in milk),butter, cheese, egg York,

fish liver oils(cod,halibut),oily fish. soya oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, palm oil
(poly unsaturated fatty acids),avocado pear(

mono –unsaturated).
FUNCTIONS OF FATS
1. They provide a concentrated source of energy, Supplying more energy than the same
weight of carbohydrates or protein (1 gram protein - 4kcal or 17 kj,1 gram of
carbohydrates – 3.75kcal or 16kj and 1 gram fat – 9kcal or38kj)
2. Surrounds and protects certain vital organs e.g kidneys, heart, glands.
3. Forms an insulating adipose layer to help preserve body heat.
4. Fats area source of fat soluble vitamins e.g Vitamin A,D,E and K.
5. Forms a fuel reserve under the skin as insulating adipose layer and for long term storage.
6. They have a high satiety value- there presence in the stomach slows down digestion to
give a full feeling for longer.
7. Fats make food more palatable; give it more flavor e.g butter on bread, knob of butter on
boiled potatoes.
EXCESS FAT
Excess fat leads to obesity with other related diseases like cardio vascular disease ( heart
disease).
DEFICIENCY
A fat free diet would mean deficiency in fat soluble vitamins
DIGESTION OF FATS
No digestion takes place until the fats reaches the duodenum.
In the duodenum bile salts from the liver emulsify fats(it breaks the down into tiny
droplets).providing a large surface area for enzyme action. Pancreatic lipase, splits the fat
into fatty acids and glycerol.
In the small intestine synthesis of glycerol and fatty acids occurs into fat droplets and
these are absorbed into the lacteal of the villi.
Fats in excess of those needed for energy production from adipose tissue under the skin
and layers of protective fats around the organs.

EFFECTS OF COOKING ON FATS
1. Melt when heated.
2. At 100oC any water in the fat or oil is given off and can be seen as bubbles and steam.
3. Each fat and oil has a different temperature at which decomposition starts if it is over
heated.
A blue haze can be seen, smoke and soon after this, the fat ignites and burns rapidly.
Fried food readily absorbed fat and this increase the energy value. Fat soluble vitamins
are not affected by heat
REQUIREMENTS OF FATS
The body can adopt most fat acids in food to suit its requirement, however, there are
some fat acids that the body needs but cannot make itself. These are called essential fatty
acids (EFAs).
Linoleic and linolenic fat are essential fatty acids ( EFAs) which are found mainly in
plant oils.
They are needed for the brain development of babies. Humans make special essential
fatty acids from linolenic and linoleic acids in breast milk. This one of the reasons why,
human breast milk is best for babies.
Oily fish (e,g herrings, sardines, mackerel) contain essential fatty acids called omega 6
and omega 3. Omega 3 EFAs they help lower the blood cholesterol and help prevent
blood clot. For this reason it is recommended that people eat two portions of oil fish per
week. Some oily fish products now mention Omega 3 on their level.
QUESTIONS ON FATS
Q.N.13.1.Discuss the functions of fats in the body?
2. State the difference between fats and oils.
3. Mention the chemical elements that make up fats.
4. How are the fat molecules composed?
5. List four plant and four animal sources of fats.
6. Outline the difference between visible and invisible fats.
7. Explain three saturated and three unsaturated fat acids.

8. Why is an excessive intake of fat undesirable?
9. Assess the factors that are associated with coronary heart disease.
10. Describe the effect of heat on fat.
11. What are essential fatty acids?
12. Illustrate how breast feeding help to make sure that babies get EFAs in their diet?
CARBOHYDRATES (energy/starch foods)
Functions of Carbohydrates
The body requires a source of energy in order to function. Carbohydrates are an important
source of energy and it acts as a protein sparer, so that protein can be used for its primary
functions rather than as a source of energy.
CHEMISTRY
There are several types of carbohydrates but they all contain three elements: that is
-Carbon
-Hydrogen
-Oxygen
Oxygen and hydrogen are present in the same proportion as in water (H2O), hence the term
„hydrate‟.
SOURCES
Carbohydrates are produced mainly by plants during the process of photosynthesis in which the
following reactions occurs:
Diagram Anita.
The carbohydrate produced by plants is stored for future use.

Monosaccharide Disaccharides Polysaccharide
Simple sugars e.g Double sugars(2 Complex sugars (long

glucose, fructose simple sugar units) chains simple sugar
Examples units) e.g starch,
glycogen, cellulose,
pectin, dextrin
Functions in the Energy production Energy production Starch

body 16kj/g (3.75kcal/g) 16kj/g)
Glycogen
Cellulose (fibre)-
indigestible. Absorbs
water and bulks up the
content of colon. This
aids peristalsis and the
egestion of faeces.
Pectin-no direct food

value but is the setting
agent in jam.
Digestion No digestion needed Small intestine In the mouth

simple sugars are
absorbed rapidly. Enzyme maltase- Enzyme salivary
amylase converts
Maltose to glucose. cooked starch to
Enzyme sucrose- maltose and dextrin
Sucrose to glucose. In the duodenum
Enzyme lactase Enzyme pancreatic

amylase converts
Lactose to glucose starch to maltose.
and galactose
In the small intestine
Enzyme maltase
Converts maltose to
glucose.
Effects of cooking Dry heat-sugars melt. Dry heat-starches

further heating lose water and form

evaporates water to dextrin.
form caramel and
eventually carbon. Moist heat-starch
grains absorb water
Moist heat-sugars and swell-
dissolve. Further gelatinization.
heating evaporates Cellulose is softened,
water to form caramel its bulk is reduced and
and eventually it is easier to eat.
carbon.
N.B
All simple sugar molecules are absorbed into the blood capillaries of the villi of the small
intestines. Excess sugar is stored as glycogen in the muscle cells and in the liver. This can be
quickly converted back to glucose .any further excess is stored as body fats.
QUESTIONS ON CARBOHYDRATES
Q.N.14.1.Explain why the body requires carbohydrates.
2. List the chemical elements that make up carbohydrates.
3. Conclude what happens if too muck carbohydrates are eaten.
4. Analyze three monosaccharides and give their sources.
5. Outline three disaccharides and three polysaccharides, describe their composition, and list
their sources.
6 .Define photosynthesis and explain its importance.
7. Illustrate with examples the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic sugars.
8. What is NSP?
9. Discriminate the effects of heat on sugar and starch.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are required by the body in small amounts and are found in small quantities in food.
They play an important part in the building and functioning of our bodies. Lack of a particular
vitamin in our diet can result in a deficiency disease. Vitamins are either fat-soluble ( A,D,E,K)
or water-soluble( C and B complex).

Vitamin- their functions and sources
Vitamin Functions Good sources
Vitamin A the maintenance of moist surface tissues The body converts carotene
(orange/yelow pigment) in
(epithelial),e.g. tissue at the front of the eyes, fruit and vegetables to
carotene lining respiratory passages and digestive tract. retinol(2 parts carotene
makes 1 part retinol).
Helps to regulate growth.
Egg York, margarine,
(Retinol) Needed for the manufacture of visual purple in butter, liver, oily fish.
The retina and as such concerned with the Vegetables sources-carrots

perception Of light in dim light. ,green vegetables and
tomatoes.
Sometimes called anti-infective vitamin.
Vitamin D Concerned with absorption of calcium and Our most important source
phosphorus in the small intestine and with the is the action of ultra-violet
laying down of these two elements in bones and light on the adipose tissue
teeth. below the skin.
Margarine, summer butter,

egg York, oily fish, fish
liver oils.
Vitamin E Not considered to be of great importance in man. Most foods. Cereals

products, meat and animal.
Vitamin K Helps in the clotting of blood. Made by bacteria in the

intestines.
Cabbage, spinach.
Vitamin C Needed for the formation of connective tissue Black currants, oranges,
lime, lemons, grape fruit,
(ascorbic acid) Collagen and of intercellular cement. Therefore strawberries, canned
has important part to play in the processes of tomatoes, cabbage,
growth and repair. Brussels, cauliflower and
peppers. A daily intake is

Helps in the absorption of iron from eggs and important.
plant foods therefore is linked to energy
production. The body can store vitamin C for up
to 6 months but this store is rapidly depleted when
intake of the vitamin is low and when the body is
physically or mentally stressed.
Vitamin B B1Thiamin for the release of energy from the Whole wheat and its
complex carbohydrate. It is necessary for growth in products including breakfast
children. cereals, yeast, pork, bacon,
potatoes, milk
B2Riboflavine for the release of energy from food,

and especially amino-acids and fats. Yeast, liver, milk ,cheese,
eggs, beef
Nicotinic acid for the release of energy from food

and therefore growth.
Healthy skin, tongue, digestive and nervous

system.
Yeast, liver, meat and meat
products, white fish, cereal
products including breakfast
B12cobalamin is needed for the formation of red cereals ,some fruits and
blood cells and for amino acid metabolism. vegetables-e.g peas, beans,
dried fruit.
Milk, liver
EFFECTS OF COOKING ON VITAMINS
1. Vitamin A, both retinol and carotene are unaffected by most cooking processes. A little
Vitamin A may be lost in the oil when frying because it is fat soluble.

2. The B vitamins are all soluble in water and are destroyed by heat.
3. Vitamin C oxidizes in the air, is soluble in water and is destroyed by heat-most is lost at
temperatures below 1000c.
4. Vitamin D is unaffected by heat but as it is fat soluble a little may be lost when frying.
MINERAL ELEMENTS
The body contains several inorganic elements called minerals.
Major minerals (Needed in larger amounts): sodium, chloride, calcium, iron, phosphorus.
Sodium, Chloride and Potassium
Sources: yeast, cheese, bacon, fish, meat, salt
Functions:
 Required to maintain correct concentration of body fluids and electrolyte balance so that
they remain constant.
Calcium:
Sources: milk, cheese, bread, bones of canned fish, hard water, dark green vegetables.
Functions:
 Formation of strong health bones and teeth.

 Clotting of blood.
 Proper functioning of muscles and nerves
Iron
Sources: liver, corned beef, cocoa, plain chocolate, watercress, red meat, egg yolk, liver, dried
fruits, whole grain cereals and nuts, beetroot, sweet potato leaves, chikanda
Functions:
 Formation of red blood cells.

 For the production of energy and maintenance of all cell functions.

Phosphorus
Sources: liver, kidney, eggs, cheese, brown flour, cereals and cereal products.
Functions:
 To build and strengthen bones and teeth.

 To control structure of the brain cells and nerves.
TRACE MINERALS: Zinc, Iodine, Manganese, Fluoride
Zinc
Sources: red meats, fish, legumes, dried fruits, eggs and poultry,
Functions:
 Helps in normal growth.

 Helps to improve body immunity.
 Supports the work of many proteins in the body.
 Helps in the storage and release of insulin.
 Helps in the wound healing.
 Helps in the making sperms in males.
 Helps in the development of foetus.
Iodine
Sources: sea foods and iodated salt.
Functions:
 Helps the thyroid grand to make hormone thyroxin which is important in the different
body functions.
 Helps to control the rate of metabolism in the body.
 Regulate the body processes.
Manganese
Sources: whole grains, nuts and leafy vegetables, etc.

Functions:
 Works with the most enzymes in many body processes such as metabolism.
Fluoride
Sources: tea, sea foods, safe, clean drinking water especially water from sources where fluorine
is abundant in the soil.
Functions
 Strengthening teeth against teeth decay.

 Formation of bones and teeth.
Chromium
Sources: meat, fats and vegetables
Functions:
 Helps in the release of energy and functions of insulin.
The effects of cooking on mineral elements.
1. Foods cooked in soft water loss some of their calcium.

2. Foods cooked in hard water gain some calcium.
3. Heating milk may reduce the amount of calcium available.
4. Cooking cereals may make some calcium available.
5. Iron is lost when meat juices are discarded.
6. Salt may be lost when foods are boiled but this is mostly compensated for by the salt
added during cooking.
WATER
Sources: clean safe water, vegetables, fruits (with a lot of fluids), drinks
Functions:
 To lubricate joints and membranes.

 Keeps lining of mucous membranes required as part of many metabolic reactions.
 For proper absorption.
 Removal of waste substances (urine)

 Water is vital to life (70% of human body is water).
 Help in cell function in the body.
 Regulation of body temperature.
 Flow of all blood fluids such as blood.
Requirements
Water should be drunk every day, especially in hot weather when much is lost through
sweating. Water is constantly lost in this way through the skin, and also from the lungs,
kidneys, bowels .A minimal of 2 to 3 litres per day is recommended.
Extra water is required:
1. during illness where a raised temperature results in increased sweating.
2. If vomiting or diarrhea has occurred, both of which can cause rapid dehydration,
especially in babies.
3. In lactation, when extra water is required for milk production.
4. After intense physical activity such as sport, especially at a high altitude.
DIETARY FIBRE (NSP)

Dietary fiber consists of the undigested and unavailable carbohydrate such as cellulose.
In the large intestine, dietary fibre absorbs water and bulks up the waste material making
it soft and more easily pushed along the intestines by peristalsis.
Lack of fiber results in hard pelleted stools and constipation. The intestine walls cannot
grip small hard faeces if waste products are kept in the intestines for too long they can
have a toxic effect. In additional to causing constipation ,doctors now believe that there
is a close link between a diet low in fiber and diseases such as appendicitis, diverticulitis,
caner of the bowel and colon, diabetes and gall stones.
It is estimated that we need about 30g of fiber daily.
SOURCES
Non-starch polysaccharides or NSP (dietary fibre) are found in the cell walls of plants.
They are not digested, but remain in the large intestine before passing out in the faeces.
The main sources of NSP are: whole grain cereals (bran),e.g wheat, rice, oats, whole
meal
Bread, breakfast cereals, whole grain pasta, crisp bread (bran can also be purchased
Separately)
Fruits, especially skins of apples, plums, vegetables, especially leaf vegetables,
Celery and potato skins.

FUNCTIONS
-Even though it is not digested, NSP is of great importance as it absorbs a lot of water
and binds other food residues to itself, ensuring that the faeces are soft and bulk and pass
easily out of the body in the minimum time. If the faeces are not removed on time,
several problems can arise:
Constipation
Many people suffer from constipation. The faeces become very hard and move very
slowly through the intestine, and a lot of effort is required to remove them. Abdominal
discomfort and a general feeling of ill health accompany this condition. People who
suffer from constipation often resort to using laxative, which irritate the intestine and
cause it to expel the faeces unnaturally quickly. This is unwise as it can lead to
dependency on laxative, as the normal process will be stopped.
Diverticular disease
The extra strain put on the muscular walls of the intestine through constipation may lead
to diverticular disease. This may develop if the faeces are small and hard (due to lack of
NSP and insufficient water), and the muscular walls of the intestine have to work harder
to move them along. This causes increased pressure in the intestine and leads to pouches
of the bowel lining being forced out through the intestine wall. If the pouches (called
diverticular) become inflamed, this causes discomfort. Part of the treatment for this is to
put the patient on a high-fibre diet.
Hemorrhoids (piles) and hernias.

These may be caused by the increased effort required to remove hard faeces in
constipation suffers.
Refined foods
It is often suggested that people today do not eat enough NSP, and that this is a major
cause of many disorders of the intestinal tract, including those described above and
bowel cancer.
Many foods eaten today are refined .This means that they are processed in food factories
into a variety of products, and much of their NSP content is removed. Refined food
includes:
White flour, white bread, white sugar
Instant puddings and desserts
White (polished) rice.
Instant potato
Such foods are often blamed for reduction in the amount of NSP eaten, as they are
convenient to prepare, highly palatable and relatively inexpensive.
Lack of exercise is also a major factor in causing intestinal disorders,

as exercise helps to keep the intestinal active.
Everyone should eat plenty of NSP to avoid constipation and its accompanying disorder.
The regular consumption of wholegrain cereals, wholemeal bread, fruit, and vegetables
and an increase in exercise should prevent such problems .A reduction in the amount of
refined foods eaten is also advisable, although they need not be avoided altogether.
Deficiency diseases.
Q. 11. What is a deficiency disease?
 It is the term used to describe any disease caused by lack of essential dietary nutrients.
 Any disease due to not eating foods that contain the nutrient required by the body.
Q. 15. What are the causes, signs and symptoms of the following deficiency diseases?
Marasmus
Causes:
 Lack of carbohydrate in the diet.

 Lack of energy giving foods as well as protein.
 Inadequate amounts of both proteins and carbohydrates are consumed for a long time,
resulting in an energy loss in the body.
Signs and symptoms:
 Excessive hunger
 Inactive
 Severe loss of weight
 Dry skin
 Dizziness
 Fatigue
 Child is very thin
 Arms and legs are like sticks and ribs stick out
 Face is thin and looks old.
 Head looks big because of small body
 Constant oedema
 Chronic diarrhoea
 Growth retardation

Kwashiorkor
Causes:
This is the form of malnutrition caused by not getting enough proteins in the diet especially
first class proteins.
Signs and symptoms:
 Fatigue
 Irritability
 Child may look fat with swollen legs, stomach and hands
 Large belly that sticks out
 Skin is pale or a bit red.
 Child is weak, unhappy and does not play
 Child may have a moon face
 Shoulders and upper arm will be thin
 Hair is thin
 Flaky rash
 Diarrhoea
 Loss of muscle mass
 Failure to grow or gain weight
 Damaged immune system which can lead to more frequent and severe infections.
Rickets
Causes:
 Lack of exposure to sunlight which stimulate the body to make vitamin D

 Heredity factors.
 Lack of foods containing vitamin D
Signs and symptoms
 Skeletal deformity: bowed legs, knock knees, abnormal curvature of the spine, pelvic
deformities and breastbone projection in the chest.
 Fragile bones: children with rickets are more prone to bone fractures.
 Impaired growth: delayed growth in height or limbs may be a result of rickets.
 Dental problems: defects in tooth structure, increased chance of cavities, poor enamel and
delayed formation of teeth.
Beriberi:

 Wet beriberi affects the cardiovascular system.
 Dry beriberi affects the nervous system.
 Infantile beriberi occurs between two and six months of age in children whose
mothers have inadequate thiamin intake.
Causes:
 Lack of foods containing thiamin (Vitamin B1 ).
Signs and symptoms of dry beriberi
 Loss of weight
 Muscles become weak
 Loss of muscle function or paralysis of the lower legs
 Fluid may retain in the tissues causing swelling
 Difficulty in walking
 Loss of feelings (sensation in hands and feet)
 Mental confusion
 Speech difficulties
 Pain
 Vomiting
 Strange eye movement (nystagmus)
Signs and symptoms wet beriberi
 Waking up at night due to shortness of breath
 Increased heart rate
 Shortness of breath with activity
 Swelling of the lower legs.
Symptoms of infantile beriberi
 Hoarseness: where a child make moves to moan but emits no sound.

 Weight loss
 Vomiting
 Diarrhoea
 Occasionally convulsions are observed.
Pellagra
Causes:
 Lack of riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

 Frequently caused by a chronic lack of niacin (Vitamin B3) in the diet.
Signs and symptoms
 Failure to grow
 Skin lesions, dermatitis (skin disorder), and conjunctivitis (disorder of the outer
membrane of the eye).
 Swelling of the tongue and mouth
 Sore lips
 High sensitivity to sunlight.
 Insomnia (lack of sleep)
 Diarrhoea
 Loss of appetite
 Enlarged, weakened heart
 Abdominal cramping
 Difficulty with memory, thinking, talking, writing or reading and comprehension
 Headaches
 Nausea with or without vomiting
Scurvy
Causes: lacking of foods containing vitamin C.
Signs and symptoms
 Slow healing of wounds

 Bleeding gums
 Slow growth
 Felling very tired and wean all the time (fatigue).
 Felling irritable and miserable all the time.
 Pain in the limbs, muscles particularly the legs.
 Fainting or change in level of consciousness.
 Loss of energy
 Easily bruised
 Lack of appetite
 Diarrhoea
Q. 13. Give examples of foods to remedy deficiency diseases.
Food to remedy marasmus are:

 Whole grain cereals, milk, yoghurt, eggs, tomatoes, avocado, bacon, butter, meat, beans,
water melon, pumpkin leaves, peanuts, mashed potatoes, fruit juice, baked fish and boiled
pasta.
Foods to remedy kwashiorkor are:
 Milk, yoghurt, whole grain, porridge with groundnuts/ eggs, fruits drinks, butter,
sausages, all fruits, celery, cake, meat bugger, samusa cheese, cucumber, beans and
chicken.
Foods to remedy rickets are:
 Exposure to sunlight and eat foods high in vitamin D such as fish (sardines)m milk, eggs
(especially yolk) cod liver oil.
 Food rich in fats and oils like fortified dairy products e.g. margarine, butter and cream.
Foods to remedy beriberi are:
 Foods rich in vitamin B1 like whole grain cereals e.g. corn meal, oat meal, whole grain
bread, legumes like beans and cow peas, potatoes, bacon, yeast and yeast extracts, milk,
pork, liver and kidney.
Foods to remedy pellagra are:
 Eggs, liver, yeast, yeast extracts, peanut butter, milk, whole grain cereals, cheese, poultry,
sea foods like white fish, kidney beans dried beans, lean meat and green vegetables.
ENERGY
Why we need energy.
The body‟s primary nutritional needs are for energy to sustain life. Energy is produced in
body cells by the oxidation of compounds containing carbon (simple sugar, fats)
Use of energy in the body.
Energy is used in various forms in the body.
Mechanical energy; for movement of muscles (voluntarily and involuntarily).
Chemical energy; for all chemical and metabolic reactions.
Heat energy; to maintain the body temperature.
Electrical energy; for the transmission of nervous impulses.

One form of energy can be converted into another form in the body, but all energy supplied
initially by food.
The energy value of food.
Foods are a mixture of nutrients. Energy value will vary with the difference composition of
food.
Fats provide the body with more than twice as much energy as the same weight of
carbohydrate or protein.
Protein in excess of the body‟s need for growth and repair will be used to supply energy if
there is insufficient carbohydrate or fat to meet energy needs.
1gram of simple sugar 16 kilojoules (4kcal)
1 gram of protein 17kilojoules(4kcal)
1 gram of fat 38kilojoules(9kcal)
Units of energy
The energy value of food is found by burning carefully measured quantities of the food being
tested in a calorimeter. The heat energy produced is measured.
Kilojoule (kj) and kilocalories(kcal or cal).A kilocalorie (sometimes written as Calorie) is

defined as; the amount of heat energy that is required to raise the temperature of 1kilogram
of pure water by 10C.
1kcal= 4.2kilojoules ( the joule is the metric unit of measurement for heat and energy.
ENERGY REQUIREMENT
The energy needed depends upon an individual‟s everyday activity, work done and
recreational activities. This varies widely from individual to individual:
-age
-sex
-Occupation
-physical activity
-state of body, e.g pregnancy, illness.

AGE
Young children need more energy for their size than adults as they are growing rapidly and
tend to be very active most of the time.
GENDER (SEX)
Men tend to be larger overall in body size than women, so they have a higher metabolic rate
and use more energy. This does not really apply to children.
Occupation and physical activity.
Sedentary:office workers, clerical tasks, drivers, pilots, teachers, journalists, clergy, doctors
e.t.c
Moderately active: light industry and assembly plants, railway workers ,post men and
women. e.t.c
Very active: coal miner, steel workers, dockers, forestry workers, army recruits, some farm
workers, builders‟ laborers, unskilled laborers.
STATE OF THE BODY
PREGNANCY; Extra energy is required for the growth of the baby, and the adjustment of
the body mother‟s body to pregnancy.
LACTATION: Extra energy is required for the production of milk, and some of this is laid
down as fat stores during pregnancy.
ILLNESS: The metabolism of the body may be raised at times during illnesses or fever but
at other times may be decreased due to a reduction in physical activities.
At least half of the energy released in the body is used for basal metabolism. (Resting
metabolism) this is the amount of energy that is required to keep the body alive when it is at
complete rest and warm. It is used to keep the heart, lungs, and digestive system moving to
maintain the nerve impulses to and from the brain and for all the necessary chemical reactions in

the body.
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION.
Digestion;is the process by which food is broken down into simpler molecules,which can be
absorbed into the blood stream.
Digestion and absorption both occur by physical and chemical means. Physical breakdown
e.g masticating in the mouth by teeth and jaws and the muscular action of the stomach help to
reduce the size of the particles.

Chemicals which involve enzymes found in digestive juices and other chemical reactions.
A SUMMARY OF DIGESTION AT DIFFERENT STAGES.
MOUTH.
-„Physical breakdown‟
-Teeth will chew the food into smaller particles then mixed with saliva ( to moisten the food
for easy swallowing) that is produced by the salivary glands. The tongue pushes the food
round the mouth and down the throat.
Chemical breakdown
-Salivary amylase (ptyalin) found in saliva (alkaline) converts cooked starch to maltose.
OESOPHAGUS
-„PHYSICAL BRAEAKDOWN‟
-food is moved down to the stomach by peristalsis (regular contractions and relaxation of the
muscles) and lubricating mucus.
-No chemical reactions.
STOMACH
-Physical breakdown
-food enters the stomach through the cardiac sphincter muscle.
-food is churned (broken down by the movement of muscles of the stomach wall.
-Food stays for 4-5 hours.
-Food is mixed with gastric juice and stomach mucus forming chime.
-Chemical breakdown
-Hydrochloric acid (found in gastric juice) stops the action of salivary amylase and destroy
bacteria-activates pepsin.
-Pepsin converts proteins to peptides (small chains of amino acids)
-Rennin (in babies only) clots milk so that it can be easily digested by pepsin.
-Absorption of water, glucose, alcohol can take place here.

DUODENUM
-Physical changes
-The pyloric sphincter open at regular intervals to let out jets of chime into the duodenum
chime mixes with pancreatic juices and bile.
-Bile salts emulsify fats to produce a large surface area.
-„Chemical breakdown‟
-Bile neutralizes the acids in the chyme and stops the action of pepsin.
-Trypsinogen (inactive) activated by enterokinase into trypsin continues the breakdown of

peptides to peptones.
-Lipase acts on fats breaking it into insoluble fatty acids (which become soluble by reacting
with bile and soluble glycerol.
-Pancreatic amylase breaks down uncooked starch into maltose.
ILEUM
-where digestion is completed due to the absorption which takes place here
-„Physical breakdown‟
-peristalsis
-Chemical changes: intestinal juice has the following.
-Erepsin or peptidases: changes peptones to amino-acids.
-Lipase further breaks down fat to fatty acids and glycerol
-maltase breaks down maltose to glucose
-Sucrase or invertase breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose.
-Lactase breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose.
-Food substances stay here for 2-3 hours,

ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS
-Diagram of the villus.
Amino acids, monosaccharide‟s, water soluble vitamins and minerals are absorbed into the blood
capillaries where they dissolved and carried out to different parts of the body.Excess is stored as
glucose-of the liver (glucose) muscles.
-Fat soluble vitamins and fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lacteal where they
recombine to form fats, which mix with the lymphatic system and join the blood circulation
as insoluble fats. They are converted to soluble fat in the liver.
THE COLON
-Water is absorbed making the food residue semi solid.
-Vitamin folic acid, vitamin K produced by microbial flora (bacteria) and this is absorbed in
significant amounts.
-More water is absorbed in the rectum depending on how long it has been there.

Q.N.18.without referring to the notes let us see how much you can remember by completing
the table below.
PART OF THE WHAT IT WORKS ON

ALIMENTARY CANAL AND INTO WHAT
ENZYME SUBSTANCE
MOUTH
STOMACH
DUODENUM
ILEUM
How many have you got right, make corrections if any.
TOPIC:MAIN FOODS IN THE DIET
MEAT COOKERY
SOURCES
The animals normally eaten for their meat include:
Ox/cattle – giving beef meat
Sheep – giving mutton meat
Pig – giving pork, bacon, and ham
Lamb – giving lamb meat
Calf – giving veal (young sheep)
Goat – giving goat meat
Wild animals giving game meat called furred game

Poultry obtained from domestic birds or fowls.
STRUCTURE OF MEAT
Meat consists of muscle tissue, connective tissues, fat and bone. Lean meat is the muscle
tissue of animals and consists of thousands of muscle fibres, which are long, thin, and
cylindrical in structure. They differ in length and diameter. Muscle fibers have the following
components – water, proteins (myosin and actin), mineral salts, and vitamin and myoglobin
pigment.
Bubbles of muscle fiber are held together by a network of connective tissue with collagen
and elastin. Collagen is the main component of tendons. Collagen when heated in the
presence of moisture is converted to gelatin (soluble).
Fat can be found in the connective tissue of muscles as invisible fat (marbling),and around
the vital organs e.g. kidneys as suet also under the skin(adipose tissue).the fat content helps
to give flavor, moisture and texture to the meat.
The colour of meat is due to the presence of myoglobin pigment and hemoglobin from the
blood.
TENDERNESS AND TOUGHNESS OF MEAT.
The following are the factors affecting the tenderness or toughness of meat.
- The age of the animal: the older the animal the tougher the meat because the muscle grow
long and thick with more connective tissues. The longer and thicker the muscle fibres, the
tougher the meat. Meat
is tough where there is more connective tissue.
- Work done by the animal or parts of the animal: the parts which are most used, muscles
become more developed and tough.
Nutritive value
- Proteins of high biological value 15% - 20% (lean)
- Fat – the saturated fatty acids. Energy value is due to the presence of fat. No carbohydrate
in carcass meat.
- vitamins
- Nicotinic acid and riboflavin are there in quite high quantities.
- Thiamine is present in varying amounts. Pork is richer
- B12 is also present
- Vitamin C – none
- Vitamin A and D are there especially the fatty parts.
- Mineral salts

- Calcium is there in small amount
- Iron is present due to myoglobin and hemoglobin
- Water is there but no fibre
CHOICE OF MEAT
We have all bought meat before, let us make a list of points we usually remember each time we
go out to purchase meat. Give at least not less than 5.
Note: take not more than 5minutes should be spent on this question.
WHY MEAT SHOULD BE COOKED
Meat should be cooked to make it safe for consumption, tender, flavorsome and palatable.
PREPARATION OF MEAT FOR COOKING
- Remove wrapper
- Remove visible fat and wash before cutting
- Thaw frozen meat by placing in a warm place not soaking – lessens nourishment
- Soften tough meat by breaking muscle fibres and connective tissue. This can be done.
- Mechanically by marinating meat, bashing meat and by cutting meat into very small
pieces
- Chemically by using proteolysis enzymes to digest muscle fibres and connective tissue
partially e.g.
- Commercially prepared tenderness
- Enzymes obtained directly from their sources e.g. papain from paw paw leaves, bomelin
from pineapples and ficin from fresh figs. Perforate meat or make slight cuts in meat
when using when using these enzymes and be careful with timing to avoid over
tenderizing the meat.
METHODS OF COOKING MEAT

Generally the tender cuts of meat are cooked using quick methods of cooking e.g. frying,
grilling, roasting and boiling. Examples of tender cuts for the above mentioned methods
of cooking are fillet, T- bone, sirloin, brisket, silver side, thick flank etc.
Tough cuts of meat e.g. shin, neck and clod, chunk, blade thin flank should be cooked
using the long moist of cooking e.g. stewing, braising (combination of pot roasting and
stewing).
EFFECTS OF HEAT ON MEAT
- Muscle fibre proteins coagulate losing water and causing shrinkage especially in dry
methods.
- The insoluble collagen is converted to soluble gelatine by moist heat

- Fat in meat will prevent meat from drying if dry methods of cooking are used, in moist
methods fat will float.
- Flavor is developed due to meat extractives and fat.
- The colour changes due to the formation of haemachrome (denatured globin or protein
tissue).
STORAGE OF MEAT(SHORT TERM)
Should be stored in a cool place like a refrigerator at least not more than three days unless
preserved.
PRESERVED MEAT
Can be frozen, dried, canned, or cured for long term storage.
MEAT PODUCTS
Sausage (fresh or cooked and dried), joints, hamburgers, boneless joints, meat extracts, gelatin.
IMPORTANCE OF MEAT IN THE DIET
Important source of high biological value proteins for growth and repair, B vitamins, Iron for
blood. etc.
OFFALS
Offals are parts of the dead animal, which are cut off the carcass in the process of dressing it.
EXAMPLES OF OFFALS
Brains, head, kidney, liver, sweetbread, tongue, tripe, hooves, tails etc
Note : Complete notes on the nutritive value, choice ,methods of cooking, importance in the diet
and their uses in food preparation.
POULTRY
The name given to birds those are readed for their meat or eggs or both.
EXAMPLES
Chicken – which can be classified as:
- The poussins – very young birds 5- 6 weeks old

- The spring – 8 -10 weeks old

- The roasting or boiling chicken 8-12 weeks old
- The boiled fowl very much older 12 – 18 weeks
- Turkeys: slaughter about 6 – 10 months old,5 -6 kg
- Duck 12 – 16 weeks
- Geese 6 – 9 months – 3.5 – 6 kg
STRUCTURE OF POULTRY
Poultry has similar structure to that of meat except;
- There is less connective tissue as compared to beef.
- Size of muscle fibre are short and quite thin legs and wings are tough as they do most
work and are dark in colour due to more myoglobin.
- There is less fat except goose and ducks. Complete notes on the following subtopics:
- Nutritive value
- Choice
- Storage
- Cooking
- Importance in the diet
QUESTIONS ON MEAT COOKERY
(a)(i) What are offals? Give two examples.

(ii) Describe the nutrients found in offal‟s.
(iv) Why it is important that offal‟s are very fresh when purchased?
B (i) How is meat tenderized
(ii) Why is poultry meat more tender than meat?

(iii) List the nutrients found in meat.
(iv) Name two methods of cooking suitable for the following cuts of meat and justify your
answer.
(v) Give advice you would give a friend on the storage of fresh meat.
(vi) Describe the changes that take place when meat is cooked.

FISH COOKERY
Fish is usually used as a substitute to meat – since it is a valuable source of animal
proteins and provides variety in the diet.
CLASSIFICATION
Fish can mainly be classified in two ways:
1. According to their origin

a. Fresh water fish caught from rivers, streams.
b. Sea water fish: caught from sea and are further divided into:
(i) Pelagic fish: which swim near the surface e.g. herrings, pilchards, markerel.
(ii) Demersal fish: these swim near the bottom e.g. cool lake place according to
their fat content and type.
2. According to their fat content and type:
(a) Oily fish: these have oil distributed throughout their flesh making them darker in
colour. Examples are trout‟s, salmon, pilchards, mackerel, herring, sandiness, snock
gallon, Hottentots, geelbek.
(b) White fish: the oil of the fish is stored in the liver leaving the flesh white and dry.
This is good fish for invalids and small children as it is easier to digest examples are
cod,coley, haddock, hake, halibut, plaice, solehoki, silver, white and red stamp nose,
kinglup, plaice, solehoki.
(i) Crustaceans: these are soft jointed sea animals covered in protective crust or
external skeleton e.g. lobster, crabs, shrimp. Pawns.
(ii) Molluscs: small soft bodied shell fish.e.g. Cockles, mussels, oysters, winkles
octopus, squid etc.
STRUCTURE OF FISH
The structure of fish resembles that of meat. Fish consists of muscle fibres, fat, bones, connective
tissues.
- Muscle fibres are short and thin with myosin and actin proteins in them. The muscle
fibres are formed into flakes with each end embedded in the connective tissue. There is
far less connective tissue consisting of collagen only which is converted to gelatin by
moist heat thus causing the flakes to fall apart.
- The fat content depends on the type of fish – there is more (about 5% ) in oily fish than
white fish.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH
- Proteins about 15% - 19% of high biological value. The myosin and actin in fish are
easier to digest than those in meat. Fish have less connective tissues.
- Fat: There is more in oily fish 15% than shell or white fish0.9%.the fat is of unsaturated
fatty acid.
- Carbohydrate: There is non in oily or white fish but traces could be obtained from shell
fish.
- Vitamins:
- Fat soluble vitamins are available in oily fish in significant quantities also in fish liver
oil(D) obtained from the liver of fish.
- Water soluble vitamins: most fish contain small quantities of the B group vitamins.
Vitamin C is not found in fish.
- Mineral elements
- Calcium: Highest is obtained from fish eaten with bones e.g. sardines, white baits.
- Phosphorus and potassium are also present in reasonable amount.
- Iron is only obtained from molluscs.
- Iodine and fluoride in sea fish.
- Water: There is more in fish about 70% fibre-none.
- Fibre none.
CHOOSING FISH
-Fish is sold as a whole large, medium, small fillets or steak cuts.
-Check for freshness e.g.
-There should not be unpleasant odour/smell.
-Fish should have bright eyes not sunken.
-Fish should plump, firm fresh.
- Plenty of bright scales, firmly attached to the skin.
FILLETING OF FISH
Fillets are full length sections of the fish separated from bones. A sharp knife should be
used.
-Flat fish is usually skinned before filleting and yields your fillets
-Round fish is skinned after and should yield two fillets.
NOTE: Filleted fish is attractive and good for small children invalids and old people.
Use bones for stock making.
METHOD OF COOKING

Fish can be cooked and served in many different ways e.g.
1. Steaming: small pieces of fish can be steamed whole where as big or large ones are
better filleted. Avoid direct steaming unless fish is wrapped in foil. Fish is placed on a
lightly greased plate, covered with another plate and cooked over boiling water.
2. Poaching: gently method of cooking fish can be poached in a little milk or water after
which is then used to make a sauce for invalid cooking.
3. Stewing: best method for dry fish. Fresh fish can also be casseroled or stewed.
4. Baking: dry method and needs a sauce to keep it moist, whole fish or fillets can be
stuffed and baked basting fish will be necessary.
5. Grilling: Dry and quick method of cooking fish which returns the delicate flavor,
smear fish with oil or fat before grilling and should be of thin thickness about
2.5cm.if it is the whole fish, scoring the flesh is better.
6. Frying: quick, dry and common method of cooking fish. Fish is always coated before
it is fried to: seal in juices; avoid the absorbing of fat by fish; to prevent fish from
sticking and breaking and prevent proteins from being over cooked.
(Moist method)
Boiling can be used but should be avoided as the flavor may be lost and the flakes
may separate and fall apart.
EFFECT OF HEAT
-proteins coagulate around 60oC-70oC and the flesh becomes white and opaque.
-Shrinkage due to loss of water because the over coagulated protein loses its water
-For long term storage, fish may be:
-Frozen at very low temperature.
-Canned-application of high temperature to kill micro-organisms.
-Dried or salted.
FISH PRODUCT
-Fish fingers, fish cakes, ready- prepared fish pieces for oven baking e.t.c
QUESTIONS ON FISH COOKERY

1. How is fish classified? Give examples under each class
2. List points to consider when choosing fish?
3. Describe the importance of fish in the diet.
4. Assess why fish takes less time to cook than meat, and how does its structure differ.
5. Show how fresh fish should be stored in the home.

MILK COOKERY
Milk is the liquid formed by all female mammals for feeding their young ones. It is
the most complete single food known. Milk and milk products are known as dairy
foods.
SOURCES
Milk is obtained from cows, goats, mares, asses, reindeer, and camels. Milk is
obtained from soya beans. The most commonly used is cow‟s milk.
The amount and quality of milk produced by a cow depends on
- Quality and amount food eaten by an animal
- The breed of cow – fresian – produce more milk
- The health of the cow
The nutrient content of grass being eaten may vary according to:
- Time of the year: more vitamin A in form of carotene is present.
- Soil fertility
- Variety of grass
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MILK

- High biological value proteins(3.4%)the proteins present in milk are
caseinogens(curds),lactabumin and lacto globulin(whey)proteins
- Fat – about 3.8%: found in emulsified form. Milk contains both saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids. This fat contains butyric acid, pulmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic
acid. The energy value depends mainly on the amount of fat.
- Carbohydrates: is there inform of lactose (milk sugar)- the only animal sugar with little
sweetness hence good for invalids and convalescent.
- Mineral elements: calcium, phosphorus, potassium are present in relatively large amounts
except iron which is there in traces – 0.0002%.
- Vitamins: vitamin A is there in fat – there is more in summer. Vitamin D is also present
in fat and what the cows skin produces due to the present of sun shine.
- Riboflavin(vitamin B2),Niacin(B3) and (thiamine in small amounts are present).vitamin C
is not there.
NB: water makes up about 87% of milk content.
MILK AND HEALTH

Milk is a very suitable medium in which microorganism flourish. To produce hygienic
milk:

- All cows are cleaned more often, inspected and vaccinated to ensure they are health and
properly fed.
- All milkers/workers should be healthy – free from infections e.g.T.B.
- Milking equipment should be clean.
- There should be clean, stable transportation conveyed and kept under scrupulously clean
conditions.
- Clean buildings for milking and free from flies.
- Milk should be heat treated
STORAGE OF MILK AT HOME

1. Store in a cool dry place e.g. in a refrigerator or cooler
2. Wash bottle before putting in the fridge
3. Never allow strong smelling foods near milk to avoid unpleasant flavor
4. Do not mix new and old milk.
5. Never allow milk to stand in the sunlight to avoid losing B2 vitamin.
SOURING OF MILK
True souring occurs in raw milk (untreated milk).in this milk there is lactic acid
producing bacteria and with suitable conditions for them to grow, they will convert
lactose to lactic acid, that is milk curdles. This causes casein to separate from
calcium and the casein is precipitated. Cream goes out before the rest of the milk.
Milk soured in this way can be used in place of cream of tartar with bicarbonate of
soda.
IMPORTANCE OF MILK IN THE DIET

1. HBV proteins for growth and repair of worn out tissues. Easily digested.
2. Energy value from fat-which is in emulsified form.
3. Calcium, phosphorus for strengthening bones and tee.
4. It has milk sugar free from sweetness which is a good aspect in the catering
of invalids and convalescents.
5. A natural and unrefined food with a good balance of most nutrients.
6. It has a bland flavor which enables it to be used in a variety of ways.
USES OF MILK IN COOKERY

- used for making beverages
- used for making milk pudding, flour mixtures, white sauce
- for making cheese, cream, yogurt

- Useful for invalids, liquid diet e.g. egg flip, custard, milk tea, milk soup.
- For glazing pastries.
PRESERVATION OF MILK (KEEPING MILK A LONG TIME)

- Drying removes about 95%of water e.g. powered.
- Evaporated milk – most of the water is evaporated until milk is about two and half times
more concentrated than fresh milk. It is prepared in a similar way to condensed milk but
no sugar is add to it.
- Condensed milk – like evaporated milk but sugar is added to sweeten milk and to act as a
preservative. After homogenization, sugar is added and milk is heated under vacuum to
evaporate some water. It is then cooled and poured into sealed cans
- Frozen milk – can keep up to a year.
MILK PRODUCTS
CHEESE COOKERY
Cheese making is a method of preserving the nutrients in milk. Cheese is solidified milk
form which much of the milk is removed. About 4litres of milk make 500 g cheeses.
MANUFACTURING OF CHEESE
Pasteurization: milk is just pasteurized to kill harmful bacteria and pumped into large
vasts at 30 0C.
RIPENING: a starter is added (bacteria culture) which changes lactose to lactic acid for
1 hour. This acid helps to preserve cheese.
RINNETING: rennet is added to the milk at the temperature of 300C to make the milk
clot. This takes about 45 minutes. Solid curd and liquid whey are formed.
CUTTING OF THE CURD: This takes about 45mins during which the special knives
are used to cut the curd in order to release the whey which is drained off.
DRAINING AND CHEDDARING: the block of curd are poured on top of each other
and replied at regular intervals to complete the draining. This is known as cheddaring.or
steam maybe passed through the hollow jacket of vasts then the curd is stirred for 1hour
to drain away the whey.
SALTING: About 2% of salt is added for flavor and to preserve the cheese.
PACKING AND PRESSING: Curds are packed in different molds which maybe lined
with muslin and pressed to remove the remaining whey. The greater the pressure the
harder the cheese. This is done for 24 hours and the molds are spread with hot water to
form a rind on the cheese for preparation.

RIPENING: Cheese will then be removed, date stamped and left to ripen at 100C for
months or years controlling the temperature and humidity. Cheese will be turned at first.
Flavour will develop because of bacteria and enzymes.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
-Protein-casein of high biological value.

-Fats- containing saturated fatty acids.
-Mineral salts-calcium and phosphorus.
-Vitamins-Vitamin A and D are there in relatively good amounts and a little B2.
-Water- a bit of water still remains after the draining process and the amount varies
depending on the amount of applied.
TYPES OF CHEESE
-Hard cheese: This is the type of cheese which is hardly pressed e.g. cheddar, Cheshire,
derby, double Gloucester, Leicester.
-Semi-hard: Lightly pressed cheese e.g. caerphilly, Gouda, Lancashire.
- Soft cheese: sometimes colouring and flavorings are added. They are packed in foils.
- Creamed cheese: this is cheese made from cream (30 – 60%) and curd but contains less
water. This is unripened cheese.
- Blue veined cheese: These are produced by inoculating the curd with a harmless mould
which grows in the air spaces and produces the characteristic flavor of cheese.
- Acid curd cheese or cottage cheese: This is made from skimmed milk. It is useful in
energy – reduced and low fat diets. This is also unripened cheese.
STORAGE OF CHEESE
HARD CHEESE
- Should be wrapped in foil or plastic to prevent the surface from drying out and then
stored in a cool place.
- Hard cheese can be frozen quite alright but may become crumbly on thawing.
LIGHTLY PRESSED CHEESE

- Have a shorter storage life than hard cheese.store in a similar way.
CREAM CHEESE/ACID CURD

- Should be eaten within a few days of purchase and should be stored in a cool space.
METHODS OF COOKING CHEESE

Short and quick methods of cooking are best:
- Grilling augratines
- Baking e.g.cheese pies,cheese cakes.
- Frying e.g. cheese digrattes

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON CHEESE
- Fats first melts
- Proteins continue to coagulate
- Overheating causes the protein to toughen,becomes stringy and indigestible
- Eventually it will burn.
THE PLACE OF CHEESE IN THE DIET

- Can be used as a main dish – HBV protein.
- Concentrate d food within waste-weight for weight.
- Gives a high energy value because of high fat content.
- Can be eaten at any meal.
USES OF CHEESE IN FOOD PREPARATION
-As a filling
-As a garnish
-Savoury after a meal e.g cheese biscuits,cheese scones.
-In sauces, flans,short crusty pastry,cakes.
-Topping e.g augratines
-As a main dish.
CREAM.
This is a milk product whose fat quantity is higher and the quantity of non-fat solids and
water is low.( Fat plus a little watery when skimmed from the surface of milk which has
to stand for 24 hours is what is called cream.
Milk is left to stand for 24hours.During this time, cream forms a layer on the surface, and
is skimmed off by mechanical separator at a temperature of 35-540C.The cream is then
cooled to 4.50C and stored until processed. Milk is then pasteurized in a similar way to
milk.
TYPES OF CREAM
-Clotted cream with 55% fat. Thickest cream of all.
-Double cream with 48% fat. This type thickens well when whipped. it is piped on cold
sweets and cakes.
-Whipping cream with 35% fat. This is a cheaper substitute for double cream. whipping
increases volume.
-UTH cream with 18% fat. A single cream treated like UTH milk. No refrigeration.
-Single cream with 18% fat. This type does not thicken. It is used with coffee and to
pour on hot and cold sweets.
-Half cream with 21% fat. Does not thicken, has a cooked flavor.
-Soured cream with 12% fat. Single cream made in a similar way to yogurt. Used in
salad dressing, cheese cakes, soups and casseroles.

-Sterilized cream with 23% fat. In cans or bottles, keeps indefinitely. Does not thicken
and has cooked flavor.
FOOD VALUE
FAT: The higher the fat content, the higher the energy value.
VITAMINS: Fat soluble vitamin A and D, the higher the fat content the higher the
content of vitamins A and D and the lower the water and protein content.
USING OF CREAM IN FOOD PREPARATION
- Decorating cakes and flans (especially ones with fat content of 35% - 42%).
- For serving with scones and fruits
- Incorporating into dishes such as cheese cakes, soufflés, mousses.
- Pouring over fruit or in coffee (especially single cream).
- Adding to casseroles ,soups, and salads
STORAGE
- Store fresh cream in a cool, dark place and away from strong adours and well covered 3 –
4 days.
- Check expiry date
- Can be frozen except single cream
- Single cream keeps for six weeks, half cream 3 months if refrigerated well.
YOGURT
- Yogurt is a cultured milk product. It can be made from any time of milk except
condensed milk.
- A specially prepared bacteria culture of lactobacillus bulgaricus is added and mixture
incubated in bottles at 400C for two and half to three and half hours.
- When about 0.75% lactic acid is present clotting takes place.
- The milk now has an acid taste and has thickened. This is called plain but there are
varieties containing fruits such as strawberry, banana, raspberry, black cherry, peach etc.
IMPORTANCES OF YOGURT IN THE DIET
- it contains all the nutrients found in the milk from which it is made
- Contains any other nutrients that are added in form of fruits, sucrose, Vitamin A and D.
- It is use full in the diet for :
1. Energy reduced diet
2. Weaning babies on to solid foods.
3. Convalescents.

USES OF YOGURT IN FOOD PREPARATION AND COOKING.
-As a substitute for double cream in cheese cakes, soufflés (cold),mousses e.t.c.
-As a substitute for mayonnaise in salad dressing.
-Can be served as a snack.
-Can be served at any meal e.g. with cereals, meat dishes e.g goulash, soups and casseroles
instead of soured cream.
-Can be used as a marinade.
For cold drinks with fruits.
QUESTIONS ON MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

1.(a)(i) Although milk is said to be a complete product food, explain why the nutrient of content
of cow milk vary slightly throughout the year.
(ii) List down the various heat treatments that ensure safe milk production.
(iii) Describe the proteins found in Milk and their reaction to heat and acids.
(iv) Identify two uses of milk in food preparation.
B (i) Cheese is a product of milk, list down one macro nutrient, one mineral salt, and one vitamin
contained in cheese.
(iii) How can digestibility of cheese be improved for people who find it hard to
digest?
(iv) Show the difference between set yoghurt and a stirred yogurt.
(v) Descried the preparation of yogurt at home
(vi) What is the importance of yogurt in the diet?
(vii) Why is the nutrient content of cream different of that of milk?
(viii) Assess how cream is produced commercially.
(ix) How should cream be stored in a home?
PULSES AND NUTS

Pulses are the dry seeds of plants with pods known as legumes. Examples are beans, peas,
lentils, peanuts, groundnuts
NUTRITIONAL VALUE.
1. Low biological value except soya beans limiting methionine and crystine.

2. Soya bean contains more fat.
3. Most pulses contain reasonable amount of carbohydrates (starch and sugar).
4. Mineral salts like calcium, phosphorus and a bit of iron.
5. Vitamins: good sources of the group except B .Complex are present in bean sprouts.
6. Fibre: good sources in the skins more than 7%.
USES OF PULSES
1. As stews and soups.
2. Vegetable accompaniments.
3. as salads
4. Soya is used to make T.V.P
5. in vegetarian meals.
NUTS
A nut is any hard, oily and edible seed enclosed in a hard shell. Examples are coconut, palm,
Brazil, walnut, hazelnut, almond, cashew nut, chestnut. The nutritional value is more or less
like that of pulse except for fat content. Nuts have more. Brazil and almonds have more iron.
USES
1. In baking.
2. In pastry stuffing‟s
3. Salads
4. In casserole for vegetarians.
5. Nut roasts
6. As a dessert.
CHOICE
-Buy from places with a good turn over-as pulses age their skins harden, toughen and become
leathery.

STORING
-Should not exceed 6 months.
-Store in air tight container.
ACTIVITY
By now boys and girls we should all know what it means by “the importance of any
commodity in the diet”. Attempt to write a brief explanation on the importance of pulses and
nuts in the diet.
Do not take more than 5 minutes in answering.
QUESTIONS ON PULSES AND NUTS
1. What are pulses?

2.Write some examples of bean, seeds and peas.
3.Discuss the preparation of pulses.
4. Illustrate how bicarbonate of soda can help in the preparation of pulses.
5. Report on why pulses are an important food in poor countries.
6. Scrutinize the food value of pulses and nuts.
7. Give some examples of nuts and there uses in food preparation.

EGG COOKERY
The most commonly used eggs in this country (Zambia) are the hen‟s eggs, but ducks, goose,
quails, etc can be used as long as they are fresh. They can be reared in any form either free –
range, battery farms and deep litter barn or perchery.
TYPES
Eggs are also graded according to size and quality.
Extra eggs have been packed in the previous 7 days and are of high quality.
Class A are good quality and are the grad usually sold to the consumer.
Classes B are of lower quality and may have dirty shells.
Class C are usually sold to cake manufacturing as they have a weak or damaged shells.
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Has three main parts – shell, egg white and egg York
SHELL
The shell consist of an outer cuticle (a transparent, protective coating) a true shell, and inner
membranes. The true shell forms 11.5% of the whole egg. It consists of:

97% calcium carbonate (CaCo3)
3% Protein
The shell is porous (pores are tiny holes), and therefore allows the developing chick to obtain
oxygen. The pores also allow bacteria and odours to enter, and water and carbon dioxide to
escape. The membranes that line the shell inside act as filters to bacteria to protect the inside.
At one end of the egg, the membranes separate into an air space, to supply the chick with
oxygen.
The colour of the shell varies according to the breed of bird and does not influence the nutritional
value of the
EGG WHITE
-Egg white has two visible layers:
-The thick white (nearest to the York)
The thin white (nearest to the shell)
The white forms 58.5% of the whole egg, and consists of:
-88.5% water
-10.5% protein
-Riboflavin and other B vitamins
-A trace of fat.
The main proteins in egg white are:
-Avolbumin
-Mucin.
EGG YORK.
The York forms about 30% of the whole egg white and it consists of:
-16.5% protein
-33% fat
-50% water
-fat-soluble vitamins A,D,E and K

-minerals elements ,including iron
-Lecithin (an emulsifier)
The colour of the York is related to the carotenes.
ACTIVITY
TESTING AN EGG FOR FRESHNESS
We have all purchased eggs before. Let us try to differentiate between fresh eggs and stale egg in
form of the table below. Take not more than 10 minutes.
FRESH EGG STALE EGG
1.Shell is rough 1.shell is smooth
2.When held in front of strong light should 2. Does not show layers of an egg clearly.
show layers clearly without spots
3. When placed in a brine solution ( 25g salt + 3.Stale egg will float
250ml water) or just water, a fresh egg will
sink because it has a small air pocket. - a less fresh egg will be suspended.
4. When broken, the York of the fresh egg will 4. When broken, the York will be flattened and
be domed and surrounded by thick white. the white thin and spread out.
5.When shaken, fresh egg does not produce 5. When shaken, stale egg produces sound.
any sound.
6.Does not produce a bad smell 6. Produces a bad smell.
USES OF EGGS IN FOOD PREPARATION

1. Trapping air
2. Thickening
3. Emulsifying
4. Binding
5. Coating
6. Enriching
7. Glazing
8. Garnishing
THE EFFECTS OF HEAT ON EGGS.
-Ovalbumin in the egg white starts to coagulate at 600C, until the whole white is solid and
opaque.
-The protein of the egg York start to coagulate at 700C and continue until the yolk is dry and
hard.
-If overcooked, the protein becomes tough and difficult to digest.
-If over boiled, green/ black ring of Iron sulphide forms around the yolk. This is due to the
reaction of sulphur in the egg white with Iron in the egg yolk.
-If eggs are heated too quickly the proteins will coagulate and shrink rapidly, causing any liquid
that the egg contains to be squeezed out, and the protein to become tough. This is called
syneresis.
STORING EGGS
-In a refrigerator.
-Away from strong smelling foods.
-Commercially eggs should be kept up to six months in rooms of high humidity and low
temperature (-2oC).
QUESTION ON EGG COOKERY
1(a). Label the diagram which shows the structure of an egg.

(b) Describe the food value of part A.
( c) (i)illustrate would you test for the freshness of an egg at home using brine solution with an
aid of a diagram?
(ii)list down five of eggs in cookery, give one example of a dish in each case.
Explain how eggs should be stored in the home.
VEGETABLE COOKERY AND FRUIT COOKERY.
Vegetable are plants grown in our gardens and those that grow widely and are used as food. One
has to be careful when preparing, cooking and serving vegetable so as to use them to the best
advantage. Vegetables are mostly used for vitamins, mineral salts and fibre.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES EXAMPLES OF VEGETABLES

Leafy vegetables Cabbage, spinach, lettuce, Kale.
stems celery
Roots Carrots, beetroot,
Flowers Cauliflower, broccoli.
Fruits Tomatoes, cucumber, marrows, corn on the
cob.
Seeds and pods(pulses) peas, runner beans, broad beans
Tubers potatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes
Bulbs Spring onion, onion, leeks
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF VEGETABLES

1. Protein: Low biological value from beans, peas and high biological value from soya. Others
have very little less than 1%.
2. Carbohydrates: starch in tubers and some root vegetables, sugar in tomatoes, onions, cabbage,
carrots, beetroots e.t.c. some vegetables contain both starch and sugar e.g. peas, beans.
3. Vitamins
Water soluble
-Vitamin B group; most vegetables contain some riboflavin and nicotinic acid.
-Vitamin C: the richest sources are Brussels sprout, kale, Cabbage, green peppers, tomato and
asparagus. Potatoes contain a reasonable amount.
Fat soluble
-Vitamin A( as B-carotene) Carrots and dark green vegetables contain the most. Potatoes, onion,
and cauliflower contain none.
-Vitamin D: Vegetables do not contain vitamin D.
-Vitamin E and K; green vegetables and peas contain a little.
4. Minerals
-Calcium and iron are found in various vegetables including watercress, cabbage, lentils and
spinach but the presence of cellulose and oxalic acid reduces their availability to the body.
COLOUR OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.
Leafy vegetables are green because of the presence of chlorophyll. The yellow/orange colour of
fruits and vegetables is due to carotenoids.The red/blue colour of others is due to anthocyanins
PREPARATION
Vegetables should be chosen carefully.
1. Damaged, wilted and bruised vegetables should avoided, as there is likely to be waste and loss
of nutrients.
2. Leaf vegetable should be crisp, firm and of a good colour and root vegetables should be firm
and free of spade marks.

3. Insect-or-mould-infected vegetables should be avoided.
To preserve the vitamins and mineral content, vegetables should be prepared as follows:
1. If the vegetable requires peeling, peel it very thinly, as there are vitamins and minerals under
the skin which could easily be removed. Young potatoes, carrots, and other vegetables often do
not require peeling and can be served with their skin on. They should be scrubbed thoroughly
beforehand, to remove chemicals.
2. Prepare vegetables just before cooking to prevent the destruction of vitamins by enzymes.
They can be placed into a plastic bag in a cool place to prevent the oxidation of vitamins.
3. Wash the vegetables but do not soak them in salt water, as this will cause water-soluble
vitamins and minerals to be lost.
4. Cook the vegetables in the minimum amount of boiling water. Placing them in boiling water
destroys enzymes, and so helps to preserve the vitamins. They should be cooked for the
minimum time, with a lid on the pan.
5. When vegetables are just tender, they should be drained and served immediately. If kept hot,
there will be further losses of vitamin C.
Conservation method of cooking vegetables
Vegetables, except for leaf types, can be chopped and sautéed in fat, then placed in a covered
casserole with a little liquid in the oven, and cooked until tender. The juices should be used for
gravy. This conserves most of the flavor, colour and shape of the vegetables. Microwave cooking
of vegetables in a minimum of water also conserves nutrients.
Effects of heat
Vegetables are cooked to reduce their bulk and make them more digestible by cooking the starch
they contain. Some vegetables, e.g . Potatoes, increase in bulk when cooked as they absorb
water. Vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin c, are destroyed by heat, so vegetables should
be cooked carefully to keep such losses to a minimum.
Storage of vegetables
Potatoes should be stored in a dark, cool, dry place to prevent them from becoming mould and
green (due to a reaction to light), and to stop them sprouting in warmth. Root vegetables should
be stored in a similar way.
Leaf vegetables lose vitamin c and water rapidly during storage and should be stored for the
minimum time in a cool place, in a plastic bag.
All vegetables should be used as soon as possible.

Fruits
Fruits are a unique group of foods because there is such a wide variety of types, flavours, colour,
and textures.
Types of fruits
Hard fruits Citrus fruits Stone fruits Berry fruits Dried fruits Currants Miscellaneous
oranges plums, e.g. strawberries sultanas black and melon- water melon,
Victoria, red honeydew, galia,
lemons golden raspberries currants cantaloupe.
raisins
limes damson blackberries star
dates fruits(carambola)
grapefruits apricots gooseberries
prunes lychees
tangerines greengages figs
clementines peaches kiwi fruits (Chinese
satsumas cherries gooseberry)
grapes- pawpaw (papaya)

black, green, grenadilo
red
passion fruits
nectarines
cape
avocado gooseberry(physalis)
pear mango
pomegranate
Sharon fruits
fresh fruits
Nashi pear
kumpuat bananas
rhubarb (strictly a
stem, but eaten as a
fruit)
pineapples

PREPARATION
-Most fruits can be eaten raw when ripe.
- Some fruit can also be cooked for various dishes, by stewing them in little water.
-Fruits should be cooked over gentle heat for the minimum time.
-Very little water should be used as most fruits produce a fair amount of juice when cooked. This
should be served with the fruit to conserve the nutrients. Fruits should be chosen carefully:
1. Chose fruit that is just ripe, and has no bruising and blemishes.
2. Wash the fruit carefully, as it may have been sprayed with chemicals before or after
harvesting, and may be dusty.
3. store the fruit carefully, taking care not to crush it as this will cause bruising.
IMPORTANCE IN THE DIET.
-Most fruits contain large proportions of water usually 80% to 90%.Watermelon up to 94%
hence making them refreshing and reduce the energy value.
-most fruits are deficient in fats and proteins with some exceptional of avocado and olive contain
22g per 100g fat..
-Vitamin: Fruits are an important source of vitamin C, however not all fruits are a good source.
Richest sources are rosehip and black currants. Good sources are citrus fruits (especially oranges,
lemons, and grapefruits), gooseberries, strawberries and raspberries.
-A reasonable amount of vitamin A is present as B carotene in apricots, but there is very
-Carbohydrates may be present in many forms such as the monosaccharide (fructose) which will
give fruits a sweet taste or as polysaccharide pectin which is found in some fruits and essential
for setting of jam.
-Mineral salts.
Calcium: in all but rich sources are rhubarb and lemons also potassium and phosphorus.

Iron: in all fruits but small amounts.
-Dietary fibre: occurs in varying amounts, more in black and red currants, raspberries.
COOKING FRUITS.
It is advisable to eat raw fruits because they tend to be appetizing, texture, colour, flavor are at
their best and content of vitamin ( C and B) is retained to the maximum. But fruits can be stewed
or baked. Microwave oven or pressure cooker can be used.
RULES TO OBESERVE WHEN PREPARING AND COOKING FRUITS.
1. Prepare just before required.
2. Wash or clean before using.
3. Avoid soaking in water.
4. Use acids like lemon juice to the food in the anthocynin and anthoxanthino as to maintain red
and white colours.
5. Avoid copper pans.
6. Use minimum amount of water over gentle heat for the minimum time.
7. Add sugar towards the end of cooking (jam making) or to the cooking liquid if fruits are
needed whole.
8. Fruits with seeds may be cooked and passed through a sieve to avoid irritation of digestion.
EFFECTS OF HEAT ON FRUITS.
1. Fibre is softened (pectin which joins the cell walls to make tissues dissolved in warm acid
conditions)
2. Enzymes causing browning of pale fruits e.g. apples are inactivated.
3. Some harmful bacteria are destroyed.
4. Vitamin C may be destroyed but not so fast as in vegetables because of the fruit acid which
help to retain the vitamin.
USES OF FRUIT IN THE DIET
1. Can be used as a starter to stimulate the digestive juice e.g. breakfast.

2. It is refreshing hence used as drinks.
3. Used as sweet coarse e.g. cold sweet fruit fool, fruit salad, fruit in jelly, mousses.
4. Can be used ad dried fruits to give variety to cakes, puddings.
5. Combined with flour mixtures e.g. pastry, batters.
6. Can be used as raw desserts.
7. Helps in jam, jelly, chutney making because of pectin.
PRESERVATION OF FRUITS
1. Freezing; are soft than fresh ones because freezing and blanching have a tendering effect.
Nutritionally, there is no difference between fresh and frozen.
2. Canning: much softer than their fresh counterparts because of the High temperatures used.
Vitamin C is lost. May be done in sugar syrup or own juice.
3. Drying: Not juicy Vitamin C content is lost although other nutrients become more
concentrated e.g. sugar (can be used as sweetening) iron, calcium also fibre.
STORAGE OF FRUITS.
-Store in a cool dark place and in a dry and well ventilated place.
-Apples and pears should be wrapped in paper and stored in a cool, dry place.
-Never store bananas in a refrigerator as they turn black and apples are inclined to shrink.
-Use them as soon as possible-avoid buying in bulk.
QUESTIONS ON VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.
1. Define conservative method of cooking vegetables?
2. Illustrate how vegetables should be prepared be prepared in order to preserve their

nutrients content?
3. Discuss how vegetables are classified and give three examples for each main group.

4. Describe the effects of heat on vegetables?
TOPIC: CEREALS
These are the mature edible grain of cultivated grasses which are originally grown wild.
Cereals are a sample food for most people in different parts of the world. Let us see how we can
recognize cereals and their products and how we can cook the many varieties so that they are
tasty, nourishing and not fattening.
TYPES OF CEREALS.
MAIZE: (zein proteins) grown in many countries and there are many varieties. Can be used as:
i. Sweet corn (corn on the cob) or removed from the cob, cooked and taken as a vegetables.
ii. Whole maize meal: grains crushed into meal (roller meal) or outer skins removed (breakfast)
iii.Cornflour: whole maize meal further processed to form flour.
iv. Custard powder: Like corn flour but with some colouring added and finer.
v.Cornflakes: Ready to eat maize products for breakfast.
NOTE: The nutrient content of maize is similar to that of other cereals expect for the yellow
variety that contain carotene-converted to vitamin A in the body, mainly they are for starch-
provide. Nicotinic acid in maize is in a bound form-not easily absorbed by the body.
RICE: There are two main types namely:
a.Patna: The long and thin grains served in savoury dishes e.g. curried rice
b.Carolina:Short and round mainly used in sweet dishes e.g. rice pudding.
The following are rice products.
i. Polished rice: Outer layers of the grains removed hence high loss of B1 lending to beriberi.
ii. Brown rice.
iii. Flaked: grains are flaked by machine and used in puddings.
iv. Ground rice: Grains are crushed into powder and used in cakes, puddings, soups and biscuits.

-Good source of thiamin (whole grain) about 79% in the other layer and scutellum 90% in the
endosperm.
-For energy- starch main component in cereals.
OATS: A very hard cereal, does not keep for very long.
-Was a staple food at one time in Scotland.
-Can be rolled rather than crushed.
-Can be coarse, medium and fine.
-Used for breakfast cereal e.g porridge, oat cakes and biscuits.
-Flap jacks and parkin.
Oats have a relatively high fat, protein and fibre content in comparison to other cereals.
BARLEY: In Great Britain, it is grown for malt or for animal foods.
-Sold as pearl barley-grains are husked.
- (hordenin protein found in oats helps to thicken soups and stews.
-It‟s used for brewing, whisky industries.
-Used for making barley flour and barley, water.
-They are hard cereals.
RYE: Used for making Rye bread (crisp breads, rye flour)
-Also a hard type of cereal.
Millet: can be used for making millet flour, meal and for brewing.
Sorghum: Used as meal and for brewing.
GENERAL FOOD VALUE AND IMPORTANCE.
Cereals are:
-Easily grown and transported.
-Cheap although expensive now e.g maize in Zambia.

-easily stored for a long time.
-Easy to prepare and cook
-Filling and nutritious
-Readily available source of nutrients.
NOTE: the following are not strictly cereals but are grouped together with cereals for
convenience.
SAGO: From palm plant used in milk pudding.
TAPIOCA: From cassava used for thickening soup, stews, also for making milk puddings.
ARROWROOT: From Maranta plant especially underground stems. it is a white powder used
as a thickener. Also as a glaze for fruits as it clears when boiled with water.
STORAGE OF CEREALS
-Store in a dry place as dampness will cause molds to develop.
- Store in containers with tight fitting lids. The containers are to be washed regularly.
-Store flour in its containers.
-Protect against pets.
-Examine from time to time for insects and use up order stores first.
-Whole grain cereals keep for a shorter time than refined cereals because of the fat content of the
germ.
f wheat grain.
2. Screening/sorting out to remove foreign matters-cleaned to remove dirt and stones by washing
or scouring.
3. Breaking the grains between rollers rotating at different speeds.
4. Sieving the crushed grains into:
(a) Particles of endosperm (semolina) (b) and ( c)
5 .Removing the bran by further rolling. Bran is used for animal feeds.

6. Converting the endosperm into flour by passing it through the next series of rollers each set
closer together than the last in order to produce a fine flour with the minimum damage to the
starch granules. If the starch granules gets damaged, they will produce poor quality flour.
7. Sieving to remove the germ as a powder and addition of nutrients e.g. B3, iron and calcium.
8. Packing: In suitable package different quantities.
N.B: The germ is separated out and used for making germ flour. The bran is used for feeding
animals and for all bran products. The percentages of the wheat grain used in flour is called
extraction rate.
TYPES OF FLOUR.
- Whole (wheat) meal: 100% extraction rate. The whole grain crushed into flour. This
\flour looks darker in colour. Can even be stone ground.
- Wheat meal: 85% extraction rate 15% removed as bran, still the colour is a bit brown.
- White flour: 70% extraction rate, most of the bran, germ and minerals are removed after
heavy milling and the endorsperm crushed in flour. This flour stores for a long time
without the germ.
- Germ flour: Is a mixture of 75% of white flour and 25% cooked germ. The germ is
cooked to delay the fat from getting stale.
- Self raising flour: This is white flour where the correct proportion of raising agent is
already added to give sufficient raising e.g. plain cake mixtures.
- Starch reduced flour: e.g. energy. This flour, much of the starch is washed out leaving
the gluten proteins. It is prepared for sugar diabetes sufferers.
N.B. Plain flour: (household) strong and weak flour blended for plain cakes, plain scones,
pastries.
STRENGTH OF FLOUR.
The strength of flour depends on the presence and amount of proteins in the flour called
gluten. When gluten combines with liquid it has an elastic or stretching properties. The
gluten is able to stretch during the raising processes in cooking and on further heating it
gets to give the mixture its structures.
Wheat contains a large quantity of the gluten which other cereals do not contain. That is
why they are not suitable for making flour.

NOTE
-Strong bread flour has a lot of gluten about 17% and is used for making plain bread,
yeast buns, puffs e.t.c
USES OF CEREAL PRODUCTS
-Breakfast cereals-very popular now.
-Are made from various cereals including wheat, rice, and maize by roasting and baking.
-They may be shredded, rolled, flaked and mixed with a number of ingredients e.g. sugar, honey,
dry fruits and usually fortified with vitamins and mineral salts.
WHEAT GRAIN STRUCTURE
The chief use of wheat in Britain is the production of flour.
MILLING AND FLOUR PRODUCTION
1.Blending of different varieties o
QUESTIONS ON CEREALS

1. What are cereals?
2. Discuss the importance of cereals in the diet.
3. Outline the stages involved in flour production.
HEAT TRANSFER AND METHODS OF COOKING.
REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD.
1. To kill or inactive harmful micro organism present in food.
2. To preserve the food.
3. To aid digestion of food.
4. To make food tender for easy eating and swallowing
5.To make food more appetizing and attractive.
6.To develop the flavor of food
7.To provide variety in the diet.
8.To reduce bulk e.g green leafy vegetables.
9.To destroy natural poisons (toxins) in food.
TRANSFER OF HEAT.
Heat is a form of energy. Heat energy can be transferred from one point to another and it
flows from a high temperature to a lower one until a constant temperature is reached.
Heat can be transferred in three ways.
A.CONDUCTION: This is the passing of heat energy through solid by contact. Heat is
conducted at different rates through varying materials. Materials that conduct heat rapidly
and efficiently are called good conductors-examples are aluminum, copper, silver, brass,

iron. Materials which allow heat to penetrate slowly and inefficiently are called poor or
bad conductors (heat insulators) example are wood, glass, plastic, cotton, wool, still air.
B.CONVECTION: This is the passing of heat energy through liquids and gases. When
the molecules in a liquid or gas are heated, they expand and become lighter and rise
cooler, denser molecules fell to take their place. In this way convection currents are set
up, until a constant temperature is reached. For example ovens, boiling water, steaming
etc.
Examples of convection food preparation and cooking:
1. Heating up on ovens
2. Liquids in pans, kettles and dishes.
C. RADIATION: Heat energy passes in waves ( in all directions) from source through a
vacuum until they fall on an object in their path. This is possible because of the
electromagnetic waves, especially heat rays known as infrared ray.
Examples of radiation in food preparation and cooking:
1. Grlling food on a convectional cooker
2. Infrared grilling
3. Toasting an electrical toaster
4. Split roasting barbecue grilling.
METHODS OF COOKING.
Cooking is the application of heat in order to bring about physical and chemical
changes and also make food safe for consumption.
CHOICE OF METHODS OF COOKING DEPENDS ON:
1. Food to be cooked
2. Time available e.g. fuel
3. Individual needs e.g. age , state of health
4. Personal state.

Here are two groups of methods of cooking dry and moist
MOIST METHODS: this is when food is cooked either in liquid or by steam.
BOILING: This is the quick, moist method if cooking food covered in sufficient
water at 1000 c true boiling- give rise to rapid bubbling and evaporation of steam
for example when cooking pasta or rice.
SIMMERING: is boiling food at the temperature slightly lower than the boiling
point 90o c. This gives rise to slow bubbling at one side of the pan.
PAR- BOILING: is the part cooking of certain foods 5-10 minutes, which are
then cooked by another method. Food is placed in boiling water then simmered.
This method softens the outside of the food quickly and reduces the time needed
for baking or roasting.
RULES FOR BOILING
1. Food must be covered with water
2. Use a pan with a tight-fitting lid to prevent the escape of steam
3. Starch products must be boiled rapidly e.g macaroni and rice
4. Water must be kept boiling for true boiling
5. If there is need to top up water, use boiling water
6. Allow water to boil before food is added to the pan to preserve taste and
certain nutrients.
7. Do not over boil food
8. Put bones or meat for soup into cold water to draw out the flavor.
9. Cut food into small pieces to expose to much surface area.
ADVANTAGES
1. It is a quicker way of cooking than stewing
2. Can be used to cook food when fat is not available
3. Boiled food are soft and easy to digest
4. Food is unlikely to burn.
DISADVANTAGES

1. Nutrient loss may be high especially vitamin C by heat
2. Soluble mineral salts may be lost into water or the liquid
3. Some foods such as potatoes , fish fall part if boiled too fast
4. Food is tasteless if merely boiled. Loss of flavor
5. Proteins are toughened if boiled rapidly all the time.
STEWING: Pieces of meat and vegetables are covered with little liquid in
covered container and simmered either in the oven (casseroling) or hob
TYPES OF STEWS.
1. Brown stew: Where the meat is browned and brown roux is used. A
sauce made by cooking equal quantities of fat and flour together, the
liquid added and heated until thickened.
2. Irish stew: A mixture of meat and vegetables
3. Best stew: Where better quality meat is used
4. Fruit stew: Where fruits are added
RULES TO FOLLOW
1. Food should be cut in small pieces especially meat to expose much

surface area
2. Use pan with a tight fitting lid
3. It is economical because tough cuts of meat can be used and less fuel
is used because foods are cooked at low temperature.
4. Soluble extractives / nutrients are served with the food –no loss
5. Remove visible fat – to avoid grease stew
ADVANTAGES
1. Tough cuts of meat are tenderized
2. It is quite economical

3. Less loss of nutrients as the liquid is served with the meal
4. The liquid is also served and retain the flavor
5. Fruits with tough skin are softened
6. A whole meal can be prepared in one dish saving time for cleaning
and fuel.
7. A large variety of stews can be prepared.
DISADVANTAGES
1. A long and slow method of cooking
2. Crisp food can be served with stewed dishes as they lack bites
STEAMING
Is a moist method of cooking food in steam rising from rapidly boiling

water.
TYPES OF STEAM
1. DIRECT STEAMING: This is when food come in direct contact with

the steam
2. INDIRECT: Food does not come in contact with the steam
RULES TO FOLLOW WHEN STEAMING.
1. Allow the water to boil before placing the food in steamer. Keep a
kettle of boiling water aside to replenish the steamer when the water
boils away.
2. Cover the pudding bowls with a water proof lid or wrapping to prevent
condensed water vapour from spoiling the finished result
3. Stand well back when removing the lid from the steamer to prevent
scalding

4. Replenish the steamer with boiling water at least after about 30
minutes to maintain a constant supply of steam
5. The lid of the steamer must fit tightly to prevent loss of steam
ADVANTAGES
1. Nutrients do not dissolve into water as food does not come in direct
contact with water.
2. Steamed foods are light and easy to digest-suitable for convalescent,

children
3. Needs little attention except to replenish water supply
4. Food seldom over cooks or is very unlikely to be over cooked
5. Can save fuel e.g. fish steamed over vegetables or use of triple
sectioned steamer
DISADVANTAGES
1. A slow and long method of cooking resulting in fuel wastage
2. Suitable only for small and soft pieces of food.
3. The kitchen can become very steamy / moist – should be well

ventilated
4. Food may lack flavor and colour therefore make use of garnishes and
sauces.
BRAISING
This is a moist method of cooking meat, fish, or poultry on a bed of fried

vegetables (roots, tubers) known as mirepoix with enough liquid just
covering the mirepoix. This method is a combination of stewing,
steaming, and roasting. Mirepoix is the lightly sautéed vegetables cut into
chucks. Herbs and bacon are also added to the mirepoix.
ADVANTAGES
1. Tough cuts of meat or coarse vegetables are softened

2. A whole meal can be cooked in one pan which saves time and fuel
3. Braised dished are well flavoured
4. Less loss of nutrients as the liquid is served with the meal
DISADVANTAGES
1. The food is slightly over cooked (mirepoix) and discoloured that is

why it needs to be roasted or grilled at the end of the cooking time.
RULES
1. The liquid should just cover the vegetables
2. Vegetables should be cut into chucks to prevent them from being

mashed
3. A tight fitting lid should be used
POACHING
This is a moist, gentle method of cooking food in water at just below

simmering point
RULES TO FOLLOW
1. Water should only come half way up the food
2. The food may need basting
ADVANTAGES
1. Food does not break as it is cooked very gently
2. Proteins are not toughened
3. Quick method of cooking- saves fuel and time

DIASADVANTAGES
1. Suitable only for soft foods containing proteins which would be

toughened at higher temperature
2. Food luck flavor and colour therefore include sauces and garnishes
3. Some nutrients dissolve into liquid- which is a loss.
DRY METHODS OF COOKING FOOD.

Higher temperatures are used in cooking, and this has different effects on the nutritive value
of food. EFFECTS ON THE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FOOD
All nutrient, except for most of the mineral elements, are affected to some extent, particularly the
heat-sensitive vitamins.
FRYING
Frying is a quick, convenient and popular method of cooking, which involves high temperatures.
Solid fats or oil are used.
-There are four types of frying:
i. Deep frying
ii. Shallow frying
iii. Dry frying
iv. Stir frying
EFFECT ON NUTRITIVE VALUE.
1. When food is fried, some fat is absorbed and this increases the fat content of food and
consequently its energy value. Dietary guidelines recommend a reduction in the amount of food
cooked by frying.
2. The temperatures are higher than those used in boiling, e.t.c, and this leads to the destruction
of heat-sensitive nutrients.
CHOICE OF FAT OR OIL

-The fat or oil used in deep frying must be suitable for heating up to 2000C without burning
.Vegetable oils and lard are suitable.
-For shallow frying, the temperatures are lower and butter or margarine can also be used.
DEEP FRYING.
-This involves the immersion of food in a pan of hot fat,so that the food is covered by the fat
while frying.
PREPAIRING FOOD FOR DEEP FRYING.
-Foods to be deep fried e.g. fish, meat should be coated to prevent over cooking and loss of
juices.
-Suitable protective coatings include:
i. Beaten egg.
ii. beaten egg and breadcrumbs
iii. beaten egg and seasoned flour.
iv. beaten egg and oatmeal.
v. egg, flour, and milk batter.
IMPORTANT RULES FOR DEEP FRYING.
1.Dont fill the pan more than half –way with oil or fat, as the oil or fat rise when food is placed
in it, and could boil over.
2. Lower the food gently into the hot fat.
3. Do not over fill the pan with food.
4. Heat the fat to the required temperature before putting the food.
5. Do not overheat the fat, as the outside of the food will cook too quickly and the inside will not
cook sufficiently.
6. Turn the food over carefully as it is frying to ensure even cooking.
7. When the food is cooked, turn off the heat and allow the fat to cool before straining it through
a piece of muslin to remove impurities.
8 .Store the fat in a cool, dry, dark place to prevent it from becoming rancid.

SAFETY RULES FOR DEEP FRYING
1. Never leave a deep-fat frying pan unattended when cooking
2. Do not heat fat beyond the required temperature.
3. Keep the pan handle turned towards the side of the cooker to prevent it being knocked over.
4. If the fat starts to smoke, turn the heat off immediately as this means it is near to its flash
point.
DRY FRYING
-is used for foods which contain their own fat e.g bacon, sausage, oily fish such as herring.
STIR FRYING (SAUTEING)
-Takes place when food is shaken or tossed in a small amount of fat. The lid is kept on the pan
when sautéing vegetables for soup.
SHALLOW FAT FRYING
-Involves using a large shallow pan with a thick flat base.
1. The fat should come half way up the food which is turned once during frying.
2. The food must be dry.
3. Coating food is sometimes necessary to prevent fat seeping into food or food falling to bits.
4. Cook the upper side of food first and turn it carefully.
5. Once the fat is hot reduce the heat to avoid spitting.
GRILLING
-This is a very quick method of cooking which uses radiant heat. The grill should be pre-heated
to very hot before food is placed under it.
-The heat seals the surface of food.
-Grilling can be an expensive method of cooking because only tender pieces of meat, steak and
chops are cooked this way, but it is a useful way to cook bacon and sausage because their fat
drains away.
-The grill is also used to brown food such as au gratin dishes, toast and cheese on toast.
BAKING

-Is the cooking of food such as flour mixtures (cakes, pastries, bread, biscuits) and fruits and
vegetables (baked apples, potatoes) by convection in the oven, without the addition of fat,
except to prevent mixtures sticking to cooking vessels e.g baking tins, flan cases.
COOKING WITH MICROWAVES
The oven is a metal box. A magnetron produces high frequency electro-magnetic waves ( similar
to radio waves) when the cooker is switched on. A wave guide directs the microwaves into the
oven space. A stirrer fan distributes microwaves evenly .Some models have a turn-table which
rotates during cooking. If the oven does not have a turn- table or a special wave stirrer beneath
the floor the food has to be turned manually throughout the cooking process.
HOW THE FOOD COOKS
-The microwaves energy disturbs the water molecules of the food so that they rub together and
generate heat. If the food being cooked is large the heat is produced in the outer layers and
transmitted to the centre by conduction.
-Microwaves, like light rays have three important characteristics
(i) Reflection: microwaves are reflected from metal, which does not heat up.
(ii)Transmission: Some materials e.g paper, china and some plastic, allow microwaves to pass
through them, but do not heat up.
(iii) Absorption: Some materials e.g food, absorb microwaves and become hot.
ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE COOKING.
1. Saves time
2. Can be used to thaw food.
3. Uses less electricity than a conventional cooker, therefore saves money.
4. Simple to use, easy to clean.
5. Cuts down cooking smells.
6. Retains flavor and vitamins.

7. Micro-organism is destroyed.‟
DISADVANTAGES
1. It will not tenderize tough cuts of meat.
2. It is easy to overcook the food, so careful attention is needed.
3. It is not a complete substitute for a convectional cooker. It cannot boil eggs, fry fish e.t.c
QUESTIONS ON METHODS OF COOKING FOOD.
1. (a) Among the dry methods of cooking, frying is popular.

(i) State two advantage and two disadvantages of frying.
(ii) Describe healthy problems associated with fried foods.
(b) Explain five safety rules to follow when deep frying.
(c) Discuss one effect on fried food if:
i) The temperature of fat is too high.
ii) The temperature of the fat is too low.

TOPIC: OVENS AND STOVES
A cooker is one of the most important pieces of equipment in the kitchen. There are many types
chosen from, with a range of features. The most popular fuels for cookers are gas and electricity.
Solid fuel cookers are still used in many homes and microwave ovens are also becoming popular.
In addition, sauce pan and outside brick oven are also used in Zambia.
Cookers are a combination of three units:

- Hob
- Grill
- Oven
CHOICE OF STOVE
The choice of a stove is often restricted by the fuel or form of power available where one lives
and the amount of money available at the time of purchase
POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A STOVE
1. Buy a well-known make

2. Be sure that spare parts are available
3. Consider the initial cost
4. Estimate the running cost
5. Consider the size of your kitchen to the size of the stove of choice
6. Consider the fuel available in your area
ELECTRIC STOVES
This type of the stove uses electricity, and the heat is thermostatically controlled.
Advantages
1. The stoves are insulated, so the kitchen is not over heated

2. The stoves heat quickly
3. Even heat is produced
4. Does not produce smoke, fumes
5. Running cost are not high if used carefully
6. It is thermostatically controlled

Disadvantages
1. Can only be used where a supply of electricity is available

2. A separate hot water cylinder is required
3. Great inconvenience when units finish
CLEANING
Daily
Switch off and wipe over the surface of the stove using a cloth wrung out in hot water. Wipe the
drip tray and remove all stains from the surface of the stove and from the oven.
Weekly

Turn off all switches including the main switch before commencing to clean the oven. Clean
while still warm and not hot.
(a) The plates
1. Rub with fine steel wool

2. Wipe with a dry cloth to remove the dust
3. Rub with cooking oil
(b) Drip Tray
1. Remove the drip tray and wash in warm soapy soda water
2. Rinse in warm water. Dry and replace
(c) Oven
1. Remove the shelves and soak in hot water

2. Scour the shelves with vim and steel wool
3. Rinse and dry
(d) Enamel Parts
1. Wipe over all immovable parts with a cloth wrung out in warm soapy soda water
2. Rinse with a cloth wrung out in warm water
3. Dry and polish with a soft dry cloth
GAS STOVES
This type of stove uses gas and a separate gas cylinder is provided. The oven is enameled and
heavily insulated. The burners are at the bottom of the oven. The temperature is thermostatically
controlled.
Advantages
1. The flame may be regulated

2. No special sauce pans required
3. They heat quickly and easy to use
4. Easy to clean
5. Gas cylinder may be used where no permanent gas supply is available
Disadvantages
1. Inconvenience is caused when the gas supply is unreliable
2. A separate hot water installation is required

CLEANING
Daily Cleaning
1. Wipe the burners with newspaper
2. Wipe the entire surface with a damp cloth
3. Rub over with a dry cloth
Weekly Cleaning
1. If enameled, wipe with newspaper, wash with hot soapy water

2. Rinse in warm water
3. Dry well and replace
(b)DRIP TRAY
1. Remove the drip tray, wash in warm washing soda water

2. Rinse in warm water
3. Dry well and replace
(c) OVEN
1. Remove all movable parts, soak if necessary in hot washing soda water
2. Scour the shelves, according to the finish
3. Rinse in hot water and dry thoroughly
4. Wash, rinse and dry the inside of the oven
5. Replace all the movable parts

OIL STOVES
This type of stoves uses oil. Paraffin is commonly used though other oils are been introduced.
These stoves are portable and can be used anywhere.
Advantages
1. They are portable and light

2. Reasonably priced
3. Fuel is economical
4. Efficient
Disadvantages
1. Careful attention and time for cleaning are required

2. Burners tend to smoke and give off objectionable smell
3. Oil is inflammable
4. No hot water supply is available
CLEANING
Daily Cleaning
1. Turn up the wick and rub with newspaper to remove charred edges

2. Rub wick cases with a cloth
3. Wipe the chimneys, the framework and the outside of the oven with a damp cloth
4. Fill the oil reservoir two thirds full (do not fill it completely)
5. Wipe the reservoir to remove traces of oil
Weekly Cleaning
1. Dismantle the stove

2. Rub all unprotected iron parts with newspapers soaked in hot water and washing soda
Framework of stove and oven
1. Wash in hot soapy water, dry with a cloth

2. Rinse with hot water and dry with a cloth
3. Finish off as per material used
KITCHEN RANGE/WOOD STOVE
Kitchen range stove is a type of stove which uses solid fuel and these can be cinders or coal. It is
durable and can be used anywhere.
Advantages
1. There is a large cooking surface.
2. Fuel may be cheap.
3. Additional warmth is an advantage in winter.
4. Supply of hot water is available.
Disadvantages
1. Over heats in summer.
2. Fire must be lit some time before the stove is required.
3. Much cleaning is required.
4. Storage space is required for the fuel.
Cleaning
1. Protect the floor with newspapers.
2. Rack out the dead fire, remove the ash.
3. Brush the soot from the underside of the plates on to newspaper. and roll up. Brush with a
brush.
4. Wipe enameled surface with a cloth wring out in warm water. Rub with a dry cloth.
5. Rub up the steel and chromium parts.
Weekly cleaning
1. Remove the dead fire.
2. Remove all movable parts of the stove, brush the soot onto. Newspaper.
3. Rake out the soot.
4. Brush over the surface of the ovens and flues.
5. Replace movable parts.

6. Brush out the inside of the oven.
CHIMNEY AND PIPES

Clean with a long brush
The Oven
1. Remove the shelves
2. Wash the inside of the oven and the shelves with hot water and washing-soda.
3. Rinse with hot water.
MICROWAVE OVEN
Microwave ovens are now commonly used in many homes, catering and kitchens, shops, offices
and canteens. Microwave oven cooks food by generating electromagnetic waves.

OVENS
There are three types of oven and these are:
1. Solid fuel ovens – made of cast iron and heat from the fire is conveyed to the oven and
heating plates. Solid ovens can also be made out of bricks.
2. Electric ovens – these have elements in the base or sides of the oven compartment. A
thermostat is used to control the temperature of the oven.
3. Gas ovens – these may be heated by direct or indirect methods and are thermostatically
controlled.
In addition to the mentioned ovens, improvisation can also be used by using a saucepan and has
proved to work very well.
SUMMARY
Cookers are relatively expensive and before buying one, several factors should be considered.
Always switch off and wipe the surface of the stove after use, clean according to make.
ACTIVTITY
1. In your groups, chose a stove of your choice and describe how you would thoroughly clean it
2. Demonstrate how the stove of your choice can be cleaned
ASSESSMENT

SOUPS AND STOCKS
Soups are included in meals for the following reasons:
1. As appetizers
2. To provide hot food in cold weather
3. To provide flavor and energy
TYPES OF SOUPS
Soups are normally based on one ingredient, e.g. a vegetable, meat, or

pulses, and can vary in consistency as follows.
1. Thick soups.
These can be either pureed, or thickened by starch or egg protein.
Pur,eed These are usually sieved or liquidized and may be further

thickened by starch.
Thickened by starch or protein.These may have small soild ingredients

in them, e.g. vegetable spieces
Both types of thick soups can have cream added, and normally served in
cold weather as a substantial part of a meal.
2. Clear soups
These usually consist of a well-flavoured clear stock, served with a

garnish, such as thin strips of carrots.
Broths are a variation of clear soups and usually contain small pieces of
meat or poultry, with rice, pasta or oats.
3. Mixed soups These usually contain a mixture of ingredients, e.g. meat

and vegetables, with perhaps pasta or rice included as well.
Preparing soups
A well-prepared soup should have the following qualities:
a) A good flavor and colour
b) Non greasy

c) Well seasoned
d) Finely chopped ingredients that are easy to fit on to a spoon
e) No lumps, if it is a smooth soup
For each 575 ml of water or stock, a soup should have:
1. 450g vegetable
2. Or 225g meat or poulty
3. Or 100g pulses (soaked)
It is important not to overcook the soup as this may spoil its flavor. If
stock is used as the liquid, it should be fresh and well flavoured.
Serving soups
Soups can be served with:
1. Croutons of toast or fried bread
2. Bread rolls or sticks
3. Grated cheese
4. Slices of bread with grilled cheese on top chopped fresh parsley
5. Strips of carrots or celery
All of these will increase the nutrients value of the dish. Usually
150ml of soup per person is enough
Stocks
A stock is a well- flavoured liquid which is obtained by simmering a

food in water for some time in order to extract flavor from it. Stocks
have little food value on their own, and are mainly used as the bases
of soups, sauces, and gravies
Types of food suitable for stock making

1. Vegetables and vegetable liquid, except for green vegetables which
can be bitter.
2. Bones from meat, fish, and poultry
3. Meat, poultry, and giblets
4. Bones and scraps of white fish
Rules for making stock
1. The ingredients must be fresh and clean
2. Cut up the ingredients so that all the flavor can be extracted, and
remove fat
3. Cover the ingredients with cold water, bring slowly to the boil, and
simmer for 2-3 hours. To concentrate the flavor, remove the lid.
4. Skim the stock to remove fat and other ingredients that produce a
foam on the surface
5. Strain the stock as soon as it is ready, cool quickly, and store in a

cold place
6. Use the stock as soon as possible. It will keep for up to three days
if stored in a cool place
7. Do not use the stock more than once. Warm stock is an ideal
breeding ground for bacteria.
Stock which is made from bones usually sets to a jelly due to the
conversion of collagen to gelatin but it has food value as there is only a
small amount of protein present.
Stock cubes or powders can be used in place of home-made stock and are quick and convenient.
A sauce should be carefully flavoured and should be tasted before serving so that adjustments
can be made. Sauces are classified according to their consistency:
(a) Pouring sauce: as its name implies should be sufficiently fluid to be poured from a
container and is used as an accompaniment e.g custard sauce with stewed fruit, parsley
sauce with steamed fish.
(b) Coating sauce: is thicker than pouring sauce.It should be sufficiently fluid to ladle over
food it is to coat and to flow evenly over it before it begins to set,but thick enough to
form a covering which does not slide off. E.g cheese and egg au gratin, coating for fish
which has been steamed or baked.

(c) Binding sauce or panadas-are too thick to flow and are used to bind together finely
divided ingredients e.g croquettes, rissoles.
METHODS OF PREPARING SAUCES.
There are two main methods of preparing sauces:
-By blending-usually corn flour is used.
-By the roux method-usually ordinary plain flour is used.
THICKENINGS
Sauces may be thickened by:
-Starch, in flour, cornflour, arrowroot e.t.c
-Protein, from eggs.
-Emulsification of oil and water
-Pureed vegetables or fruits.
SAUCES THICKENED BY STARCH.
If starch is mixed with cold water, it will not dissolve.However, on heating to 600C,the
granules absorb water and begin to swell. As the temperature increases, so does the
swelling, until at 85oc the granules will have swollen to five times their original size, and
the liquid will be thickened. If heating continues, some of the granules will rupture,
releasing starch which will form a gel with the water. On cooling, the gel will set, and the
sauce will become solid.
When preparing sauces of this type, it is important to blend the liquid with the starch
component before cooking. Otherwise, lumps of starch granules will form, which will not
cook properly and will give the sauce an uneven texture. During cooking the sauce
should be stirred continually so that it is evenly heated. If it is not stirred, it will cook
only at the bottom and the finished result will be lumpy. This is because the conversation
currents will not be sufficient to circulate the thick mixture.
Examples of sauces thickened by starch include roux sauces, cornflour sauce, and
arrowroot sauces.
SAUCES THICKENED BY THE COAGULATION OF PROTEIN

The coagulation of protein is done by heating. Proteins start to denature at 800C and
continues to coagulate (set).Eggs are normally used to thicken sauces in this way.
If the yolk is used as an additional thickener for starch sauces it should be added after
other ingredients have been cooked and cooled to below boiling point, but not less than
the coagulation temp of the yolk 70oc.
If the temp is too high the proteins will coagulate rapidly and cause it to harden and spoil
the texture of the sauce.
If the yolk or whole egg is used as the only thickener, it should be well mixed with the
liquid and cooked rapidly gently to prevent over cooking and cooled rapidly as soon as it
has thickened to stop the coagulation

SAUCE THICKENED BY EMULSIFICATION
If oil and water are thoroughly mixed they become dispersed in each other and form an
emulsion will separate and the oil will float on top of the water
In order to prevent this separation the emulsion will separate the emulsion must be
stabilized by the addition of an emulsifier.
Egg yolk contains a substance called lecithin which acts like a emulsifier and is added to
mayonnaise to prevent the separation of oils and water (in the vinegar)
When the emulsion is stabilized by the lecithin which is thickness. This thickness can be
adjusted by the amount of vinegar added to mayonnaise. The oil must be added slowly
and thoroughly mixed with the yolk to prevent it from separating out.
SAUCES THICKENED BY A PUREE
Cooked or raw fruits or vegetables can be pureed to produce a smooth sauce by rubbing
them through a nylon sieve or using a liquidizer.
Fruits which are subject to enzymes browning should first be cooked or mixed with an
acid. E.g. lemon juice to inactive the oxidize enzymes which cause the browning when
the fruit is cut.
-CONSUMER PROTECTIONr
A consumer: is an individual or a person who buys products and services for personal use and
not for manufacture or resale.
-Consumers need to be aware of their under the law, and should find out how they can seek
compensation or advise when necessary. To get the best value for money when buying goods or
services, follow these guidelines:
1 .Find out about goods or service in detail before buying, and compare different types and
makes for quality, value, suitability e.t.c
2. Ask for a demonstration of use for large pieces of equipment.
3. Read instructions and information leaflets carefully and thoroughly, particularly guarantees
and service details.
4. Ask the opinions of people who have bought a similar item or service.
5. Consult consumer magazines such as WHICH?
6. Keep all receipts and sales agreements for large equipments and services.
7. Do not let yourself be pressurized into buying goods or paying for a service that you have not
had time to consider.

TYPES OF LAWS WHICH PROTECT CONSUMERS.
There are two laws that protect consumers thus;
(a) Criminal law: which aims at preventing behavior that would be harmful to the community as
a whole e.g fraud?
(b) Civil law; Is mainly concerned with people‟s obligation to one another.
ACTS OF PARLIAMENT THAT HELP CONSUMERS
There are main that exist, some of them are:
(a) Consumer Credit Act 1974

-Requires credit traders to be licensed.
-Covers control of consumer credit.
-Controls credit advertising e.t .c
(b) Consumer Protection Act 1987
-Protects consumers by regulating the goods and services they buy immediately.
-Prohibits misleading information about prices e.t.c
(c) European Communities act 1972
-Prohibits supply of goods that are not of a specified standards or composition
-Requires safety controls on certain goods.
(d) Fair Trading Act 1973
-Promotes the fair trading of goods and services.
-Controls restrictive practices so that traders and consumers are fairly treated.
Food and Environment Protection Act 1985
-Protects public from food made unsafe because of substances in the environment, e.g. misused
pesticides, fish from polluted water.
Prices Acts 1974 and 1975
-Encourages fair trading, protection, and price information for consumer.
-Controls how prices and sale prices of goods are displayed and indicated.
Sales of Goods Act 1979

-Goods must be of merchantable quality, i.e. fit for the purpose for which they were intended
; must perform in the way that will: and must match the description given.
-Consumers are entitled to a refund or compensation if any of the above requirement are broken,
except where the consumer is aware of faults, damage, or second quality before purchase.
-The act covers second-hand, reduced- price, and sale goods sold by manufacturers, mail-order
firms, and market traders.
-Traders are not obliged to give receipts and are not allowed to refuse refunds on faulty goods
without a receipt t(but it is best to keep receipts to avoid problems if a fault occurs).
Trade Descriptions Act 1985
-Prohibits false or misleading descriptions of goods
-Prohibits false claims about goods and services.
Weights and Measures Act 1985
-Controls weighing and measuring equipment used by manufacturers, retailers, and suppliers og
services.
-Advices on and regulates quality- control systems in manufacturing and packing establishments.
-Requires quantities of goods to be displayed on the package.
How to complain
If a consumer feels that a trader has broken any of the Acts, or if goods have to be returned to the
trader for any reason, they need to be aware of their rights under the law. Several organizations
exist to help the consumer if complaining to a trader proves unsuccessful.
These include:
 Citizen Advice Bureau

 Local council consumer advice centres
 Local trading standards departments
 Local council environmental health department
On a national scale there are the following:
 Department of trade and industry

 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food Department of Social Security

 Lord Chancellors Office.
However, these would only be called for help if the local authorities were unable to obtain a
satisfactory settlement or if the case was serious.
The office of fair trading, which was set up under the 1973 Fair Trading Act, protects
consumers and traders interests by:
 Publishing information to help people to know their rights

 Encouraging trade organization to issue codes of practice to raise standards of service and
deal with complaints
 Monitoring traders and checking up on those who break the law
 Controlling practices that are not in the interests of consumers or other traders, e.g.
monopolies (where one trader supplies and control a product or service so that no one
else can compete with it).
 Licensing firms that give credit or hire out goods to consumers.
The office does not deal with individual cases of consumer complaints, or disputes with
traders.
There are also public consumer watchdog and consultative councils, some of which deal with
goods and services. These includes
 Oftel- telecommunication
 Ofgas –gas supply
 Ofwat – water supply
 Consumers Association (produces magazines and reports on a variety of goods and
services)
 National Consumer Council
 National Federation of Consumer Goods
 Parents for Safe Food
 Food Commission
Paying for goods and services
There so many methods that can be used to pay for goods and services.these include:
i. Cash
ii. Use of credit cards e.g Visa, Access
iii. Bank link cards e.g Switch, Delta.

iv. Credit account
v. Direct debit and standing order scheme.
QUESTIONS ON CONSUMER PROTECTION
1. What guidelines should consumers follow in order to get the best value for money from goods
and services?
2. Describe the difference between civil and criminal laws.
3 Illustrate how the Weights and Measures Act affect the retail of food?
4. Outline the three main principles of the Sale of Goods Act?
5. Suppose a consumer takes back faulty goods under the law, what is the trader obliged to do for
the consumer.
SAUCES
A sauce is a thickened, flavoured liquid which can be added to a food or dish for any of the
following reasons:
-To enhance the flavor of the food which it accompanies.
-To provide a contrasting flavor to an otherwise mildy-flovoured food e.g cheese sauce with
cauliflower.
-To provide a contrasting texture to a particular solid foods e.g poultry or fish.
-To bid ingredients together for dishes such as fish cakes or croquette.
-To add colour to a dish e.g a jam sauce with a steamed sponge pudding.
-To contribute to the nutritional value of a dish.
-To reduce the richness of some foods e.g orange sauce with roast duck, apple sauce with variety
to a meal.
A sauce should be carefully flavoured and should be tasted before serving so that adjustments
can be made. Sauces are classified according to their consistency:

(d) Pouring sauce: as its name implies should be sufficiently fluid to be poured from a
container and is used as an accompaniment e.g custard sauce with stewed fruit, parsley
sauce with steamed fish.
(e) Coating sauce: is thicker than pouring sauce. It should be sufficiently fluid to ladle over
food it is to coat and to flow evenly over it before it begins to set, but thick enough to
form a covering which does not slide off. E.g cheese and egg au gratin, coating for fish
which has been steamed or baked.
(f) Binding sauce or panadas-are too thick to flow and are used to bind together finely
divided ingredients e.g croquettes, rissoles.
METHODS OF PREPARING SAUCES.
There are two main methods of preparing sauces:
-By blending-usually corn flour is used.
-By the roux method-usually ordinary plain flour is used.
THICKENINGS
Sauces may be thickened by:
-Starch, in flour, corn flour, arrowroot e.t.c
-Protein, from eggs.
-Emulsification of oil and water
-Pureed vegetables or fruits.
SAUCES THICKENED BY STARCH.
If starch is mixed with cold water, it will not dissolve .However, on heating to 600C,the
granules absorb water and begin to swell. As the temperature increases, so does the
swelling, until at 85oc the granules will have swollen to five times their original size, and
the liquid will be thickened. If heating continues, some of the granules will rupture,
releasing starch which will form a gel with the water. On cooling, the gel will set, and the
sauce will become solid.
When preparing sauces of this type, it is important to blend the liquid with the starch
component before cooking. Otherwise, lumps of starch granules will form, which will not
cook properly and will give the sauce an uneven texture. During cooking the sauce
should be stirred continually so that it is evenly heated. If it is not stirred, it will cook
only at the bottom and the finished result will be lumpy. This is because the conversation
currents will not be sufficient to circulate the thick mixture.
Examples of sauces thickened by starch include roux sauces, corn flour sauce, and
arrowroot sauces.
SAUCES THICKENED BY THE COAGULATION OF PROTEIN

The coagulation of protein is done by heating. Proteins start to denature at 800C and
continues to coagulate (set).Eggs are normally used to thicken sauces in this way.

If the yolk is used as an additional thickener for starch sauces it should be added after
other ingredients have been cooked and cooled to below boiling point, but not less than
the coagulation temp of the yolk 70oc.
If the temp is too high the proteins will coagulate rapidly and cause it to harden and spoil
the texture of the sauce.
If the yolk or whole egg is used as the only thickener, it should be well mixed with the
liquid and cooked rapidly gently to prevent over cooking and cooled rapidly as soon as it
has thickened to stop the coagulation
SAUCE THICKENED BY EMULSIFICATION

If oil and water are thoroughly mixed they become dispersed in each other and form an
emulsion will separate and the oil will float on top of the water
In order to prevent this separation the emulsion will separate the emulsion must be
stabilized by the addition of an emulsifier.
Egg yolk contains a substance called lecithin which acts like a emulsifier and is added to
mayonnaise to prevent the separation of oils and water (in the vinegar)
When the emulsion is stabilized by the lecithin which is thickness, this thickness can be
adjusted by the amount of vinegar added to mayonnaise. The oil must be added slowly
and thoroughly mixed with the yolk to prevent it from separating out.
SAUCES THICKENED BY A PUREE

Cooked or raw fruits or vegetables can be pureed to produce a smooth sauce by rubbing
them through a nylon sieve or using a liquidizer.
Fruits which are subject to enzymes browning should first be cooked or mixed with an
acid. E.g lemon juice to inactive the oxidize enzymes which cause the browning when the
fruit is cut.
QUESTIONS
(a) explain using named examples why sauces are served in family meals.
(b) State four different uses for sauces in cookery.
(c) Explain with reasons the following faults in a white roux sauce
(i) A dull coating sauce

(ii) Lumpiness
(iii) Brown specks throughout the sauce
(iv) A sauce that is too thin and watery
(c) Mayonnaise is one of the cold sauces.
(i) List down the ingredients in making mayonnaise
(ii) Write own the method of making mayonnaise

(iii) What is the under lying principle in mayonnaise.
(iv) State the reason for the use of acetic acid when making mayonnaise
(v) What is curdling and how would you prevent it in mayonnaise making
(vi) Name 4 characteristics of a well-made mayonnaise.
TOPIC: MEAL PLANNING
INDIVIDUAL NUTRITIONAL NEEDS
Everyone has different needs and requirements for food, according to;
-their age and sex,
-their health condition,
- Their daily activity,
-the climate in which they live,
- Their likes, dislikes, food customs and taboos.
The preparation and consumption of food is also influenced by;
1. The interest and motivation of the person who is preparing the food.
2. The culinary abilities and skills of the food preparer.
3. The time and the facilities that is available for preparing food.
4. The foods that is available.
5. The income available to be spent on food.
Appetite and the desire to eat food are also affected by;
1. The colour, appearance, and presentation of the food.
2. The taste, smell, and texture of the food.
3. The surroundings and atmosphere in which the food is eaten.
FOLLOWING DIETARY GUIDELINES
To achieve a healthy diet, the dietary guidelines should be followed as closely as possible.
Information about how different foods can be used in a healthy diet is available from various
places, including;
-food labels

-supermarket information leaflets
-food advice centers
-health visitors
-health centers
-child care clinics
Computer databases
Magazine articles and TV programmes.
INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS
PREGNANT WOMEN
Essential fatty acids – for brain growth and cell division
Vitamin K – deficiency can lead to hemorrhaging (bleeding where the blood will not clot) in the
first month after birth. Most new born babies are given vitamin K, either by mouth or as an
injection, to prevent this.
Vitamin B12 – A vegetarian mother may be deficient in vitamin B12 and may need to take a
supplement during pregnancy and while breastfeeding to ensure she has sufficient. The foetus
stores vitamin12 so that it has enough for the first 6 months after birth.
Calcium – the foetus needs a lot of calcium in the last few weeks of pregnancy, as the skeleton
develops. If there is not enough calcium or vitamin D in the mother‟s diet, she may lose calcium
from her mother‟s diet; she may lose calcium from her skeleton, which can lead to weakened
bones and teeth.
Iron – the mother must have enough iron during pregnancy.it is needed to supply her own body
and to provide the growing baby with a store of iron for the first few months after birth. Breast
milk and cow‟s milk are both poor sources of iron, so this store is vital.
During pregnancy, the level of hemoglobin in the blood is checked regularly. If there is less than
10mg, the mother is anaemic and the doctor may prescribe iron tablets.

NSP – constipation can be a problem in pregnancy. If it is, women should increase the amount of
fibre in their diet and take gentle exercise, e.g. walking and swimming.
Folate – folate is required very early in pregnancy for the correct development of the brain and
nervous system in the foetus.
A woman needs sufficient folate in her diet even before she becomes pregnant, folate deficiency
can lead to miscarriage (losing the developing foetus), slow growth, malformations in the foetus
(e.g. spinal bifida), or premature birth.
Vitamin E – most vitamin E is transferred to the last 10 weeks of pregnancy. If a baby is born
prematurely, it may need a vitamin E supplement.
POST – NATAL (after the birth of the baby).
After the birth, the mother‟s nutrient requirements increase. Her body needs more nutrients to
cope with the demands of breast-feeding and the increased activity associated with rearing a
baby.
Any weight gained during pregnancy will usually take a few months to go. Weight loss is helped
considerably if the mother is breast-feeding mothers should increase their intake of liquids.
INFANCY
Breast-feeding (lactation)
Human breast milk is specifically designed to feed human babies.it is the best milk to give babies
because:
1. It provides the correct mix and quantity of nutrients for the infant to grow normally.
2. The milk is at the right temperature and consistency.
3. The baby lies close to the mother to feed, and forms a strong bond with her, and she with
the baby.
4. The action of sucking produces hormones in the baby body that help the intestines to
develop and to absorb nutrients more effectively.
5. The baby digests virtually all the milk which gives it a feeling of satiety (fullness) and
drowsiness.
6. The baby takes only what it needs, and is therefore less likely to become overweight.
7. Immunity from certain diseases is passed to the baby from the mother.

8. No preparation is needed, so breast-feeding is very convenient especially when going out,
and when there are other children to look after.
9. There is little chance of the baby picking up gastric infections (stomach upsets), because
the milk is sterile and does not come into contact with the outside air.
10. Breast-fed babies are less likely to be sensitive to foods, or have eczema and asthma.
For the first 5days, the mother produces a watery substance called colostrum. This provides
essential nutrients and immunity to the baby. After this, the milk “matures”, and the volume
produced increases as the baby demanded more of it.
Mothers are advised to feed “on demand” rather than keep to a rigid feeding timetable, as babies
need different amounts at different times of the day. Gradually, the baby establishes its own
feeding timetable, and the mother can predict when to feed.
Breast-feeding takes time to become properly established, and the mother may have problems
with sore and cracked nipples, infection of the breast(mastitis),and engorgement(over-full breasts
leading to lumpiness and discomfort).midwives and health visitors can offer help, support ,and
encouragement to new mothers who may want to give up breast-feeding when problems arise.
Once breast-feeding is established, it can go on for many months, and give great pleasure and
good health to both baby and mother.
REPLACEMENT FEEDING (Bottle-feeding):
Not every mother is able to or wants to breast-feed her baby, and she should not be made to feel
bad about this.
Instead, she needs careful guidance on bottle-feeding. Her partner and other members of the
family can also enjoy the pleasure of feeding the baby.
Powdered milk preparations for bottle-feeding babies are made from modified cow‟s milk.
Ordinary cow‟s milk must not be given because it is too high in mineral salts and protein, and
would put a great strain on the babies‟ kidneys.
Bottle-fed babies are not at any disadvantage, as long as the milk is prepared exactly as
instructed. Using too much powered milk to make up a feed can lead to obesity, great thirst, and
give it more milk, thus causing more problems.
Powdered milk, bottles, teats, and sterilizing equipment are all expensive, and bottles and teats
must be sterilized after use. Milk is the perfect medium for bacteria to grow, and poorly cleaned

equipment can cause dangerous infections. Some babies cannot tolerate cow‟s milk, and may
become ill or affected by eczema.
Babies under 4months should not have sweetened fruit juices or other drinks, as the sugar in
them can cause tooth decay, even when the teeth have not erupted (come through)they should
have plain boiled water as a supplement drink if the weather is hot.
COMPLIMENTARY FEEDING (WEANING)
Weaning is the gradual introduction of solid foods into the baby‟s diet, to supplement milk which
still forms the main part of the diet. Most babies should not have any solid foods before they are
4months old. Below that age the kidneys and digestive system may not be developed sufficiently
to cope with solid food. By 6 months, all babies should have a mixed diet (a variety of solid
foods and milk).foods should be offered from a spoon rather than a bottle. This will encourage
the baby to try more solid foods, and the food will be in contact with the gums and teeth for a
much shorter time.
Different foods should be introduced a little at a time, and should be sieved or pureed so that the
baby can swallow them without choking.
1. Low-sugar rusks or unsweetened ground rice in milk. Breast milk can be

expressed (squeezed out) by the mother into a sterile bottle and kept in the
refrigerators for this.
2. Pureed cooked vegetables, e.g. Carrot and potato, parsnip and peas.
3. Pureed cooked meat and fish with unsalted gravy.
4. Pureed fruit, e.g. banana and fresh orange juice, cooked apple, pear, and mango.
5. Sieved, cooked egg yolk (hard boiled the egg first).
It is not necessary or advisable to add sugar or salt to these foods. This would encourage
a taste for salty and sweet foods, which can be undesirable and unhealthy. Salt also put
extra strain on the kidneys.
As the baby eats more solid foods it will drink less milk, and can drink water with a meal
instead.as the baby‟s teeth erupt, coarse foods can be introduced, similar to those listed
above but less finely puréed. Foods to encourage chewing and to help teething can be
given, such as;
Dry low sugar rusks, toasted bread, commercially made bread sticks, pieces of fruit,e.g.
apple with skin removed. Babies and children should not be left alone while eating in
case they choke on the food. Foods for the babies can be prepared from the family meals
using a liquidizer, processor, sieve, or special baby- food grinder.

The recommendation to reduce fat intake does not apply to babies and children under
2years of age, and full-fat milk should be given to this age group. Dietary fat should be
reduced gradually between the age of 2 and 5.
Apart from the natural sugar found in milk (lactose), sugar should not make up more than
10% of the total energy intake. Parents need to know the names of sugars used in food
products and to check food labels carefully.
Sweets and chocolates are often used as treats or to encourage the child to behave well.
They can become habit forming as they are very palatable, often brightly coloured,
interestingly shaped and packed, and very appealing. Small children cannot understand
the effect of too much sugar on their teeth, so the parent or child minder must restrict the
number of sweets they eat. Eating sweets at the end of meal, just before teeth are cleaned,
will do little harm. The same advice is applies to sweetened soft drinks.
A variety of protein food should be offered, including
Plant proteins (e.g. Beans, pulses, soya products).non-vegetarians should also have
animal proteins (meat, fish, dairy products, and eggs).
Gradually, more carbohydrate foods (e.g. starch vegetables, pasta, cereal products, bread,
and fruit) and less fatty foods should be offered as the child approaches 2years of age.
Infants need adequate calcium and iron, along with vitamins D and C to help absorb
them. Many commercially prepared baby foods are enriched with vitamins and minerals
and the labels should declare this. However, breast-fed and bottle-fed infants should not
need vitamin supplements before 6months providing the mother has good diet, and the
mixed weaning diet contains plenty of fruit, vegetables, pulses, cereals, milk and if eaten,
meat and fish.
TODDLERS AND YOUNG CHILDREN (up to 5years)
Different foods in various forms should continue to be introduced, so that the child does not
become too limited in its food choice. At this age, growth and activity are greatly increased,
nutrients to cope with this:
-Protein – for body growth.
-Calcium – for bones and teeth.
-Fluoride – for teeth.
-Iron – for red blood cells.
The diet should be well balanced in all aspects.

Children should be discouraged from eating between meals, especially sweets and snacks such as
crisps, as this may lead to poor appetite at mealtimes(and therefore unbalanced diet),tooth decay,
and obesity.
At this age, a child‟s appetite may vary from day to day, and parents should make allowances for
this. Rather than try to force a child to eat, give small portions with the option of a little more if
desired.
1. Teething – gums can be very sore and uncomfortable.
2. Illness – the child may be unable to explain how it feels in words, but
show it by refusing food.
3. Assertiveness – children like to assert their independence, and so may

refuse to eat even if hungry.
Parents should try to stay calm but firm, and indicate clearly the behavior they
expect at the meal table. The child is then unlikely to refuse food for long.
Children often refuse to eat a food which they have previously enjoyed. This may
merely be one of the phases that children go through, and should not cause great
concern.
-SCHOOL AGE CHILDREN/ADOLESCENT
School aged children and adolescents have larger appetites, so they are likely to eat in between
meals. they should avoid eating too much “junky foods ie foods that provide little except fat or
sugar.
- Adolescents should avoid drinking too many carbonated drinks and squashes as their
sugar content is often high. Fruit juice, milk or water is preferable.
- Children must be guided by their parents, careers and teachers about choosing a health
and valid selection of food.
Special needs:
 The sick, the allergic and the vegetarians, as every individual should to be catered
for.
Proper nutrition:
 Should improve and lengthens life of HIV/AIDS sufferers.

 Growing children need proteins for proper growth and carbohydrates provide
energy for both men and boys.
(i) Climate:
 In hot weather there is little need for energy giving foods.
 Serve cold dishes which are cooling and refreshing.
 During cold weather, serve hot foods which will warm the body.
(ii) Time available:
 Time is necessary for shopping, preparing, cooking and serving food. It
determines the number of dishes that can be prepared and the method of
preparation.
(iii) The facilities (equipment) available.
 A person with gas and an electric cooker can make more dishes or even practice
different dishes in a shorter time than one with a single charcoal burner, a
paraffin stove or a three stone fire hearth.
(iv) Occasion:
 When celebrating birth days, graduation, anniversaries and other occasions, one
needs to choose foods that suit the occasion and the guests.
(v) Variety:
 Avoid monotony
 Method of preparation
 Ideas of serving
 The kind of food
 Garnishes and decorations used.
 Preparation and presentation variety.
(vi) Colour:
 Should stimulate and influence the appetite.
Q. 27. Explain how you would prepare meal for the following:
(a) Young children:
 The meal must be balanced. It must provide proteins to support rapid growth,
carbohydrates for the burst of energy in play, vitamins for good health and
minerals especially calcium and phosphorus for strong bones and teeth.
 The food should be soft and served in small quantities. Children in different
stages require food prepared in different ways.
 The food should be served in small dainty serving bowls or plates to capture their
interest.
 Meals should be served at regular intervals and punctually.
 A feeding schedule could be followed but if the child demands for food in
between, it should be given.
 Children‟s food should not be too seasoned, spiced or over sweetened. Fats or oils
should be used minimally.
 As the child grows, the food should require plenty of chewing.
Introduce crisp foods. E.g. raw carrots, toasted bread, crisps and maize on the cob,
etc.
 Serve the children when they are neither too tired nor too hungry because such
conditions contribute to poor appetite and eating.
(a) Manual workers: such as gardening, mechanics, carpentry, masonry, etc

demands a lot of physical energy.
 Provide a well-balanced diet with high amounts of starchy foods.
 Ensure the quantities are enough to satisfy.
 Include foods rich in vitamin B for release of energy from the body.
 Serve enough fluids to replace those lost in respiration.
(b) Invalids: these are people who suffer from different illnesses. The extent of
the illness may vary from mild to very serious. The more serious patients,
require special diet such those suffering from diabetes, kidney and heart
diseases, and HIV/AIDS victims. Invalids generally have reduce appetite and
are not able to tolerate the ordinary meals prepared in the regular methods.
 The meal should be balanced with plenty of protective foods.
 The diet should have plenty of fluids in the form of fruit juices, milk, soups and other
nutritious drinks.
 Foods difficult to digest such as fatty meat, pastries and rich cake are not good for
invalids.
 Reduce the amount of carbohydrates as the invalid is not very active
 Meals for invalids should be attractive with food variety to provide different colour,
textures and appearance.
 Food should be soft and easy to digest.
 The food must be prepared and served in hygienic conditions to safeguard food from
contamination.
 Meals should be served at regular intervals and punctually.
 The invalid should be seated in a comfortable position.
 First serve a small helping and then encourage a second one. The invalid should have
company when eating.
 Avoid foods which have very strong flavours and smells.
 Seasoning and spices should be used separately

(d) Convalescents: these are people recovering from an illness. The meals are planned on the
same principle as for invalids.
 Increase the portions slightly as the patient recovers.

 Serve more energy giving foods as the person become active.
 Apply more varied method of cooking, e.g. roasting, frying and grilling.
(e)Vegetarians:
Q. 28. Why do people become vegetarians?
 Religious reasons
 Health reasons
 Allergy reasons
 Objections to the slaughter of animals
 Dislike of animal flesh
 Dietary reasons.
Vegetarians eat vegetables and legumes but avoid meat. The two categories of vegetarians are
the strict (vegan) vegetarian and the lacto (ova) vegetarians. The strict vegetarians do not eat any
food that originates from animals while the lacto vegetarians avoid meat but can take animal
products such as milk, eggs and cheese.
 Ensure a balanced diet by including complete or incomplete proteins from plant source
e.g. soya beans, groundnuts, peas, lentils. A mixture of two or more pulses will
complement one another.
 Egg dishes, milk and cheese in addition to pulses should be provided (lacto vegetarian).
 Vegetable fats and oils should be used in preparing the meals.
 Vary the way the foods are cooked to avoid monotony.
 Good seasoning will make the meal appealing and ensure it is taste.
 Strongly flavoured herbs, vegetables such as celery, parsley and onions should be used.
 A good amount of vegetables should include in the diet to provide the would be omitted
nutrients.
(f) Elderly: they are psychological changes that occur at old age which tend to affect the
nutritional requirements of the elderly.
 Avoid very hard foods but provide some to exercising the teeth.

 Ensure the meal is well balanced with an emphasis on proteins and protective foods.
 The food should provide good amount of calcium and phosphorus to strengthen the
bones.
 The food should be easy to digest e.g. stews, soup, plenty of vegetables and fresh fruit
juices.
 The food should be well cooked and flavoured.
 Avoid fatty and greasy foods.
 Serve the foods attractively in small quantities and at regular intervals.
(g) Adolescents: this is a stage of rapid growth and high energy demand. Teenagers undergo
many physical changes that relate to body development.
 Meals should be balanced to give a lot of proteins, mineral salts and carbohydrates.
 Adolescent girls should be given additional quantities of iron rich foods to compensate
for loss during menstruation e.g. liver, pumpkin leaves, spinach.
 Adequate amounts of food should be given to teenagers as that tend to have a large
appetite.
 Fats and oils should be provided in controlled quantities because a high intake tends to
worsen the conditions of oily-facial skin, pimples and black heads.
 Meals should vary in colour and texture and should be served in regular intervals.
(h) Lactating mothers: these are women mothers who are breastfeeding. A mother should eat
properly because a poor diet affects the baby she is breastfeeding.
 A breastfeeding mother should eat healthy diet that has adequate calories and plenty of
fluids.
 The diet should be balanced.
 The mother should drink a lot of water so as to reduce hydration and quench their thirst.
This can be taken through milk and juices.
 Avoid intake of caffeinated drinks such as coffee and alcoholic drinks when
breastfeeding.
(i) HIV/AIDS
If a person is HIV/AIDS patient, need to pay special attention to nutrition and feeding habits
because the body undergoes changes both from medication and the disease. He or she may
experience extreme weight loss, infections or Diarrhoea. The other common change is fat
distribution syndrome which can cause body shape to change and increase in cholesterol
levels. Making improvement in the diet can improve the health and how well the patient will
feel.

 Eat the diet high in vegetables, fruits, whole grain and legumes.
 Choosing lean, low fat sources of proteins.
 Limiting sweets, soft drinks and foods with added sugar.
 Include proteins, carbohydrates and a lot good fat in all meals and snacks.
 Food rich in iron.
(j) Pregnant mother (expectant mother)
An expectant mother needs a diet rich enough in all nutrients to provide for the health and
development of her baby, and for her own daily needs. This does not mean that she
should eat for two. She should not eat too many fat, oily and starchy foods. She should
eat cereals and cereal products, dairy products, edible insects, fish, beans, soybeans,
soybeans products, liver, kidneys, groundnuts, fruits, vegetables and iodized salt. Refined
foods are not as full of nutrients as natural foods. Expectant mothers need foods rich in
irons.
QUESTIONS
1. Write in full the acronym HIV.
2. With reasons,give three most important nutrients neede by an HIV
patient.
3. Give five good practices that an HIV patient should follow.
4. Meal planning is an important aspect in the preparation of food in
any home.
(i) Why is meal planning important?Give four reasons.
(b)Different needs or individual requirements is one main point to consinder when

preparing meals.
(i) Give a brief description of each point given in (b) above.
( c) Explain the following terms associated with meal planning
(i) Lunch
(ii) High tea
(iii) Supper
(iv) Courses
(v) Main dish
Sub topic: packed meal:
Packed meals are meals that are cooked and prepared to be eaten away from home.
Q. 29. Explain rules for packed meals.
 Must be easy to serve.

 Must be easy to carry. Use dry method of cooking food.
 Must be balanced. The meal should be substantial and should supply one third of
daily intake of nutrients and energy. Items inside the box should be individually
wrapped.
 Must be easy to pack so that it is not crushed or damaged in transit. Use tight fitting
and transparent packing utensils and equipment.
 The food should easy to eat using minimum cutlery and producing the minimum
wastage. Bearing in mind that it may have to be eaten in an awkward place such
building sites.
 A variety of texture and flavours should be included.
 The meal should also include a drink.
 Drinks and soups can be kept hot or cold depending on the weather.
Q. 30. Identify foods suitable for packed meals.
 Sandwiches, sausage rolls, meat pies, mixed salads, orangeade, lemonade, cakes,
biscuits, hot drink, scones, scotched egg, filled rolls, hard boiled eggs, etc.
TOPIC 4: LEFT OVER FOODS
Sub topic: Re-heated foods/ reshuffle
Q. 31. Explain factors to consider when preparing left over foods.
 Cut into small pieces.

 Convert to different dishes.
 Use within a short period after its first cooking.
 Food should be re-heated not cooked.
 All the ingredients to be used must first be cooked.
 Some freshly cooked or fresh dishes should be served with all re-heated foods
 Should be well seasoned and flavoured carefully to make them palatable and interesting.
 Some crispy foods should be served to give bite and break monotony
 Should be carefully garnished to enhance their attractiveness.
Q. 32. Explain how best you can use leftover foods.
 Remove fat, bones gristle from meat.

 Remove skin and bones from fish.
 Fish could be flaked and meat minced.
 Protect re- heated foods from too much heat and loss of juices and nutrients by coating
with butter, egg and bread crumbs or pastry.

 Add fresh cooked ingredients like onion, tomatoes, green pepper.
Q. 33. List examples of dishes from leftover foods:
 Shepherd‟s pie: cooked meat, cooked mashed potatoes

 Pumpkin fritters: mashed cooked pumpkin
 Rissoles: cooked meat (left over, mashed potatoes, cooked onion.
 Sweet potato cakes: cooked sweet potatoes.
 Rice pudding: cooked rice ( leftover)
 Fish pie: cooked fish (leftover), cooked mashed potatoes.
 Fish cakes: cooked fish, cooked mashed potatoes
 Munkoyo ( sweet beer): leftover Nshima
 Samp: leftover samp
OR
 Meat: shepherd‟s pie, savoury mince, curry, meat fritters, pasties
 Chicken: curry, risotto, pies
 Fish: fish cakes, fish pie, kedgeree
 Potatoes: croquettes, shepherd‟s pie, fish pie, fish cakes.
 Bread: bread and butter pudding, queen of puddings, cheese pudding,
 Stale cake: trifle, summer pudding
 Pumpkin: fritters, pumpkin soup, pumpkin pie
TOPIC 5: FOOD PRESENTATION
Sub topic: Decorating and garnishing
Q. 34. Define food presentation.
 The visual composition of the plate or plates, in a state of food to be eaten.

 The visual impression of a meal.
 The colour, design and decoration of the served dishes.
 The method of decorating food, arranging and serving food attractively.
Q.35 what is the difference between food decoration and food garnishing?
 Dessert or sweet dishes are decorated while savoury dishes are garnished.
 Garnishes are used on served savoury or salty food while decoration is used in sweet
dishes.
Q. 36. Mention food used for decorating and food used for garnishing.
Foods used for decoration:

 Royal icing, glace icing, custard, butter icing, cherries, peanut butter, chocolate,
marzipan, jelly, fruits, nuts, sugar, cream, etc.
Foods used for garnishing:
 Parsley, croutons, hard boiled eggs, cheese, fried bacon, onion, tomatoes, carrots, green
pepper or red pepper, cucumber, watercress, lettuce, radishes, etc.
Q. 37. State rule of decorating and garnishing food.
 Neatness and symmetry are important factors in the overall effect.

 The garnish or decoration should add colour, flavour and texture to the dish, and should
be edible.
 The garnish and decoration should enhance the dish, and not dominate it.
 It usually to serve cooked garnishes with hot foods.
Q. 38. What are the reasons of decorating and garnishing foods?
 To stimulate appetite.
 To make food attractive.
 To add colour, flavour, taste and texture.
 To add extra nutrients
 To add variety
Sub topic: Table Setting
 Table setting is the proper arrangement of utensils on the table for each individual having
a meal.
 Is the way of setting the table with table ware such as serving and eating utensils.
Q. 39. What are points to consider for table setting?
 The food being served: the number of courses.

 The number of people eating the meal.
 The occasion-does it requires a buffet, blue plate, self service, or table service.
Q. 40. State general rules for table setting.
 Ensure that the room is well cleaned and ventilated.

 Dust and wipe the table even if it has been cleaned earlier.
 Spread the table mat and ensure that all the sides that are hanging are equal.
 Place a water proof liner over the table if you have one and then place heat proof mats on
top.
 Allow enough space between each person at the table.
 Place clean cutlery that will be used in the course of the meal and the utensils neatly on
the table.
Q. 41. Differentiate modern table setting from traditional table setting.
Modern table setting:
 Put the place mat on the centre of the table.

 Put the napkin to the left of the place mat or table mat or place it on top of the dinner
plate or in the space for the plate.
 Service plate for the first course of the meal is always put in the centre of the table mat.
 Place the dinner fork and salad fork on the napkin.
 Place the knife to the right of the plate. The blade of the knife should face the plate.
 Place the teaspoon to the left of the knife, if tea is to be served at the end of the meal.
 Soup spoon or fruit spoon: if soup or fruit is to be served, then the accompanying spoon
goes to the right of the knife.
 Place the dessert spoon horizontally above the plate facing left. It should smaller than the
soup spoon.
 Place the dessert fork parallel to and below the dessert fork facing right. The dessert fork
should smaller than the dinner fork.
 Place the wine glasses a few inches above and to the left of the soup spoon.
 Place water glass a few inches above the soup spoons. It should be placed further back
than the wine glass.
 Bread and butter plate: the small butter plate is placed above the forks at the left of the
place setting.
 Butter knife: the small spreader is placed diagonally on top of the butter plate; handle on
the right and blade down.
 A coffee cup should be placed over the saucer, a few inches above the outer most utensils
on the left.
Traditional Table Setting:
 In traditional set up, people do not usually use forks and spoons. They wash hands and
use them to dig into the food.
 Water is place in a bowl and brought for the people to wash their hands.

 Food is placed in the middle of the table and the accompanying sauce in from of the
dinner ( one going to eat).
 The drink is placed to the left of the dinner.
There is no clear pattern of where things will be place.
TOPIC : IMPROVISATION(TRADITIONAL COOKERY)
Improvisation of food is using locally available foods to make dishes. However, good initiative
and cooking skills are needed to make dishes attractive or appetizing. Some of the locally
available foods used to come up with dishes include:
 Dried cow peas

 Pumpkin leaves
 Sweet potato leaves
 Black jack
 Beans
 Cassava
 Sweet potatoes
 Maize
 Pumpkin seeds
 Preserved cereals, root tubers, pulses, vegetables, meat, fish, insects, etc.
Improvised recipes
Some of the improvised recipes are:
 Dried pumpkin leaves with ground nuts

 Fried pumpkin leaves
 Cassava flakes
 Sweet potato crackers
 Kacesha leaves (dried cowpeas leaves)

TOPIC 8: STOCKS AND SOUPS
Q. 42. Explain how to set tables for different meals and occasion.
Breakfast table setting:
Starting from left to right there is bread and butter plate along with a butter knife followed by
napkins which can be a paper or a neatly folded cloth followed by a fork, a plate then a cereal
bowl for a cold or a hot cereal or a fruit, then followed by a knife and a teaspoon. A cup and a
saucer for tea and coffee and a tea spoon for steering. You can also use a mug instead of a
traditional cup and a saucer. Lastly you can have a glass of juice, milk or water.
Lunch table setting:
Bring out funky and colourful dishes, bright cloth napkins and eye catching glass ware. Add
a pretty centerpiece in the middle of the table in order to have a relaxing table for the lunch.
The plate goes in the centre, forks and napkins go the left with the bread and butter saucer,
then the knives and spoon to the right with the drink.
Dinner table setting:
Set the dinner plate in from of the chair and place the drinking glasses on the right side of the
plate. Add to the dinner plate a napkin placed in the center, alternatively, place the napkin to
left of the fork. You may roll the napkin and place it in the wine glass. A bread plate with a
butter knife placed on top of it horizontally placed on the upper corner on the left of the
dinner plate. Place two to three forks on the left side of the dinner plate. Above the plate goes
the dessert fork facing right. Towards the glass and the dessert spoon facing left, place the
dinner knife on the right side of the plate. Add the soup spoon next to the knife if having
soup. Any tea spoon is placed between the knife and soup spoon. Add a cock tail fork if
having cock tail at the outer most edge.
Buffet table setting:
Buffet meals are often used for large number of people. The food is served on the large table
together with the crockery and cutlery.
The plates are placed at one end of the table with the food next to them. The guests or people
going to eat will pick the plates and serve themselves the food they like and the quantity they
can finish. The cutlery and the napkins or serviettes are placed at the other end of the table
for the people to pick last as they go to eat. Drinks can be served at the end of the table or at
another table. Sometimes a tray is provided to carry the food and drink and it can also be

used as a surface to eat from where tables are not provided, the buffet table should be
strategically placed to provide easy movement for everyone.
TOPIC 6: MEAL AND FLOUR MIXTURES
Sub topic: source of meal and flour
Meal and flour come from seed grains cultivated grasses called cereals and from dried ground
tubers. Flour is fine substance obtained from grinding grains or cereals on the other hand, meal is
obtained from crushed grains and usually coarse.
Q. 43. Identify sources of meal flour:
 Rice, wheat, cassava, millet, potato, soya beans, sorghum, sweet potatoes, yams, etc.
Q. 44. Describe the nutritive value of meal and flour.
Grains and cereals are rich in carbohydrates. All unprocessed cereals are also a good source of
fibre. Some types of vitamins and minerals are also present. White bread for example, which
made from white flour, is a major source of calcium which is essential for strong health bones
and teeth. Cereals contain useful amounts of low biological value proteins (LBV). Gluten is the
main protein found in cereals especially wheat and it gives flour, its elasticity. Soya beans
contain high biological value proteins (HBV) which contain essential amino acids needed by
body. Fats are there in small amounts and are found in the grains of cereals. Whole grain cereals
contain a good source of fats.
Q. 45. Explain the use of flour mixtures.
Use of flour mixtures include: pastry, batters, sauces, cakes, puddings, biscuits, samosas,
scones, etc.
Sub topic: Raising Agents
 Raising agent is any substance which when added to flour or meal mixture will raise it by
allowing in air (gases to give lightness to the mixture).
 Are substances used to introduce gases into a flour or meal mixture to raise and have a
light pleasant texture.

 Are substances added to flour or meal mixture to make it raise and also to make it lighter
and more open in texture.
Q. 46. Give examples of raising agents.
 Air, baking powder, yeast, bicarbonate of soda.
TEXTURED VEGETABLE PROTEIN

-These are meat substitutes or vegetable proteins manufactured from soya beans.
Why having TVP/Alternative protein food
-meat is expensive to produce and buy.
-Scarcity of animals in some places.
-To provide cheaper foods for animals.
Why soya is used to make TVP
-because soya contains High Biological Value proteins like meat,fish,egg and others.
-Some past years, soya beans was known for oil production but when they discoved that the
residue contained 50% proteins then they decided to utilize it well into either flour or flakes.
-Flakes can further be processed and concentrated to have about 70% proteins.
-The extracted proteins can textured and flavoured to resemble meats which are known as
textured Vegetable proteins. Usually other nutrients are added. Textured means the process
which form proteins flakes into granules, chunks, mince cubes and so on and so forth.
IMPORTANCE OF TVP IN THE DIET
-For their high biological value protein e.g stews, meat pies, vegan meals.
-Cheaper alternative to meat.‟
-There is no waste.
-Easy to store and has a long life span.
-Useful source of fibre.

PASTRY
-A pastry is a mixture of flour, fat and water.
-The different types of pastry are achieved by using differing quantities of these
basic ingredients and different methods of mixing.
BASIC PROPORTIONS
Yeast :
 Yeast is a living organism and a plant from the fungi group.

 Yeast is a micro living fungus which is found naturally on the skin of some fruits and air.
For the yeast to grow and multiply the following conditions must be present:
(a) Food in form of sugar and flour.
(b) Moisture or liquid, e.g. milk and water
(c) Warmth from the liquid and surrounding.
 Fresh yeast: this yeast is pale brown in colour with a light smell and crumbly in texture. It
usually store in the polythene plastic bags and stored in a refrigerator to preserve it.
Though it has a shorter fermentation time it cannot be stored for a long time. It more
sensitive than dry yeast. Fresh yeast is irritated or destroyed by sugar, so it is inadvisable
to mix it with sugar in recipes.
 Active dry yeast: it is grayish in colour and looks like small round seed. It is usually sold
in sachets, tight fitting bottles and containers. Active dry yeast take a long time to
ferment. It is allowed to dissolve for a few seconds before being stirred. It is mixed with
warm water and left to proof for about 10-15 minutes before being added to the flour
mixture.
 Instant dry yeast: this is the type of yeast that is ground finely into powder so that it just
directly added to the flour like baking powder. There is no fermentation period as is the
case of active dry yeast.
Baking powder:
Baking powder is a combination of:
 Bicarbonate of soda
 Cream of tartar or tartaric acid
 A moisture absorber (rice flower).
The acid neutralizes the effects of bicarbonate of soda on taste and colour. When baking
powder is heated with a liquid, carbon dioxide is produced. Baking powder even starts
producing carbon dioxide when just damp, so it is important to store it in an air tight tin.

Air: air can be introduced into the flour mixture by the following means:
 Sieving flour (the air is trapped between the grains).

 Beating the mixture, e.g. batters
 Creaming butter or fat and sugar together, e.g. cakes
 Whisking eggs, e.g. Swiss rolls. Eggs white has the power to hold large quantities of air
when they are thoroughly whisked.
 Folding flour into a mixture.
Bicarbonate of soda: this is a fine white powder which when heated with a liquid
produces carbon dioxide. During cooking bicarbonate of soda is change into an alkaline
(sodium carbonate) which has an unpleasant flavour and a yellowish colour. It is used in
mixtures which has a strong flavour are dark in colour, e.g. ginger bread. The
neutralization process involves the use of a combination of bicarbonate of soda and an
acid to raise flour mixture.
Q. 47. Identify types of yeast
Types of yeast include: fresh yeast, active dry yeast, instant dry yeast.
Bread making:
Creaming:
 Done when fresh yeast and dry yeast are being used.
 Small amount of warm water is mixed with yeast and left to proof for about 10-15
minutes.
Mixing:
 The stage at which the warm yeast liquid is added to flour to make a dough.
Kneading:
 This process helps to mix and distribute the yeast and liquids evenly throughout the
dough. It also helps to work on the gluten and make it more elastic.
Rising:
 After thorough kneading the dough is put in warm place to rise for a specific time
according to the method in the recipe.
 This period the yeast multiplies and carbon dioxide is formed which rises the dough
to double its size.

Kneading:
 This process is done for the second time to help distribute evenly the carbon
dioxide in the dough.
Shaping:
 This is when the dough is formed and shaped according to the desired shapes.
Proofing:
 The shaped dough is once again placed or put in a warm place to allow the dough
to grow at double the size because more carbon dioxide is produced as the yeast
multiplies.
Baking:
 This is the time when the yeast mixture or dough is put in a hot oven to be
cooked. The heat kills the yeast so that it stops to grow and the gluten in the
dough hardens and sets the shape of the dough in figure it has been shaped such as
rolls, buns or bread.
 TEXTURED VEGETABLE PROTEIN
 -These are meat substitutes or vegetable proteins manufactured from soya beans.
 Why having TVP/Alternative protein food
 -meat is expensive to produce and buy.
 -Scarcity of animals in some places.
 -To provide cheaper foods for animals.
 Why soya is used to make TVP
 -because soya contains High Biological Value proteins like meat,fish,egg and
others.
 -Some past years, soya beans was known for oil production but when they
discoved that the residue contained 50% proteins then they decided to utilize it
well into either flour or flakes.
 -Flakes can further be processed and concentrated to have about 70% proteins.
 -The extracted proteins can textured and flavoured to resemble meats which are
known as textured Vegetable proteins. Usually other nutrients are added. Textured
means the process which form proteins flakes into granules, chunks, mince cubes
and so on and so forth.
 IMPORTANCE OF TVP IN THE DIET

 -For their high biological value protein e.g stews, meat pies, vegan meals.
 -Cheaper alternative to meat.‟
 -There is no waste.
 -Easy to store and has a long life span.
 -Useful source of fibre.











 PASTRY
 -A pastry is a mixture of flour,fat and water.
 -The different types of pastry are achieved by using differing
quantities of these basic ingredients and different methods of mixing.
 BASIC PROPORTIONS
Q. 48. Outline steps in bread making:
 Mixing,
 kneading,
 rising (proving),
 kneading,
 shaping,
 proving
 and baking.

TOPIC 7: FOOD PRESERVATION
Sub topic: Food Preservation
 Food preservation is the preservation of multiplication of microorganisms which produce

poisonous substances that are harmful to human health.
 Any process that prevents food spoilage.
 To prevent natural and microbial decay by modifying the conditions that favour enzymes
activity and the growth of microorganisms.
 Keeping of food for future use.
REASONS FOR PRESERVING FOOD
 To prevent waste and save money
 Preserves add nutrients, variety and flavour,colour and texture to meals
when fresh fruit vegetables are scarce and expensive
 For easy storage, transportation,exports and imports.
CAUSES OF FOOD DECAY
 Enzymes within the cells of slaughtered animals and harvested plant foods break down
the tissue when the cells have been damaged (autolysis).
 Yeast, moulds, and bacteria feed saprophytically on organic material. Digestive enzymes
secreted on to the food break it down and then “digested” material is absorbed. This
microbial activity is essential for the breakingdown of dead organic material.
What are we doing when we preserve
 By storing food at low temperatures – 180C and below, enzymes and micro –
organisms are inactive. They remain dormant until the temperature rises.
1 Frozen food should be stored at 180C or below in a domestic freezer.
2 Food should be frozen at 250C.The lower the freezing temperature the smaller the ice
crystals and the less damage to the food tissue.
NB: The refrigerator is for short term storage of food. The star rating of the frozen
food storage compartment must be observed.
 By heating food to high temperatures and re – entry of air.

.1 The cooking process in jam making destroys micro – organisns.The waxed disc seals the
surface of the jam and prevents re - contamination.
3. Bottling, in, water or syrup, involves the destruction of micro – organisms at high
temperatures. The airtight vacuum seal prevents re – contamination.
By the removal of water
5. solution. Removal of water destroys microbes and prevents
enzymes action within food.
6. Herbs are dried by hanging bundles in a warm, dry current of air.
7. Apple rings may be dried in a very slow oven.
8. Dried foods must be kept dry. If they become damp enzymes and
microbes can become active again.
By using chemicals and other products
SUGAR – Jam making, crystallizing fruit.
SALT – Salting beans, pickles, chutneys.
VINEGAR – Pickles, chutneys
ALCOHOL – Fruit e.g. peaches in brandy.
SULPHUR DIOXIDE – Forms sulphurous acid in solution. It is used in sausage meat, beer,
fruit pulp, soft drinks, and dried vegetables.
NITRITES AND NITRATES are for fish, meat and bacon.
ANTIOXIDANTS are used to prevent rancidity in fats and foods rich in fats.
CERTO - Is commercial liquid pectin.
1. High concentrations of sugar, salt and vinegar remove water from the plant and animal cells
by osmosis. Micro – organisms dehydrate and are destroyed.
2. In pickling the salt draws water from the vegetable so that the vinegar can penetrate right into
the food. The pickles will then keep and be crisp.
3. Enzyme action within food cannot take place in the presence of salt, sugar or acid in high
concentration.
JAM MAKING
Jam is fruit boiled with sugar to form a gel which sets when the jam cools. A good gel depends
upon the amount of pectin, sugar and acid present.

Pectin is a complex sugar or polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plant food. The amount
present depends upon type of fruit and degree of ripeness. Just ripe or slightly under-ripe fruit
contains most. In over-ripe fruit the pectin has changed to a form which will not gel.
Acid helps to extract the pectin from the fruit. Fruit rich in pectin usually has a high acid content.
Acid improves the colour and flavour of the jam. It can be added as lemon juice, citric acid or
tartaric acid.
Sugar as 600 % to 650 % of the finished jam ensures that the jam will keep. Jam making: jam is
preserved by boiling fruit with sugar solution until it forms a „gel‟ which sets on cooling. In
order for a gel to form, the jam should contain:
 Pectin
 Acid
 Sugar
Pectin and acid are found in fruits. Unripe fruits contain more pectin and acid. Acid is needed to
remove pectin from fruit during stewing. Acid in fruits improves the colour and flavour of jam
and prevents the sugar from forming crystals during storage.
Test for jam setting:
 Temperature test: stir jam and take reading with a sugar boiling thermometer. If the
temperature reaches 105oc then the jam is set.
 Flake test: stir the jam with a wooden spoon, lift up and hold above the jam pan. If jam
runs off the spoon, then it is not set and it turns into a thick flake along the edge of the
spoon and drops off slowly, then setting point is reached.
 Saucer test: put a little of jam onto a cold saucer or plate. Run a finger gently across the
surface. If thin skin wrinkles up, setting point has been reached.
FREEZING
Points to consider when buying a freezer
1. Look for the four star symbol.
2. The size chosen will depend upon the number in a family
3. Cost – Money available, the cost of electricity to run it and insurance. The cost includes
bought frozen foods to fill the freezer.
4.Type – chest, upright or refrigerator/freezer.

Packaging material for freezing
Aluminum foil – tears easily, items need to be double wrapped. Useful for awkward shapes
Polythene bags – assorted sizes, use heavy weight to prevent tears.
Cling film – heavy gauge for freezer.
Polythene boxes with well – fitting lids. Easy to stack. Space saving.
Seals – plastic or paper covered wire, heat sealing kits are available at a high initial cost.
HOME FREEZING
Blanching destroys the enzymes which would bring about the loss of vitamin C and changes in
texture, colour and flavour during storage.
BOTTLING
Types of processes
 oven processing
 water bath processing
 pressure cooker processing
PICKLING
Prepared vegetables are left, in brine or well sprinkled with salt, for 24 hours.
Brine is made in the proportion of 100g salt to 1 litre water.
MAKING CHUTNEY
Chutneys are mixtures of fruits, vegetables, sugar, spice and vinegar. These are cooked
together until they are the consistency of jam. TYPES OF FRIDGES AND FREEZER
Food can remain safe for consumption for a much longer time, if it is kept very cold than when
exposed to normal temperatures.
This is due to micro-organism, minute living bacteria, having their reproduction retarded by low
temperatures and by enzymes also being activated. In normal conditions, and more especially in
moist warmth, enzyme action and bacterial growth continue.
Refrigerators are designed to keep foods cool, clean and fresh. The cabinet and door are made
up of two panels of sheet steel with an insulating material between the finish on the steel is
enamel.
HOW THE REFRIGERATOR OPERATES

1. Warm air rises and cold air falls
2. Micro-organisms are very active at temperatures below 100 foods stored below this
temperature deteriorate very slowly.
3. Fridge/Freezer has a separately controlled freezer compartment
4. When a liquid evaporates, it takes heat from the surrounding area.
PARTS OF A REFRIGERATOR
- Frozen food compartment

- Egg trays
- Bottle rack
- Salad drawer
- Adjustable shelves
- Dairy keeper
TYPES OF REGRIGERATORS
1. Conventional Refrigerators have a freezer compartment which forms the evaporation.

This can be used to store frozen foods or to make ice cubes.
2. Fridge-freezers can be used to freeze foods as well
3. Larder refrigerators do not have a freezer compartment
FREEZERS
There are 3 main types of freezer namely;
 Chest
 Upright
 Fridge-freezer
RULES FOR USING THE REFRIGERATOR

1. Hot food should not be placed in the refrigerator
2. Do not overload the cabinet
3. Food placed in the refrigerator should be covered
4. Open the door as little as possible
5. Wipe inside the fridge with bi-carbonate of soda
6. Defrost regularly
POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING A REFRIGERATOR
I. Cost
II. Size
III. Type of fuel available – electricity, gas or oil
IV. Quality of the material used
V. Should have additional features e.g. automatic defrosting, egg rack in door, drawer
for vegetables.

CLEANING AND DEFROSTING THE REFRIGERATOR
Daily
Wipe off splashes from the inside or outside of the cabinet as they occur.
Occasionally
1. Switch of the refrigerator

2. Defrost the refrigerator
3. Empty the refrigerator completely
4. Wrap frozen foods in newspaper to minimize thawing out until replaced
5. Allow the ice to melt naturally and do not attempt to chip it off
6. Wash out the inside of the cabinet with warm water with bi-carbonate of soda

SUMMARY
Refrigeration is important in food storage in the prevention of food poisoning. It is important to
defrost the refrigerator when the layer of the ice becomes more than 6mm thick as it will lower
the efficiency of the refrigerator.
ACTIVITY
In groups clean a refrigerator occasionally.
ASSESSMENT
What advis
QUESTIONS ON PRESERVATION
Q. 1. What are the main causes of food spoilage?
 Enzyme action and insect damage

 Microbial growth
 Yeast
 Bacteria
 Moulds
Q. 2. What are the conditions that favour the growth and multiplication of microorganisms that
causes food spoilage?
 Favorable temperature or warmth

 Food
 Moisture

Q. 3. Explain reasons for preserving food.
 Prevent food spoilage.

 Availability when out of season.
 Adding variety by making foods available when out of season.
 Providing convenient foods.
 To vary the diet by preserving food in ways that make a new product out of the food, e.g.
pickling, jam making, etc.
Q. 4. What are the aims of preserving food?
While preventing decay, preservation also aims to retain as many of the qualities of the
fresh food as possible, e.g.:
 Flavor
 Texture
 Colour
 Appearance
 Nutritional value
Q. 5. Write down methods of preserving foods:
 Cooking: meat, fish, vegetables, fruits, caterpillar, sweet potatoes, etc.

 Refrigeration: fish, meat, drinks, etc.
 Drying: meat, mushrooms, cereals, pulses, groundnuts, vegetables, fruits, etc.
 Canning: drinks, meat, beans, fish, milk, nuts, coffee, etc.
 Freezing: meat, fish,
 Salting: fish,
 Bottling: beverages,
 Smoking: fish, meat,
Q. 6. Give examples of food of food preserved by removal of moisture (moisture)
 Milk.
 Coffee, tea
 Fish, meat
 Vegetables
 Pulses (peas, beans, lentil)
 Eggs
 Soups, instant snacks and meals
 Herbs
Q. 7. List foods preserved by canning.

 Fruits, milk, fish, vegetables, fish, meat, nuts, desserts, soups, coffee,
 Complete meals, e.g. stews, curries
 Meat pies and puddings
 Pasta and pulses in sauce
 Beverages.
Q. 8. What are the effects of freezing on food?
 Thiamin and vitamin C may be destroyed

 Meat cells may rapture, and release nutrients into liquid that drips from meat when it
thaws. Thiamin, riboflavin and nicotinic acid is lost
 Some flavours become weaker.
 Loss of food taste when frozen for a long time.
Q. 9. Explain home preservation of fruits.
Q.10. (a) Name two main factors that cause food spoilage
(b) Explain how the action of enzymes affects food.
(C) Describe the processes of food poisoning by bacteria.
(d) State with examples how bacteria that is not harmful is used in food preparation.
(e) What guidelines must be followed in the prevention of food poisoning during food
handing.
Sub topic: Storage of Preserved foods
Storage of preserved foods: storing is the process or safely keeping preserved foods for future
use. Preserved foods can be stored using the methods discussed below:
 Deep freezing and use of aluminum foil: food is preserved using freezers and
refrigerators. Frozen foods prevent multiplication of germs. Frozen foods include fish,
peas, cheese, fruits, mushrooms, vegetables like tomatoes and cooked food. Food may be
wrapped in aluminum foil, polythene bag, tight fitting plastic bags and containers can be
used before freezing.
 Canning: putting preserved foods in a sealed can and mostly done at factories using
machines. This method cuts out air so that the food cannot go bad
 Bottling of jam, marmalade, pickles: this method is used in jam making and and other
bottled preserved foods. This works under the principle of strong concentration of sugar
and removal of air as food is put in tight fitting lid bottles that are sterilized.
 Pantry: these are used to store dry foods. Pantry should be be dry nd well ventilated.

Storage of dry foods:
 Store food in a clean and dry airtight tins or containers as well as dry place.
 For easy identification, label the containers.
 Protects the foods from household pests and check from time to time.
 Use up old stocks first.
Rules for food storage:
 Food containers should be clearly labeled.

 Food containers should be thoroughly cleaned and dried before use.
 Food which go bad easily should be well covered or wrapped or kept in a cool, dark place
or a refrigerator.
 Fresh foods should used up within two days unless preserved.
 Dry foods, if stored for a long time, lose colour, taste and nutrients. The cooking time
also increases.
Q. 58. Identify ways of storing preserved foods:
 Air tight storage bins, aluminum foil, deep freezer,

 Frozen foods have to be stored in the deep freezer at the freezing temperature.
 Dried foods can be stored in air tight storage containers like plastic bags, baskets and
sacks.
 Smoked foods can be stored by wrapping them in a aluminum foil and storing in a cool
dry place or in the freezer.
 Bottled and canned foods can be stored in shelves or cupboards in a cool dry place.
 Cooked foods can be stored in the freezer or refrigerator.
 Cupboards
 Coolers
Vegetable racks: vegetables and fruits must not be wrapped to avoid spoilage.
TOPIC: HERBS AND SPICES
-herbs are used in food preparation for their flavor.
-Leaves are used in food preparation, as they contain aromatic oils which are released when the
leaves are crushed or chopped.
-Herbs can be dried or frozen for use all year round and can be used raw or cooked.

-A Bouquet garni is made from a variety of fresh or dried herbs (tarragon, mint, rosemary, sage,
parsley, thyme) tied in a muslin. It is added to soups, stews e.t.c for flavor, then removed before
the dish is served.
SOME OF THE EXAMPLES OF SPICE
HERB USES
Angelica -used to decorate cakes
-roots can be used to flavor drinks
Garlic -it has a strong flavor and can be used in:
i.stews
ii. soups
iii.salads
Parsley -leaves are used for stuffing‟s, sauces e.t.c
Oregano -leaves are used for meat loaves, pizza‟s, pasta

dishes
Basil -the leaves are used for salads, egg or

mushroom dishes e.t.c.
Mint -the leaves are served chopped in vinegar with

lamb and used in water ices, drinks and fruit
salads.
Rosemary -the leaves are served with roast lamb or

chicken, fish, eggs and cheese.
SPICES
-spices are used in food preparation whole, crushed or powdered.

-They have a strong aromatic flavor.

-They are used in smaller quantities so that they do not contribute significantly to the diet,
although curry powder contains a useful amount of iron, probably partly obtained from the iron
pots in which they are prepared.
-There are many spices in use and these are some of the most common.
SPICE USE
Vanilla -used for essence for cakes, puddings,
e.t.c
Cinnamon -Used in mulled wines, cakes, biscuits

e.t.c
Nutmeg -Used in egg custards e.t.c
Ginger -Used in cakes with melon e.t.c
Curry powder -used in soups and savoury dishes
Coriander -used in curries and other spicy foods
Paprika -used in Hungarian cookery e.g goulash
All spice -used in savoury sauces, pickling

TOPIC: CONVENIENCE FOODS
-These are processed foods in which a considerable amount of the preparation has been carried
out by the manufacture.
-These are foods that are processed.
-Foods that are partly or totally prepared by the manufacturer.
-These are ready to eat or require minimal preparation.
TYPES OF CONVENIENCE FOODS
-Dehydrated
-Ready-to-eat
-Canned/bottled
-Frozen
-Cook-chill foods
-Ready-prepared meals.
REASONS WHY THEY HAVE GAINED POPULARITY.
-Less leisure time being spent in food preparation
-More women going out of work and so having less time to prepare food.
-Advances in food technology.
-Increased freezer ownership ( so people can store ready-prepared foods at home)
-The influence of advertising on people‟s habits.

ADVANTAGES OF CONVENIENCE FOODS
1. They are quick and easy to prepare and saves time and fuel.
2. They are easy to store and useful for taking on holiday.
3. They can be kept for emergencies.
4. A wide variety is available.
5. There is usually little waste
6. They often have extra nutrients added.
DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENIENCE FOODS
1. Too many processed and refined foods in the diet may limit the intake of NSP.
2. Servings in convenience foods may not be adequate, making it necessary to buy extra, which
defeats the objectives.
3. Nutrients may be lost during processing and not replaced.
4. They have high levels of fats and sugar.
5. They may be expensive the fresh foods
6. The food may be expired or spoiled
7. Some people may react to additives included in the convenience foods.
QUESTIONS
1. Tell why convenience foods have gained popularity.
2. What are convenience foods.
3. State the advantages and disadvantages of convenience
foods.
4. What are food additives
5. Mention some artifial food additives you know.
TEXTURED VEGETABLE PROTEIN
-These are meat substitutes or vegetable proteins manufactured from soya beans.
Why having TVP/Alternative protein food
-meat is expensive to produce and buy.
-Scarcity of animals in some places.
-To provide cheaper foods for animals.
Why soya is used to make TVP

-because soya contains High Biological Value proteins like meat, fish, egg and others.
-Some past years, soya beans was known for oil production but when they discover that the
residue contained 50% proteins then they decided to utilize it well into either flour or flakes.
-Flakes can further be processed and concentrated to have about 70% proteins.
-The extracted proteins can texture and flavoured to resemble meats which are known as
textured Vegetable proteins. Usually other nutrients are added. Textured means the
process which form proteins flakes into granules, chunks, mince cubes and so on and so
forth.
IMPORTANCE OF TVP IN THE DIET
-For their high biological value protein e.g stews, meat pies, vegan meals.
-Cheaper alternative to meat.‟
-There is no waste.
-Easy to store and has a long life span.
-Useful source of fibre.
PASTRY
-A pastry is a mixture of flour, fat and water.

-The different types of pastry are achieved by using differing quantities of
these basic ingredients and different methods of mixing.
BASIC PROPORTIONS
TOPIC: RAISING AGENTS

Raising agents are substances added to flour mixtures in order to make them rise or increase the
volume of mixture. Raising agents are added to make mixtures lighter and spongy, looking
appetizing, more open in texture, easier to eat and to digest.
There are three main raising agents and these are:
6. Air
7. Water vapour or steam
8. Carbon dioxide
AIR

Air is often used when making cakes and pastries light. It can be used by itself as in whisked
mixtures, or it can be used with a chemical raising agent as in creamed cakes. Air is introduced
mechanically by:
(a) Sieving flour and other dry ingredients

(b) Beating eggs lightly with a folk, and when making beating batters.
(c) Creaming fat and sugar e.g. when making cakes and puddings
(d) Whisking egg whites until they are stiff and full of air e.g.in soufflés, meringues and
whisked sponge mixtures.
(e) Rolling and folding e.g.in pastries.
(f) Rubbing in fat into flour e.g. small cakes, biscuits and scones.
In the hot oven, the heat makes the air to expand and rises thus raising the mixture and makes it
lighter.
WATER VAPOUR OR STEAM.
Steam or water vapour is introduced by way of water, eggs, and milk. Steam can only be used as
a raising agent where there is a large amount of liquid and a very hot oven for baking. e.g.
batters.
When mixtures are put to bake, the heat of the oven makes the liquid boil and so gives off steam,
which then pushes up the flour mixture and makes it rise.
Steam is far more effective raising agent than air because water expands from 1,600 to 1,800
times its original volume when converted to steam. Dishes which depend entirely on steam as a
raising agent are Yorkshire pudding, batter dishes, toad-a-hole, popovers and cream puffs.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Introduced chemically into flour mixtures by:
1. Sodium hydroxide carbonate or bicarbonate of soda.
2. Sodium hydrogen carbonate plus cream of tartar.
3. Baking powder
4. Introduced biologically by yeast.
The carbon dioxide produced in the above five ways becomes lighter and rises when it is heated.
This also lifts the flour mixtures or makes it rise, and becomes light and spongy in texture.

CHEMICAL RAISING AGENTS
These are:
- Baking powder
- Self-raising flour
- Bicarbonate of soda, or baking soda or baking soda with cream of Tartar.
These are called chemical raising agents because they are made from chemicals.
(a) BAKING POWDER
Baking powder is a commercial preparation of bicarbonate of soda plus some acids, and a little
rice flour or corn starch.
The three essential ingredients in commercial baking powders are bicarbonate of soda also
known as baking soda (which is the main source of carbon dioxide, cream of tartar or tartaric
acid which is an acid ingredient that participates in the chemical reaction to produce carbon
dioxide. The last ingredient is corn is starch or rice flour which is an inert ingredient. Corn
starch or rice flour is added in order to help extend the shelf life of the powder by absorbing any
moisture and to standardize the agent or slow down the reaction.
Corn starch is added at the level needed to dilute the active ingredients so that the correct amount
of carbon dioxide is generated by a measured amount of baking powder.
DOUBLE ACTION BAKING POWDER
This Baking powder produces carbon dioxide at two different times when used in flour
mixtures. First, some carbon dioxide is produced from one of the acid salts during mixing to
help in development of a light-textured product. The reaction occurs at room temperature
with dissolved bicarbonate of soda.
The other reaction occurs in the oven during the baking process. An ideal baking powder
would release some carbon dioxide during mixing at room temperature, but produce most of
its carbon dioxide at oven temperatures particularly in the early phase of baking.
Excessive baking powder cause a coarse texture, off flavours, excessive surface browning, a
bitter taste and an off-white colour on the interior of the baked products.

When baking powder is not available, baking soda can be used with the correct amount of
acid ingredient used, and the amount of baking soda nicely adjusted.
If sour milk is not available to prepare scones and other dishes, sweet milk can be used, but
baking soda cannot be used with sweet milk. In this case, vinegar, lemon juice or cream of
tartar can be added. Cream of tartar is an acid salt that can be used effectively in formulating
baking powder for home use.
Baking powder can be used as follows at home:
 1 part sodium hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate of soda)

 2 parts cream of tartar
 1 part rice flour.
ACIDS IN BAKING POWDER
Baking powder usually contains a mixture of acids and these are:
 Tartaric acid which is obtained from grapes.
This reacts rapidly so it can be lost before baking.
 Cream of tartar which is obtained from grapes has a slower reaction than tartaric acid.
 Acid sodium pyrophosphate which is derived from phosphate rock has very little
carbon dioxide which is released until the mixture is subjected to the heat of the oven.
The mixture of these three acids in baking powder results in a little carbon dioxide being
released during mixing which helps the mixing process but the bulk of the acid will not
react until the mixture is heated.
Here is a simple formular:
Acid + Alkali + Heat and moisture colourless, tasteless salt + carbon dioxide and
water.
SELF RAISING FLOUR
This flour (usually cake flour or plain white flour) which has had a chemical raising agent
added to it during manufacture. The gas formed when self-raising flour is used in cakes is
carbon dioxide.
BICARBONATE OF SODA

Sodium hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate of soda can be used alone as a raising agent .e.g.
when making ginger bread. When mixtures with soda are heated or baked, carbon dioxide is
given off. In short, bicarbonates decompose and forms carbon dioxide, water and sodium
carbonate.
Bicarbonate of soda when used alone leaves a very unpleasant taste in cakes. When carbon
dioxide is formed during the baking process, the bicarbonate of soda is turned into washing soda,
which obviously leaves a peculiar taste. A cure for this is to use bicarbonate of soda, with a
strong-flavoured food such as vinegar, treacle or ginger. This then hides the unpleasant taste on
the washing soda. Here is a formular:
Bicarbonate of soda + Heat + Moisture carbon dioxide + washing soda.
Bicarbonate of soda has a “yellowing” effect on cakes. This is not harmful but does spoil the
appearance of cakes. In darkly-coloured cakes like parkin, this effect is not noticed.
BICARBONATE OF SODA WITH CREAM OF TARTAR
A mixture of bicarbonate of soda with an acid substance like sour milk or cream of tartar may be
used in cake or scone making. The acid from cream of tartar or lactic acid from sour milk with
bicarbonate of soda gives off carbon dioxide, Rochelle salt (tasteless salt) and water. The acid
also prevents bicarbonate of soda being turned into washing soda.
Here is a formular:
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate + Cream of Tartar Rochelle salt (tasteless colourless salt)
(Alkali) (Acid)
+ H 2O + C O 2
The raising agent provides bubbles of gas in the mixture (air between or folded in, C O2
produced from yeast, baking soda or baking powder).Bubbles of steam will be produced from the
water and water vapour in a mixture when it is heated.
These bubbles of gas and vapour will get hotter as the cake cooks, and the heat will expand or
make the gas grow bigger. As the gas expands, it will also push up or stretch the flour mixtures
(gluten).The heat of the oven will the cook the cake in this stretched position. The heat during
the cooking sets the gluten and so forms the rigid frame work of the flour product(brown crust in
form of dextrin).Having done its work the gas will then escape, and then you are left with a light
and well risen cake.

YEAST MIXTURES
Yeast is a living plant (from the fungi group) which requires the same conditions as the green
plants in our gardens in order to stay alive. Yeast consists of a mass of single-celled living
organisms which when given food, moisture and warmth grow by budding. When yeast is
supplied with these three conditions, the gas called carbon dioxide is given off and this makes
bread to rise. Here is a formular:
Yeast + Warmth + Moisture + Food carbon dioxide = alcohol.
While growing (budding) ,yeast produces enzymes which act on sugar to split them up into
simpler substances. This action is known as fermentation and takes place more quickly in warm
conditions. In bread making this occurs as follows:
 Wheat flour when kept moist and warm produces an enzyme known as diastase.
 This diastase acts on some of the starch in the flour and turns it into a form of sugar
called maltose.
 Yeast produces an enzyme called maltase, which turns this maltose into a simple sugar
called glucose.
 Yeast also produces another enzyme called zymase which turns glucose into carbon
dioxide and alcohol. It is the carbon dioxide that is produced which is the chief
importance in bread making. Like all gases, the carbon dioxide expands when heated and
so causes the dough to rise.
The starch is acted on by diastase and turned to maltose. Maltose is acted on by maltase and
turned to glucose. Glucose is acted on by zymase and turned to carbon dioxide and alcohol.
The gluten flame work formed when alcohol, flour and water is kneaded is elastic. It stretches as
bubbles of carbon dioxide are produced. The time taken for the dough to rise depends on the
temperature, the stiffness of the dough, the amount of yeast, salt and sugar present.
The heat used in cooking bread has the following effects:
 The yeast is killed and the enzymes are destroyed.

 Alcohol evaporates.
 Bubbles of carbon dioxide, water vapour and air throughout the dough expand and stretch
the elastic gluten.
 The gluten frame work coagulates or sets.

 The starch grains swell, burst under absorbed liquid.
QUESTIONS
1. (a) State the conditions necessary for yeast to ferment.
(b) Give a recipe for bread making using 500g (1lb) flour, and explain how to make and bake
the Bread.
(b) What is the effect of the following on yeast?

(i) Boiling water
(ii) Deep freezing
(iii) Excess salt
TOPIC: CAKE MAKING

Cakes are made from a mixture of flour, sugar and usually fat, eggs and a liquid. They vary in
taste and texture according to the proportions of the ingredients used, and the method of
preparation and of cooking.
INGREDIENTS USED IN CAKE MAKING
FLOUR
Flour used in cake making may be:
1. Plain flour with baking powder

2. Self-raising agent may be added to flour when using
equal weight,(or eggs) to flour.
Use a “weak” or soft flour when making cakes. Weak or soft flour has a high starch and low
gluten content. This gives cakes a good, even texture. For plain cake mixtures, self-raising flour
may be used, but for rich mixtures, plain flour is better, as the amount of baking powder needed
depends on the type of mixture and the amount of air included.
2. SUGAR
Use caster or moist brown, unless otherwise specified in the recipe, it dissolves easily and
creams readily with fat. Soft brown sugar may be used in fruit cakes and ginger-bread, to give a

dark colour. Sugar used in cakes sweetness the mixture, helps to brown the outside of the cake as
it caramelizes during baking, and makes the gluten framework
TOPIC: FOOD HYGIENE
-Buy food from clean places where shop assistants handle the food hygienically.
-Check that there are no animals in the shop
-Check for expiring dates on foods
-Choose fresh foods wisely.
-Be careful of fresh foods sold on market stalls they should be covered to protect them from dust
and flies.
FOOD STORAGE
-Store fresh foods in a cool place. Use them up fairly rapidly within the recommended time on
the pack.
-Use up old stock of dried and canned food before new ones
-Cool left-over foods rapidly and eat within 24 hours.
-Keep the food protected from flies, pests and rodents.
-make sure you wash your hands after work or visiting the toilet.
SAMPLE TIME PLAN
Question
Your sister is coming to see you. Prepare and cook a suitable meal for three. Launder a night
dress she will use and clean a bedroom.
DISHES CHOSEN RECIPE
Beef casserole 500g steak
1 medium Onion
1 Carrot
4 sticks Green beans

Egg plant
1 Tomato
Salt and pepper
2 teaspoons Cooking oil
Nshima 1 Kg mealie meal
Boiled Rape 1 bunch Rape
1 Onion
Salt to taste
1 teaspoon Cooking oil
Lemonade 3 Lemons
3 table spoons Sugar
75mls Water
LAUNDRY CLEANING MATERIALS
White Cotton 2 tablespoons Washing powder
Night dress
HOUSECRAFT CLEANING MATERIALS
Cleaning bedroom 2 tablespoons Cobra
Furniture Polish
SHOPPING LIST
MARKET BUTCHER GROCER
2 Onions 500g Steak 4 tablespoons Cooking oil
50g mushrooms 2 tablespoons Washing powder

4 sticks Green beans 2 tablespoons Cobra
Egg plant 2 tablespoons salt
1 Tomato
2 bunches Rape
3 Lemons
ROUGH PLAN
1) Make lemonade.
2) Prepare beef stew.
3) Cook nshima.
4) Prepare and cook vegetables.
5) Serve all the dishes.
DETAILED TIME PLAN
TIME ORDER OF WORK AND METHODS SPECIAL POINTS
PREPARATION
07:45hrs Wash hands, put on apron, collect equipment. -
08:00hrs Put water on to boil. Clean the meat.
Put water on stove for nshima
08:00hrs .
08:20hrs WASH UP.
Boil water for lemonade
08:20hrs MAKE LEMONADE -
08:40hrs Wash lemons, peel zest, add sugar and put in a

jar. Cut lemons and squeeze.
08:40hrs PREPARE BEEF CASSEROLE Put the lemonade in the fridge to

cool.
09:00hrs Clean and cut the steak in cubes. Prepare the
vegetables accordingly to type. Fry the meat

and the rest of the vegetables. Make stock and Let the beef stew until tender.
pour mixture over the beef. Put the casserole in
the oven. Cover and cook in the oven.
WASH UP.
10:10hrs NSHIMA Put water for nshima on the stove.
10:15hrs Blend the mealie meal and add to boiling Stir the porridge for nshima.
water, stirring to avoid lumps. Leave on the
stove to simmer.
PREPARE RAPE
Wash and cut the vegetable. Boil in salt water

for 3 minutes.
10:15hrs Make nshima.
10:25hrs Serve all the dishes and clean up.
SUMMARY
In practical examination, learners are asked to carry out a number of different tasks in a set
period of time. In this way they show their ability to manage time effectively while they
demonstrate the skills they have learned during the course
ACTIVITY
Draw a Time Plan
Your brother is coming home with two friends. Prepare and cook a 2 course meal for the visitors.
Launder a table cloth for dinner. Clean the sitting room they will use.
ASSESSMENT
1. Discuss the importance of a time plan

2. List the components of a time plan
TOPIC: ENTREPRENEURSHIP
An entrepreneur can be defined as the one who organizers, manages and assumes the need of a
business enterprise. It can be a person who has decided to take control of his/her future and
becomes self-employed whether by creating his/her unique business or working as a member of a
team at a multi-level vocation.
Therefore, entrepreneurial skills are skills needed to have, in order to succeed in business, most
especially in trading. Entrepreneurial skills are the basic skills in necessary to enable you start,
develop, finance and succeed in your enterprise.
The process acquisition and development of entrepreneurial skill is concern with four main
stages:
 To objectively analyze and identify the current and foreseeable skills, needs to the
business, in terms of management, administrative and technical skills and the relative
importance of these.
 To identify the entrepreneur‟s own personal goal and objectives and accurately analyze
and evaluate his/her own skills and resources in relation to these.
 To produce a realistic personal development plan for the potential entrepreneur.
 To monitor the on –going performance of the entrepreneur once the business has started
and progress made towards developing the new skills that had been previously identified
as necessary for the success of the business.
The Home –Economics teacher as an entrepreneur in the school environment
It is important for any one preparing a business or an enterprise in Home Economics to

remember that he /she should not just looking at these skills which are needed in the classroom
setting but also that which will be required for social growth at large. Hence for a teacher for
Home Economics to operate successfully as an entrepreneur in teaching enterprise, the following
entrepreneur‟s strait/skills are essential.
 Have requisite technical knowledge and expertise.

 The wisdom to seek out and listen to the advice from those who know what he /she does
not know.
 Ability to learn from mistakes.
 Self-discipline
 Ability to make decision

 Ability to analyze complex situations and draw conclusions that will mark the business
succeeds.
 Hard-work being capable of doing the work and enjoying it.
 Concentration
 Technical ability: the expertise to produce the goods and services of your business.
 Communication skills: the ability to express yourself and to understand others so that
ideas can be shared.
 Motivation: the mental and physical drive to succeed, to accomplish chosen tasks on your
own terms.
 Organizational skills.
 Decision making skills.
 Financial skills
 Publicity / marketing skills
 Supervision/management skills
SUMMARY
Ethical business practice includes assuring of that the highest legal and moral standards are
observed in your relationship with the people in your business community. This includes the
most important person in your business, your customer .Short term profit at the cost of losing a
customer to long term death for your business
ACTIVITIES
1. With the help of the lecturer / teacher, divide yourself discipline small groups and
encouraging creative thinking, then take the best idea and implement them in the lecture
room/classroom.
2. Some ideas can be gotten from the lesson learnt in food production.
ASSESSMENT
From small groups about 8 persons to work on ideas on ethical decision-making. Get information
about a business to use for the activity. This could be a local business, a business idea of your
choice, or a business plan sample that you have been working with in the class. Each group to do
the following:
1. Identify problems the entrepreneur might encounter in running this business.

2. Develop a 10 point Code of ethics for business.
3. Discuss policies and procedures appropriate for this business that would support the code of
ethics

4. List as many ethical problems as possible that might be faced by employees during a normal
work day. Discuss the possible solutions for the best problems. Consider how a procedure
guide might help employees to make the decisions.
5. Members of the group should then role-play the process of handling on the ethical issue with
a customer, with a supplier, with a competitor, and with the son of the owner. Discuss the
results of role-playing exercise.
Each group should present their code of ethics to the class and discuss major outcomes of their
discussion
RECIPIES
CONTENTS
BATTERS
 Basic Recipe 1
 Pancakes
 Toad in hole
 Apple Fritters
SALADS AND DRESSS
 Beetroots Salad 2
 Carrot Salad
 Pasta Salad
 Cole Slaws
 Soured Cream Dressing 3
 Master Italian Dressing
 Yoghurt Salad Dressing 4
 Whipped Cream Dressing
VEGETABLES
 Bean Goulash 4
 Vegetable Curry
 Mixed Vegetables Casserole 5
 Mushrooms with tomatoes and peas
 Vegetables au gratin (with cheese)
POTATOES

 Crisps (Game Chips) 6
 Baked Potatoes
 Potatoes Anna
 Scalloped Potatoes 7
 Farmers Breakfast
 Fried or chipped potatoes
 Mashed potatoes 8
 Master Potato Salad
 Duchess Potatoes – Potato Cake 9
BEEF COOKERY
 Beef goulash 9
 Beef Burgers (Hamburger, Meat Balls)
 Beef Casserole 10
 Beef Stroganoff
 Spicy meat loaf
 Beef Stew 11
 Beef Balls in tomato sauce
 Curried Beef 12
DESSERTS
 Bread and butter pudding 12
 Ground rice pudding
 Steamed sponge pudding 13
 Vanilla Ice-Cream
CHICKEN COOKERY
 Chicken Noodle Casserole 14
 Chicken Vegetable Rice Casserole
 Chicken Curry
 Maryland Fried Chicken 15
 Fricassee of Chicken
 Chicken Tikka 16

 Chicken a la king
RICE
 Rice indienne 16
 Rice Mexican
 Rice Pilaf 17
PASTA
 Lasagne 17
 Pasta with vegetables
 Spaghetti bolognaise 18
 Macaroni cheese 19
BAKING; RUBBED IN METHOD
 Scones and quick rolls 20
 Short crust 21
BAKING; CREAMING AND MELTING METHOD 21
 Marble Care
 Delicious chocolate cake 22
 Muffins (Master Recipe)
 Quick Fruit Cake
 Madeira Cake 23
BAKING; YEAST DOUGH 23
 White bread
 No-Knead Bread
 Yeast Rolls 24
 Basic Sweet Dough 25
 Pizza 26
BAKING; BISCUITS 27
 Brownies & Biscuits “Mama Pilzecker”
 Melting moments & Scotch
BATTERS

A batter is smooth mixture of flour, milk (or milk and water) and generally an egg. The mixture
is beaten well, as the name implies, and in the mixture. This air expands in cooking to give light
texture.
BASIC RECIPE
100g Plain flour
Pinch of salt
1 Egg
300ml Milk (or milk and water
METHOD
1. Mix flour and salt in a basic, make a hollow in the centre and drop in egg.
2. Stir with a wooden spoon and add liquid gradually, until all the flour is worked in.
3. Beat well and add remaining liquid.
PANCAKES
150g Whole wheat flour or cake flour 4 servings
300ml Milk
A pinch of sugar
½tbs sugar
Sunflower oil
METHOD
1. Mix the ingredients and whisk them nicely.
2. Pour sunflower oil in the frying pan and heat it until the point it becomes hot.
3. Add just enough mixture to cover the bottom of the frying pan.
4. Turn after it is cooked.
5. Put them on a plate and warm it in an oven (100ºc).
VARIATION
- Prepare the batter without sugar.

- Simmer some seasonal vegetables e.g spinach and onions, carrots, green pepper,
mushrooms. Add spices, fill the pancakes, roll them and put some prated cheese on the
top. Bake it for 10min at 150ºc in the oven.
TOAD IN THE HOLE

Basic Recipe Batter
450g Sausages
METHOD
1. Heat oven to 220ºc.
2. Place sausages in a shallow dripping tin and cook for about 10 minutes.
3. Pour batter over the partly cooked sausages and cook for a further 30 minutes.
APPLE FRITTERS
- Basic Recipe Batter
- Cooking apples
- Oil or fat for frying
- Caster sugar
METHOD
1. Peel, core apples and cut into rings with batter and deep fry in oil heated to 180ºc, cook
both sides until golden brown.
SALADS AND DRESSINGS

Beet Roots Salad
300g beetroots 4 servings
200g apples
3tbs sunflower seeds or sesame seeds
2 tbs sunflower oil

1-2tbs lemon juice
3 tbs apple or orange juice, lemon-ginger-dressing salt, black pepper
1 pinch ginger
METHOD
1. Peel the beetroots and grate them. Squeeze the lemon.
2. Wash the apples and grate them, mix with beetroots and lemon juice.
3. Peel the ginger and them smallish.
4. Sunflower seeds or sesame seeds dry frying.
5. Mix all ingredients for the lemon-ginger-dressing.
6. Mix the vegetables and the dressing, put it in the fridge and let it cool until serving.
7. Garnish e.g. with chives.
CARROT SALAD
400g carrot 4 servings
1apple
1 tbs sugar
1½ tbs sunflower oil, lemon juice from 1 ½ lemon
METHOD
1. Wash the carrots and the apples pees them.
2. Squeeze the lemon.
3. Carrots and apple finely grated.
4. Add sugar sunflower oil and lemon juice, mix it nicely.
5. Take it in the fridge until serving.
PASTA SALAD 8 servings

350g pasta
Water
Oil
Salt
4 eggs

4-6 tomatoes
200g cheese
2 cucumbers
300g yoghurt
8 tbs mayonnaise
Mustard
Salt, pepper
Herbs as garnish
METHOD
1. Cook the pasta according to pack instructions and drain.
2. Cook the eggs for 10 minutes, shell and slice them.
3. Grate the cheese or cut it in cubes.
4. Wash the vegetables and slice them.
5. Prepare the yogurt-mayonnaise-dressing.
6. Mix the ingredients and dressing together, let it cool.
7. Correct seasoning and garnish the salad.
COLE SLAWS
Cole Slaw – Master Recipe
Sometimes erroneously called core slaw, the name of this popular salad is derived from the
Dutch words for cabbage and salad. Use fresh, tender cabbage. Red cabbage may be used or
equal amounts of red and white cabbage. Remove the discard the wilted outer leaves and the
hard core from a small firm head of cabbage shred the cabbage extra-fine, using a chef‟s knife or
grater, cutting only as much as is needed for immediate use. To avoid last minute rush, toss
cabbage with ice cubes; drain well and dry between towels.
200g white or Chinese cabbage 4 portion
123ml mayonnaise or natural yogurt
50g carrots
25g onions (optional)
METHOD

1. Trim off the outside leaves of the cabbage.
2. Cut into quarters. Remove the centre stalk.
3. Wash the cabbage, shred finely and drain well.
4. Mix with a fine julienne of raw carrot and raw onion. To lessen the harshness of raw
onion, blanch and refresh.
Immediately before serving, moisten by tossing with one of the following dressings (replacing
the mayonnaise or yogurt):
- Cooked dressing or salad dressing; fresh dressing; soured cream dressing.
- Mix 2 to 3 tbs sugar, 3 tbs vinegar, salad oil, and 1 tsb salt. Stir until sugar dissolves.
- Mix 100 g salad dressing, 2 tbs vinegar, and 1 tsb French mustard.
SALAD DRESSINGS
Hints about salad dressing
We have suggested suitable dressings for individual salads in most cases. We advise, however,
experimenting with variations of the master recipes to suit the ingredients and your individual
taste. The dressing as well as garnishes should enhance the salad with contrasts in colour, flavor,
and texture. What type of dressing to choose – sweet or tart, thick or thin – may be determined
by your guests taste. Main – dish salads made with meat, fish, poultry, eggs, beans, cheese or
potatoes usually call for a mayonnaise-type or cooked salad dressing. But some of these more
substantial salads are good with tart French dressing. Tart French dressing is the most likely
choice for vegetable salads and vegetable-fruit combinations. But some vegetable salads may
well take a mayonnaise or cooked dressing. Reserve sweet, clear French dressing for salads with
fruit. Mayonnaise made milder with whipped cream or thinned and sweetened with fruit juice is
good from these salads too.

SOURED CREAM DRESSING
250 ml thick soured cream
1 tbslemon juice
1 tbs horseradish
1 tbs sugar
½ tbs Salt
1/8 tbs dries mustard
Whip soured cream; fold in remaining ingredients. Serve at once.
MASTER ITALIAN DRESSING
1 clove garlic
½tbs dries mustard
½ tbs salt
4 tbs wine vinegar
125ml olive oil
Cut garlic clove in half. Mix mustard, salt, garlic, and vinegar thoroughly. Add oil and stir until
all ingredients are blended. Store in covered jar in cold place. Shake well just before using.
YOGHURT SALAD DRESSING
250g yoghurt
1tsp lemon juice
2-3tsp mustard
¼tsp onion salt
Combine ingredients in jar, Mix well. Cover and store in refrigerator. Serve with tossed salad or
potato salad.
WHIPPED CREAM DRESSING (MASTER RECIPE)

250ml double cream
¼tsp salt
2tsp lemon juice or vinegar few grains of black pepper
Best cream until stiff. Fold in other ingredients very slowly. Chill and add to salad just before
serving. Whipped cream dressing may be used as a sweet or savory dressing by the addition of

flavorings and seasonings. It may be delicately tinted with a very small amount of liquid food
colouring.
VEGETABLES
Bean Goulash
200g red kidney or other beans 4 portions
60ml sunflower oil
50g onion, finely chopped
1 clove garlic, crushed
Paprika
2 red peppers
1 green pepper
1 yellow pepper
200g sliced button mushroom
50g tomato puree
750ml vegetable stock, seasoning
8 small turned potatoes (cooked)
METHODS
1. Soak the bens for 24 hours in cold water. Drain, place into a saucepan. Cover with cold
water, bring the boil and simmer until tender.
2. Heat the oil in a sauce pan, sweat the onion and garlic without colour for 2 – 3 minutes
and add the paprika; sweat for further 2 – 3 minutes.
3. Add the peppers, cut in halves, seed removed and cut into 1 cm dice. Add the button
mushrooms; sweat for a further 2 minutes.
4. Add the tomato puree, vegetable stock. Bring to the boil and simmer until the pepper and
mushrooms are cooked.
5. Add the drained cooked beans, correct seasoning and stir.
6. Garnish with potatoes and chopped parsley.
VEGETABLE CURRY 4 serves

500g vegetables (eg carrots, broccoli, onions, cauliflower,
Cabbage, tomatoes) salt, black pepper and curry.
METHOD
1. Boil vegetables with water; let it simmer until the consistency is covered.
2. Remove the water. Correct seasoning.
3. Serve with cream, if desired and rice, pasta or potatoes.
MIXED VEGETABLES CASSEROLE 6 serves
3 medium carrot, sliced
1 head cauliflower or broccoli, separated into flowerets
1 small onion, sliced
2 tbsp margarine or butter
2tbsp flour
½ tsp salt
1 tsp pepper
50ml whipping cream
1tbsp grated cheese
METHOD
1. Boil all vegetables including onions in salted water for 5 minutes.
2. Drain vegetables, reserve liquid.
3. Prepare white sauce
4. Grease casserole plate.
5. Put vegetables very after layer put sliced tomatoes. Sprinkle pepper, another layer till
finished.
6. Sprinkle top with grated cheese and baked in hot oven at 200ºc for some minutes
MUSHROOMS WITH TOMATOES AND PEAS
1 medium onion, sliced
½ to 1 tsp ground turmeric
½ tsp ginger
1 tbsp vegetable oil
500g peas sauté and drained
250g mushrooms

2 tsp lemon juice
1¼ tsp salt
2 medium tomatoes cut into wedge
METHOD
1. Cook and stir onion. Add turmeric and ginger over medium heat until onion is tender
about 3 minutes.
2. Stir in peas, mushrooms, lemon juice and salt. Stirring occasionally until peas are tender.
3. Stir in tomatoes, heat until hot.
VEGETABLE AU GRATIN (WITH CHEESE)

Suitable vegetable are celery, cauliflower, leek, onions, vegetable marrow or potatoes, or a
mixture of root vegetables including potatoes.
500g vegetable
300ml cheese sauce
2 tbsp extra grated cheese
2 tsp bread crumbs
METHOD
1. Boil the vegetables until tender. Drain them and keep it hot in a shallow.
2. Make the sauce within 150 ml vegetable water and 150 ml milk, add the cheese and taste.
3. Coat the hot vegetables with the sauce.
4. Mix the extra grated cheese with the crumbs and stew this all over the sauce.
5. Brown under a moderate grill.
POTATOES
Crisps (Game Chips)
1. Wash, peel and rewash the potatoes.
2. Cut in thin slices on mandolin.
3. Wash well and dry in a cloth.
4. Cook in hot deep fat until golden brown and crisp.
5. Drain well and season lightly with salt.
NOTE

Crisps are not usually served as a potato by themselves, but are used as a garnish and are also
served with drinks and for snacks.
Crisps can also be made from other root vegetables eg parsnips, carrot, beetroot, and turnips.
Vegetable straw can be made by the same method using any root vegetable or combination or
vegetables.
BAKED POTATOES
For a well-baked potato, wrap a scrubbed, dried and greased baking potato in foil. Bake a from
175 - 220º c for 40 to 50 minutes. Keep inside foil until ready to serve – it will keep hot and
most. Remove from oven, cut 2 crossed slits on one side, and pinch potato until it opens a slit.
Put a lump of butter or margarine in opening; sprinkle with paprika.
Baked Stuffed Potatoes: Bake as above, the cut in half lengthwise. Carefully scoop out potato
without breaking skin. Mash potato with butter or margarine, salt, pepper, and enough milk or
potato water to give a fluffy texture. Pile mixture into shell sprinkle with grated cheese and
paprika. Return to oven to brown.
Baked Stuffed Potatoes with Eggs: Prepare as above and, for every potato, add 1 chopped, hard-
boiled egg to the mixture.
Baked Stuffed Potatoes with Meat, Fish, or Vegetables: Omit milk in baked stuffed potatoes.
Combine potato with any leftover creamed fish or vegetable, or cooked poultry or meat
moistened with fat.
POTATOES ANNA 6 serves

6 medium-sized potatoes (about 1 kg), peeled and shiny sliced
6 tbsp butter or margarine
1½ tsp salt
¼ tsp pepper, grated onion, grated parmesan cheese
METHOD
1. Lightly grease a frying pan with a heat-resistance handle or a shallow casserole, with
tight fitting cover.
2. Arrange the potatoes in slightly overlapping spirals until the bottom of the pan is filled.

3. Do with bits of butter. Add a sprinkling of salt, pepper, grated onion, and grated
parmesan cheese. Repeat with 2 additional layers.
4. Cover pan and bake in hot oven at 200ºc for 30 minutes. Remove cover and bake 5
minutes. Remove cover and bake 5 minutes longer.
5. To serve, invert on platter.
SCALLOPED POTATOES (BASIC RECIPE)
6 medium potatoes
3 tbsp butter or margarine
2tbsp flour
600-800 ml milk
1 tsp salt
½ tsp pepper
2tbsp chopped onion
Peel potatoes and slice thin. Melt butter in saucepan; blend in flour. Slowly add milk; cook
medium heat until thickened, stirring constantly. Put half the potatoes in greased casserole.
Cover with half the sauce, seasoning, and onion. Add remaining potatoes, seasoning, and onion.
Top with remaining sauce. Cover and bake in moderate oven at 180ºC about 1 hour. Uncover
and bake until top is browned.
Variations:
Scalloped Potatoes with Cheese (au gratin): Prepare as in basic recipe. Sprinkle each layer with
cheese. Or, cheese may be melted in white sauce.
Scalloped Potatoes with Seafood: Prepare as in basic recipe. Add cooked or canned fish in
layers with potatoes. Season to paste.
layers with potatoes.
Scalloped Potatoes with Meat: Pre-peel as in basic recipe. Add cooked diced or sliced leftover
meat, dried beef, corned beef, bacon, or harm. If desired, bake a slice of harm or minced meat
patties with the potatoes, placing it on the bottom of casserole, on the top, or between layers.
FARMERS BREAKFAST 4 servings

1,2 kg potatoes (Irish)
50g bacon
4 eggs
1 onion
____________________________________________________
Sunflower oil
Salt, black pepper, paprika
____________________________________________________
4 pickled gherkin or tomato slice as garnish
METHOD
1. Boil the potatoes until they are cooked, peel them and cut into slices.
2. Cut the bacon and the onion into small pieces.
3. Whisk the eggs properly.
4. Fry the potatoes in a heated frying pan with sunflower oil. Add salt, black pepper and
paprika.
5. Fry the chopped onion and bacon separate.
6. Prepare a oven tray with potatoes, onion and bacon, pour the whisk eggs on top.
7. Bake them under 150º 15-20 minutes.
8. Serve them with a pickled gherkin or tomatoes.
FRIED OR CHIPPED POTATOES

1. Prepare and wash the potatoes.
2. Cut into slices 1 cm thick and 5 cm long.
3. Cut the slices into strips 5 x 1 x 1 cm.
5. Cook in a frying-based without colour in moderately hot fat.
6. Drain and place on kitchen paper on trays until required.
7. When required, place in a frying-pan and cook in hot fat until crisp and golden.
8. Drain well, season lightly with salt and serve.
NOTE
Because chips are so popular, the following advice from the Potato Marketing Board is useful.

 Cook chips in small quantities which will allow the oil to regain its temperature
more quickly; the chips cook faster and absorb less fat.
 Do not let the temperature of the oil exceed 199º C as this will accelerate the fat
breakdown.
 Ideally use a separate fryer for chips and ensure that it has the capacity to raise
the fat temperature rapidly to the correct degree when frying chilled or frozen
chips.
MASHED POTATOES
Boil potatoes. Force through a rice or mash well. Season to taste with salt and pepper. Add
approximately 100 ml hot milk and a 2 tbsp of butter or margarine, sour cream for every 5
potatoes. Beat well until light and fluffy. To keep hot, set oven pan of hot water or pile lightly
in casserole and place in slow oven.
MASHED POTATOES VARIATIONS

Baked Potato Puff: Add 1 egg York to 450 g mashed potatoes. Beat well. Fold in 1 stiffly
beaten egg white. Place in greased baking pan and bake in moderate oven 180ºC until brown.
Mashed Cheese Potato: Add 50 g grated cheese to 450 g mashed potatoes. Sprinkle grated
cheese and paprika on top. Brown in a moderate oven at 160ºc.
Mashed Potato with Fried Onions: Prepare mashed potatoes. Before serving, cover with
sliced fried potatoes.
Parsley Mashed Potatoes: Beat finely chopped parsley into mashed potatoes.
Mashed Potatoes with Pumpkin: Boil potatoes and pumpkin together, mash well and season
with salt and a tip of butter.
MASTER POTATO SALAD

Picnic Potato Salad Hints
One of the most popular of all picnic foods, potato salad must have potatoes and salad dressing
but you can add almost any combination of vegetables and seasonings to produce a delicious
picnic salad unlike any other. Potatoes for the salad are best when freshly cooked, although the
mixed salad can stand overnight for a better blending of flavours. Keep the picnic salad well

chilled until serving time, and for and attractive serving, first line plates with a layer of lettuce or
young spinach leaves. Of course, potato salad is more attractive when garnished with sliced
hard-boiled eggs, parsley, and strips of canned pimiento.
625g diced cooked potatoes, cooked in jackets

1 tbsp grated onion
3 tbsp French dressing
1 tbsp chopped parsley
1 tsp salt
¼ tsp paprika, mayonnaise
METHOD
1. Combine ingredients; expect mayonnaise, tossing lightly with a fork. Chill 3 to 4 hours.
2. Just before serving add mayonnaise, mixing carefully. Serve on lettuce or watercress.
Hint: if the salad is too dry, add some milk!
Potato Salad Variations:

Potato salad with Celery: To master potato salad, add 100 g diced celery.
Potato-Egg-Salad: To master potato salad, add 100 g diced celery and 4 chopped hard-boiled
eggs.
Potato Salad with Carrots: To master potato salad, add 100 g finely cut cabbage.
Potato Salad with nuts: To master potato salad, add 4 diced celery and 75 g salted peanuts.
Potato Salad with cucumber: To master potato salad, add 100 g diced celery and ½ diced
cucumbers.
DUCHESS POTATOES
½kg potatoes
1 egg
25g margarine, seasoning

METHOD
1. Wash, peel and rewash the potatoes and cut into an even size.
2. Cook in salted water.
3. Drain off excess water return to heat to dry.
4. Pass through a sieve.
5. Add margarine and an egg. Stir in vigorously with a wooden spoon.
6. Place in a piping bag and pip out on to a baking sheet.
7. Place in a hot oven for 5 minutes. Remove from oven and brush with egg.
8. Brown again in a hot oven.
POTATO CAKES
Use duchess mixture moulded into flat cakes, 3 cm diameter, 1 cm thick. Shallow fry on both
sides in very hot oil and serve.
BEEF COOKERY
Beef Goulash
500g stewing beef meat
1 glove garlic
2 medium onions
2 cubes beef stock
800ml water
2 tsp paprika
300g raw dices potatoes
METHOD
1. Cut meat into 1-inch cubes and brown in a little hot fat.
2. Add crushed garlic, sliced onions, seasonings, and stock cubes dissolved in hot water.
Cover and simmer 2½ hours.
3. Add 1 hot water and potatoes cut in ¾ inch cubes. Cook for 20 minutes longer, or until
potatoes are tender.
4. Season to taste and thicken, if necessary.

BEEF BURGERS (HAMBURGER, MEAT BALLS)
500g minced meat
1egg, breadcrumbs or whole wheat flour
2 tbspchopped onion, optional, salt, black pepper (paprika, Cayenne pepper)
METHOD
1. Combine meat, egg, onion and spices thoroughly.
2. Shape into 4 thick or 8 thin patties. Brown on one side in hot fat. Do not press the
patties. Do not overcook. Turn to brown other side.
3. Serve hot or as sandwich filling.
Sauce: When patties are done, remove from the pan. Add 2 tbsp flour, 1 tbsp Worcestershire
sauce or ketchup. Stir and pour over hamburgers.
BEEF STEW
500g meat
1onion
3tomatoes
1carrot
25g flour
25g fat
375ml stock or water, salt, pepper

METHOD
1. Cut meat into neat pieces and season.
2. Heat fat in a saucepan; fry the meat until lightly brown. Remove meat from the pan.
3. Fry the sliced onion. Add flour and fry until roux is a rich brown colour.
4. Add water or stock season with salt and bring to boil.
5. Put in meat, add tomatoes and carrots diced. Cover the pan and simmer for 2 hours until
meat is quiet tender.
6. Sean well.
BEEF BALLS IN TOMATOSAUCE

500g minced meat
1egg, breadcrumbs or whole wheat flour
2 tbsp chopped onion, optional, salt, black pepper, (paprika, Cayenne pepper)
METHOD
2. Shape into 12 – 16 balls. Brown one side in hot fat. Do not press the balls. Do not
overcook. Turn to brown other side.
TOMATO SAUCE
80g margarine
100g flour
1 ml milk
1 small onion
500g tomatoes
Salt, black pepper, sweet basil
METHOD
1. Cut out the core and score an „x‟ on the base with a tip of a small knife. Immerse in
boiling water until the skin splits of. Transfer to cold water and peel off the skin.
2. Dice tomatoes and onion.

3. Melt the margarine and stew the onions without browning in a thick bottom pan.
4. Add flour and mix in, stir continuously until thickened.
5. Cook for a few minutes over a gentle heat without colouring. Add tomatoes; let it
simmer for a few minutes.
6. Correct seasoning.
CURRIED BEEF
500g stewing beef
3 tbsp oil
200g onions
1 glove garlic
10g curry powder
10g flour, white or whole meal
10g tomato puree
½ or 1 stock of water
25g chopped chutney
25g desiccated coconut
25g Sultanas
50g chopped apple, grated root ginger
METHOD
1. Trim the meat and cut into even pieces.
2. Season and quickly colour in hot oil.
3. Add the chopped onion and chopped garlic, cover with a lid and sweet for minutes.
Drain off the surplus fat.
4. Add the curry powder and flour mix in and cook out.
5. Mix in the tomato puree and gradually add the hot stock; stir thoroughly; bring to the boil
and season with salt and skim.
6. Allow to simmer and add the rest of the ingredients.

7. Cover with a lid and simmer in the oven or on top of the stove until cooked. Correct the
seasoning and consistency; skim off all fat. At this stage a little cream or yoghurt may be
added.
8. Serve accompanied with rice which may be plain boiled or pilaf.
DESSERTS
Bread and butter pudding

25g sultanas
2 sliced white or whole meal bread, spread with butter or Margarine
3 eggs
50g castor
2-3 drops vanilla essence
½ or 1 milk
METHOD
1. Wash the sultanas and place in a pie dish.
2. Remove the crusts from the bread and cut each slice into four triangles, neatly arrange
overlapping in the pie dish.
3. Whisk the eggs, sugar and essence.
4. Pour on the warmed milk, whisking continuously.
5. Strain on to the bread, dust lightly with sugar.
6. Stand in a roasting tray half full of water and cook slowly in a moderate oven at 180ºc for
45 minutes to 1 hour.
7. Clean the edges of the pie dish and serve.
GROUND RICE PUDDING

500ml milk
Pinch of salt
40g sugar
100g rice
METHOD
1. Bring milk to the boil and stir in rice, salt and sugar.
2. Boil gently for 5 minutes and then simmer for 15 – 20 minutes.

3. Serve hot or cold with cinnamon or fresh fruits.
STEAMED SPONGE PUDDING (BASIC RECIPE)
100g margarine or butter
100g castor or brown sugar
2 medium eggs
10g baking-powder, few drops of milk
METHOD
1. Cream the butter or margarine and sugar in a bowl until fluffy and almost white.
2. Gradually add the beaten eggs, mixing vigorously.
3. Sieve the flour and baking powder.
4. Gradually incorporate into the mixture as lightly as possible keeping to a dropping
consistency by the addition of the milk.
5. Place in a greased pudding basin.
6. Cover security with greased grease proof paper. Steam for 1 - 1½ hours.
VARIATIONS
Vanilla sponge pudding: Add a few drops of vanilla essence to the basic mixture, and serve with
a vanilla-flavoured sauce.
Chocolate sponge pudding: Add 25 g chocolate or cocoa powder in place of 25 g flour that is
125 g flour, 25 g chocolate to basic recipe. Serve with chocolate sauce.
Lemon sponge pudding: Add the grated zest of one or two lemons, and a few drops of lemon
essence to basic recipe. Service with vanilla sauce.
Sultana sponge pudding: Add 100 g of washed well dried fruit to basic recipe. Serve with
custard sauce.
VANILLA ICE-CREAM
4 egg yolks
100g castor or unrefined sugar
Vanilla pod or essence
375ml milk
125ml cream

METHOD
1. Whisk the yolks and sugar in a bowl until almost white.
2. Boil the milk with the vanilla pod or essence in a thick-based pan.
3. Whisk on to the eggs and sugar; mix well.
4. Return to the cleaned saucepan, place on a low heat.
5. Stir continuously with a wooden spoon until the mixture coats the back of the spoon.
6. Pass through a fine strainer into a bowl.
7. Whisk the cream and mix in. Freeze for at least 6 hours.
Variations include:
 Coffee ice-cream: Add coffee essence to taste to the custard after it is cooked.
 Chocolate ice-cream: Add 50-100g of chopped chocolate to the milk before boiling.
CHICKEN COOKERY
Chicken Noodle Casserole
200g noodles
200g mushrooms
300g diced, cooked chicken
100g dry bread crumbs
½ medium onion, finely chopped
2 sprigs parsley, chopped
1 tsp salt
1/8 tsp black pepper
400ml hot chicken stock
30g chicken fat
METHOD
1. Cook noodle in boiling salted water, Drain.
2. Alternate noodles, mushrooms, and chicken in a well-greased casserole.
3. Sprinkle each layer with breadcrumbs, chopped onion, parsley, salt and pepper.
4. Pour hot stock over ingredients. Top with crumbs and dot with fat.

5. Cook uncovered in moderate over at 180º until top layer of crumbs is golden brown,
about 30 minutes.
CHICKEN-VEGETABLE-RICE-CASSEROLE
150g chopped cooked chicken
1 small jar chopped stuffed olives
150g cooked peas
50g cooked celery, chopped
1½ tsp salt
¼ tsp black pepper
1 tbsp lemon juice
25g dripping or cooking fat
2 tbsp flour
400ml milk
150g rice, cooked
25g melted butter
50g dry breadcrumbs
METHOD
1. Combine chicken, olives, peas, celery, salt, pepper, and lemon juice.
2. Melt fat and blend in flour, add milk gradually, stirring constantly to prevent lumping.
Cook until consistency of thin white sauce. Add chicken mixture to sauce.
3. Spread rice in buttered casserole. Pour sauce mixture over rice. Toss crumbs with
melted butter and sprinkle over casserole.
4. Cook in moderate oven at 180º for 25 minutes.
CHICKEN CURRY
1 large chopped onion
25g minced green pepper
2tbsp lemon juice
2tbsp tomato ketchup

400g cooked chicken & gravy
¼ tsp curry powder
METHOD
1. Mince onion and green pepper.
2. Add lemon juice, ketchup and crushed garlic clove.
3. Simmer together until sauce has cooked down almost dry.
4. Cut chicken into fork-size pieces.
5. Add chicken and to gravy to sauce.
MARYLAND FRIED CHICKEN

1.5kg young chicken
Salt and pepper
100g flour
2 eggs, slightly beaten
4 tbsp water
100g dry breadcrumbs
50g margarine
50g lard
METHOD
1. Cut chicken in pieces for serving, wash and dry. Season with salt and pepper, roll in
flour, dip in slightly beaten eggs, dilutes with water, and roll in crumbs.
2. Sauté in margarine and pork fat in heavy frying pan until browned on all sides; cover and
place in slow oven at 140ºC for ½ to ¾ hour, or until tender.
3. If chicken weighs more than 1.5kg, add 100ml hot water to pan in oven.
4. Serve with cream gravy made from cooking juices in pan.
Chicken Cream Gravy: To 4 tbsp of cooking juices add 4 tbsp of flour. Stir until blended.
Slowly add 500-750 ml of milk or half milk and half cream. Heat slowly over low heat, stirring
constantly until thick and smooth. Season to taste.
FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN
1.25-1.5kg chicken
50g margarine
35g flour

½ litre chicken stock (or ½ litre water + ½ cube chickenstock)
1-2cream
4 tbspchopped parsley
METHOD
1. Cut the chicken as for sauté and season with salt and pepper.
2. Place the butter in a sauté pan. Heat gently.
3. Add pieces of chicken. Cover with a lid.
4. Cook gently on both sides without coloring. Mix in the flour.
5. Cook out carefully without coloring. Gradually mix in the stock.
6. Bring to the boil and skim. Allow to simmer gently until cooked.
7. Mix the yolks and cream in a basin (liaison).
8. Pick out the chicken into a clean pan.
9. Pour all back into the sauce, combine thoroughly but do not reboil.
10. Correct the seasoning and pass through a fine strainer.
11. Pour over the chicken, reheat without boiling.
12. Serve sprinkled with chopped parsley.
CHICKEN TIKKA
1½ chicken cut for sauté

125ml natural yoghurt
1 tsp grated ginger
1 tsp ground coriander
1 tsp ground cumin
½-1 tsp chilli powder
1 clove garlic crushed and chopped
½ lemon juice
50g tomato puree
50g onions, finely chopped
60ml oil, salt
METHOD
1. Place the chicken pieces into a suitable dish.

2. Mix together the yoghurt, seasoning, spices, garlic, lemon juice and tomato puree.
3. Pour this on the chicken and mix well and leave to marinade for at least 3 hours.
4. In a suitable shallow tray add the chopped onions and the half the oil.
5. Lay the chicken pieces on top and gently cook in a moderate oven.
6. Baste with remaining oil.
7. Serve.
CHICKEN A LA KING
100g margarine
50g flour
¾ tsp salt
Few grains black pepper
1½ tsp aromat
1½ tsp paprika
300g grilled mushrooms
1 milk (about)
600g diced cooked chicken
300g cooked peas
240g cooked rice.
METHOD
1. Melt margarine; blend in flour, salt, pepper, Aromat and paprika.
2. Drain liquid from mushrooms into measuring cup; and milk 800ml; add to first mixture.
3. Cook over low heat, stirring constantly, until smooth and thickened.
4. Add mushrooms, chicken, and peas.
5. Line oblong baking dish with rice. Fill the chicken mixture. Dot rice with butter.
6. Cook in slow oven at 160ºc for 15 – 20 minutes.
RICE
Rice Indiana

200g uncooked rice
375g chicken stock
25g margarine
50g sultanas or raisins
½ tsp salt
25g browned silvered almost
METHOD
1. Combine rice, stock, margarine, sultanas or raisins and salt in the saucepan.
2. Bring to the boil and stir. Cover and simmer for 14 minutes.
3. Add almonds and mix lightly with a fork.
RICE MEXICAN
200g rice
1 clove garlic, chopped
1 small onion, chopped
25g margarine or lard
1 tsp salt
½ medium sized green pepper, chopped
1-2 tsp chili seasoning or cayenne pepper
200g tomatoes, boiled and skinned
375ml beef stock.
METHOD
1. Wash rice, sauté with garlic and onion in the hot fat until browned.
2. Add salt, green pepper, chili seasoning, tomatoes and stock. Cover and simmer about 20
minutes until rice is soft.
3. Remove a lid during the last 5 minutes to finish evaporation and allow mixture to dry out.
RICE PILAF
Pilaf
Pilaf, also spelled pilau, pilaff, and pilaw, is a term applied to any of Near Eastern dishes, usually
highly seasoned. The rice is often fried in butter or oil before the liquid is added; nuts, bits of

meat, poultry, or fisch are sometimes mixed in or served on top. The same term is often applied
to other gain dishes, for example:
Bourghol Pilaf
200g uncooked rice
1 chicken cubes
350ml boiling water
50g slivered blanched almonds
50g butter or margarine
METHOD
1. Brown rice lightly in uncovered heavy saucepan or frying pan with tight-fitting cover.
Stir occasionally to distribute heat evenly.
2. Dissolve stock cubes in water and add rice. Cover and bring to boil over medium heat.
Reduce heat to low and cook until rice is fluffy and done, 25 to 30 minutes.
3. Cook almonds in half the butter until lightly browned, stirring constantly.
4. Melt remaining butter with nuts, then mix with rice, tossing lightly with a fork.

RICE SAUTE
Sauter – To shallow fry in pan with a smaller quantity of fat or oil. Hence sauté –shallow fried.
PASTA
Lasagne
For the best lasagna, prepare traditional Bolognese meat sauce and béchamel sauce. The
Bolognese and béchamel sauces should not be too thick as the pasta absorbs the liquid while
cooking.
Preheat the oven to 180ºc. Butter an over proof 20 x 30 cm dish. Layer meat sauce, lasagna
sheets and béchamel sauce, starting with meat sauce and ending with béchamel.
The layer should be paring and are repeated (3-4 times) until all sauces have been used up. Do
not overlap pasta pieces. Sprinkle grated cheese on top.
Allow lasagne to stand for 30 minutes.
Bake for about 40 minutes or until pasta has softened and topping is golden brown. Stand
lasagna for 19 minutes before serving.
BOLOGNESE SAUCE
2 tbsp oil
1 large onion, chopped
500g minced beef, lean
600g tomatoes, chopped
250ml beef stock (or 250 ml water + 1 cube beef stock)
250ml red wine or water
1 tbsp tomato paste
1 tsp mixed dried herbs
½ tsp sugar
Salt and black pepper
METHOD
1. Heat oil in a large saucepan.
2. Cook onion and garlic until soft but not browned.

3. Add mince, stirring, until meat is browned and crumbly. Stir in the tomatoes, stock,
wine, tomato paste, herbs, sugar and seasoning.
BECHAMEL SAUCE
90g butter
75g flour
1 litre Milk
METHOD
1. In a separate saucepan melt butter and add flour.
2. Cook for a minute, stirring until smooth. Remove from stove.
3. Add milk gradually, stirring continually.
4. Cook gently on low heat until thickened.
5. Season to paste.
TOPPING
125g grated cheese
PASTA WITH VEGETABLE
250g pasta
2 water
Salt
(Oil)
METHOD
1. Boil water with salt
2. Add the pasta (and oil) let it simmer for 8 – 12 minutes.
3. Drain the remaining water using a colander rinse with cold running water briefly.
150 – 200g carrots
150 – 200g green pepper
150 – 200g broccoli
1 onion
1 crushes garlic cloves
Salt, pepper, curry, sunflower
METHOD
1. Wash the vegetables, scrap or peel carrots, cut the pepper in small pieces.

2. Stew the broccoli in less water with salt.
3. Onions and garlic cut in small pieces.
4. Fry all vegetables in a frying pan with sunflower oil. Add the spices, fry until golden
brown.
SPAGHETTI BOLOGNAISE
Spaghetti alla Bolognese
25g butter or oil, optional
50g chopped onion
100g minced meat
125ml vegetables stock
1tbsp tomato puree
Marjoram or oregano
100g diced mushrooms
Salt, mill pepper
100g spaghetti, cooked.
METHOD
1. Place 10g butter or oil in a saucepan. Add the chopped onion and garlic and cook for 4-5
minutes.
2. Add the vegetable stock, the tomato puree and the herbs. Simmer till tender.
3. Add the mushrooms and simmer for 5 minutes, the correct the seasoning.
4. Meanwhile cook the spaghetti in plenty of boiling salted water. Allow to boil gently and
stir occasionally with a wooden spoon. Cook for 12 – 15 minutes. Drain well in a
colander.
5. Return to a clean pan containing 10 g butter. Correct the seasoning.
6. Serve with the sauce in centre of spaghetti. Serve grated cheese separately.
MACARONI CHEESE
100g macaroni
25g butter
100g grated cheese

500ml thin béchamel
½tsp mustard
Salt, black pepper
METHOD
1. Plunge the macaroni into a saucepan containing plenty of boiling salted water.
2. Allow to boil gently and stir occasionally with a wooden spoon.
3. Cook for approximately 12 – 15 minutes and drain well in a colander.
4. Return to a clean pan containing the butter.
5. Mix with half the cheese and add the béchamel and mustard.
6. Place in an earthenware dish and sprinkle with the remainder of the cheese.
7. Brown lightly under the salamander and serve.
BAKING: RUBBED IN METHOD

Scones and Quick Rolls
Baking powder scone hints
For high, light, tender, piping hot, crusty scones.
1. Turn on the oven first as correct baking temperature is important for perfect results.
After assembling the ingredients and sifting them together into mixing bowl, measure fat
into mixing bowl and cut into flour mixture with pastry blender (or 2 knives used scissors
fashion) until finely blended. Mixture should look like coarse crumbs.
2. Measure the maximum amount of milk specified. Do not add all of it at first. Add
almost all of it, mix it in and see if the dough seems easy to handle. Then add the rest if
necessary. Too much milk makes the dough sticky and difficult to handle. Not
enough milk makes the dough stiff and the finished scones tough and dry.
3. Round up on a lightly floured board. Kneed very gently and quickly just too thoroughly
mix ingredients and even up texture. This means turning the dough 2 or 3 times – not
more than 15 to 20 punches with flour dusted hands. Too much handling at this point
makes the scones tough.
4. Roll dough or pat it out (with floured hand) until dough is ½ cm thick.
5. Cut with pastry cutter (dipper in flour first to prevent sticking). Cut as close together as
possible. (Leftover bits of dough should be fitted and pushed together, patted out and cut

– not re-rolled). Place scones close together on baking sheet for scones with soft sides –
or far apart for scones with crusty sides.
BAKING POWDER SCONES (MASTER RECIPE)

200g plain flour
3tsp baking powder
½tsp salt
50g fat
125-150ml milk or water
1-2tbsp sugar
METHOD
1. Sift together dry ingredients. Cut fat into flour with 2 knives or pastry blender until
consistency of breadcrumbs.
2. Add liquid, mixing lightly with a fork until a ball forms that separates from the sides of
bowl.
3. Turn out on lightly floured board. Knead gently ½ minute. Roll or pat floured biscuit
cutter.
4. Bake on ungreased baking sheet in very hot oven at 200º 12 to 15 minutes. Serve
immediately.
SCONES VARIATIONS:
Cheese scones: In master recipe add 25g grated cheese to dry ingredients.
Chive Scones: In master add 3 – 4 tbsp freshly chopped chives to mixture of flour and fat.
Fruit scone: In master add 75g chopped dates, figs, prunes, or raisins to mixture of flour and fat.
Nuts Scones: In master add 1 tbsp grated orange rind to mixture of flour and fat.
Peanut Scones: Substitute 75g peanut butter for fat in master.
Sour milk Scones: Follow m.r. Add ½tsp bicarbonate of soda, sifting it with flour. Use sour
milk for liquid.
SHORTCRUST (BASIC RECIPE)

Oven temperature: 200 grad gas no. 6
200g plain flour
100g fat
50g margarine / 50 g lard
½tsp salt
Sufficient cold water to mi to a firm dough.
METHOD
1. Set oven at 200 Grad, fairly hot.
2. Sieve flour and salt together into a mixing bowl.
3. Rub fat into four until consistency of fine bread crumbs is obtained.
4. Add cold water by the teaspoon, mixing thoroughly with a round blade knife until firm
dough is obtained. Knead lightly with fingers and turn out onto a lightly floured surface.
5. Roll out and shape according to use for which it is required.
6. Bake until golden brown.
Uses:
Sweet and savory dishes in the shape of pastries, open tarts, pies, sausage rolls, apple dumplings
etc. Baking temperature and time for cooking may vary with the thickness of pastry and size or
the dish used.
BAKING: CREAMING AND MELTING METHOD
Marble Cake
500g flour
2tsp baking powder
150 g sugar
1 pinch of salt
250g margarine
4 eggs
125ml milk
______________________________
50g sugar
30g cocoa
6-6tsp milk

METHOD
1. Cream butter until light; gradually add sugar, creaming until very light and fluffy.
2. Beat in eggs.
3. Mix and sift flour, baking powder, and salt. Add to creamed mixture alternately with
milk, blending quickly but thoroughly.
4. Divide batter in half. To one half add sugar, cocoa and milk. Blend well.
5. Place alternate spoonfuls of white and dark batter in well greased tube tin.
6. Bake in moderate oven (180ºC) 50 – 60 minutes.
7. Turn out on cake rack and cool thoroughly.
8. If desired cover top and sides with chocolate icing.
DELICIOUS CHOCOLATE CAKE

3 eggs, separated
120g flour
120g sugar
60ml sunflower oil
125ml hot water
25g cocoa
10ml baking powder
Salt
5ml vanilla essence
METHOD
1. Sift flour, baking powder and salt together.
2. Mix cocoa and hot water and allow cooling.
3. Combine egg yolks, oil, sugar, vanilla and cocoa mixture.
4. Add this to dry ingredients and mix well into cocoa mixture.
5. Whip egg whites till stiff and fold lightly into cocoa mixture.
6. Bake at 200ºC for 20 – 25 minutes.
7. Decorate if desired.

MUFFINS (MASTER RECIPE)
200g flour
3tsp baking powder
Pinch of salt
3tbsp sugar
1 egg, well beaten
200ml milk
3tbsp melted fat
METHOD
1. Sift together dry ingredients.
2. Combine egg, milk and fat. Add quickly to flour mixture, stirring only until just
moistened. Do not beat!
3. Drop batter gently by spoonful into greased muffin tins. Filling 2/3 full.
4. Bake in moderate oven at 180 - 200ºC 20 – 25 minutes.
QUICK FRUIT CAKE

80g sugar
2 eggs, lightly beaten
225g flour
pinch of salt
3tsp baking powder
300g mixed dried fruits
50g glace cherries washed and sliced.
METHOD
1. Line and grease a deep 18 cm round cake tin.
2. Cream the butter or margarine with the sugar until light and fluffy.
3. Gradually beat in the eggs, adding a little of the flour to prevent curding.
4. Mix the dried fruits and cherries with a spoonful. Fold the remaining flour into the
creamed mixture, and then fold in the fruit. Spoon the mixture into the prepared tin.

5. Level the top of the cake and bake in the moderate oven for 1 - 1¼ hour or until a skewer
inserted into the centre of the cake comes out clean. Leave to cool in the tin for 5
minutes; then turn out and cool completely on a wire rack.
MADEIRA CAKE
129g sugar
3 medium eggs, lightly whisked
225g flour
Pinch of salt
3tsp baking-powder
Few drops lemon essence
Thin slices citron peel (optional)
METHOD
1. Heat oven to 180ºC. Grease an 18 cm cake tin.
2. Cream fat and sugar; beat in lightly whisked eggs with a little flour.
3. Add essence, and then fold in the remaining flour, salt and baking-powder.
4. Bake for about 1¼hours. Place peel on top after half an hour in the oven.
BAKING: YEAST DOUGH

White Bread (N-Dissolve Method)
700g bread flour
2tsp salt
15g fresh yeast or 1½tsp dried yeast
Pinch of salt
400ml water
METHOD
1. In a large bowl thoroughly mix flour, sugar, salt, and undissolved dry yeast
2. Heat oven low heat water until lukewarm.
3. Gradually add to dry ingredients and beat some minutes with the wooden spoon, scraping
bowl occasionally.

4. Stir in enough water of flour to make soft dough. Turn out onto lightly floured board;
knead until smooth and elastic, about 8 – 10 minutes.
5. Place back in bowl, cover; let rise in warm place, free from draught, until doubled in
bulk, about 1 hour.
6. Punch dough down; turn out onto lightly floured board; let rest 15 minutes. Place in
greased loaf tin. Cover, let rise in warm place, free from draught, until doubled in bulk.
7. Bake in hot oven at 180 - 200ºC about 25 – 30 minutes, or until done.
8. Remove after some 10 minutes and cool on wire racks.
NO-KNEAD WHITE BREAD (MASTER RECIPE)

180ml scalded milk
50g fat
30g sugar
1tsp salt
180ml water
1½tsp dried yeast
1 egg
550g sifted plain flour
METHOD
1. Combine milk, fat, sugar and salt. Cool to lukewarm by adding 180 ml water.
2. Add yeast and mix well. Blend in egg.
3. Add flour slowly. Mix until dough is well blended. Place in large, greased bowl.
YEAST ROLLS
Roll Dough (Straight-Dough Method)
180ml milk
50g sugar
1tsp salt
50g fat
180ml warm (not hot) water
2tsp dry yeast
225g plain flour

Additional 225 g plain flour (about)
METHOD
1. Scald milk. Stir in sugar, and salt. Cool to lukewarm.
2. Measure 180 ml warm water into bowl. Sprinkle in yeast. Stir until dissolved. Stir in
lukewarm milk mixture.
3. Add 225 g flour. Beat until smooth. Stir in additional flour.
4. Turn out on lightly floured board. Knead until smooth and elastic. Place in greased
bowl; brush with fat. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from draught, until doubled in
bulk, about 1 hour.
5. Punch down and turn out on lightly floured board.
6. Proceed according to directions for shapes.
Clover Leaf Rolls

Divide Roll Dough in half. From each half into roll. Cut into 9 equal pieces. From each piece
into 3 small balls. Brush sides with melted margarine. Place 3 balls in each section of greased
bun tins. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from draught, until in bulk. Brush lightly with
melted margarine. Bake in hot oven at 180ºC. Make 18 rolls.
Bowknots
When Roll Dough is ready for shaping, roll dough under hand to 1cm thickness. Cut in pieces
about 15 cm long. Tie in knots. Place on greased baking sheet.
Crescents
Divide Roll Dough into 3 equal pieces. Roll out each piece into circle about 15 cm in diameter.
Brush lightly with melted margarine. Cut into 8-pie-shaped pieces. Roll up tightly beginning at
wide end. Seal points firmly. Place on greased baking sheets, with points underneath, about 5
cm apart. Curve to form crescents. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from draught, until
doubled in bulk. Brush lightly with melted margarine. Bake in hot oven at 190ºC about 15
minutes.
Butterflies

When Roll Dough is ready for shaping, roll dough into rectangular sheet 0.5 cm thick and 16cm
wide. Brush with melted margarine. Roll up like Swiss roll. Cut into pieces 5 cm long. Press
across centre of each piece with knife handle or small rolling pin.
Snails
When Roll Dough is ready for shaping, roll dough under hand to form long pieces 1cm in
diameter. Cut into 20 cm length. Twist each piece by rolling ends in opposite directions. Coil
to form snail. Tuck end under edge of roll to hold it in place. Place on greased baking sheet.
Sweet Dough‟s
A sweet dough is a basic yeast-flour-liquid mixture containing more sugar, shortening, and eggs
than the dough for non-sweet (plain) breads and rolls. Some bread that is considered sweet
breads, such as Danish pastry, is made from a plain dough; the sweetness comes from the filling
they contain.
BASIC SWEET DOUGH (TRAIGHT-DOUGH METHOD)

An easy-to-handle kneaded dough for sweet rolls coffee cakes
125ml milk
75g sugar
½tsp salt
50g fat
3tsp dry yeast
2 eggs, beaten
750g plain flour
METHOD
1. Scald milk. Stir in sugar, salt, and fat, cook to lukewarm.
2. Measure into bowl 100 ml warm water. Sprinkle in yeast. Stir until dissolved. Stir in
3. Add beaten eggs and 300 g flour. Beat until smooth. Stir in remaining flour. Turn
dough out on lightly floured board. Knead until smooth and elastic.

4. Place in greased bowl; brush top with soft fat. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from
draught, until doubled in bulk, about 1 hour.
5. Punch down and turn out on lightly floured board. Proceed according to directions for
shapes selected.
Swedish Tea Ring
Use ½ recipes for Sweet Dough and when it is light roll into a rectangular sheet about 2.5 cm
thick.
Brush with melted butter and cinnamon. Nuts or raisins may be added.
Roll Swiss-roll fashion and shape into a ring on a greased baking sheet. Cut with scissors at 5cm
intervals, almost though the ring. Turn each slice slightly on its side.
Cover and let rise until doubled.
Bake in moderate oven at 160ºC 25 – 30 minutes.
Ice while warm with glace icing. Sprinkle thickly with chopped nuts.
PIZZA
Pizza is the Italian word for pie; specifically a pie of Neapolitan origin with a crust of bread
dough that is spread with tomatoes or tomato sauce, cheese, oregano, and sometimes other
topping. It is eaten hot.
Dough
300g sifted flour
Additional 50g sifted flour
2tsp dried yeast
Pinch of sugar
1½ tsp salt
2tbsp vegetable oil
TOPPING
4tbsp tomato puree

4tbsp tomato sauce
3tsp oriegano
1tsp salt
black pepper
4tbsp grated cheese
300-500g mixed vegetables
or
200g pork sausage
or
100g chopped mushrooms
or
200g salami
METHOD
1. Sprinkle or crumble yeast into the 100 ml water and stir until dissolved. Stir is pinch of
sugar, salt and vegetable oil.
2. Add flour and beat until smooth, then gradually stir in the additional flour. Dough should
be as soft ad biscuit dough.
3. Turn out on lightly floured board and knead until smooth and elastic.
4. Place in bowl; eventually brush top with soft fat. Cover and let rise in warm place, free
from draughts, until doubled in bulk, about 45 minutes.
5. Mix together tomato puree, tomato sauce, salt and spices.
6. When dough is doubled in bulk, punch down, spread on a greased baking sheet or divide
in half, form a ball and place on greased baking sheet. Press out with palms of hands into
circles, making edges slightly thick.
7. On each circle or on the whole baking sheet arrange half or the full amount of tomato
mixture; sprinkle other topping and at least grated cheese.
8. Let the Pizza increase again and bake in hot oven at 200º about 20 minutes. Serve hot.
BISCUITS
Brownies
100g margarine

50g plain chocolate
140g soft brown sugar
2 medium eggs, beaten
½tsp vanilla essence
100g flour
1½g chopped nuts
METHOD
1. Heat oven to 180ºC. Grease a tin 28 x 18 cm.
2. Melt margarine and chocolate over hot water. Remove from heat and cool.
3. Stir in sugar and add eggs, mixture with vanilla essence.
4. Mix in flour, baking-powder, salt and nuts.
5. Pour the mixture into the tin and bake for about 25 – 30 minutes until top is crispy and
inside soft.
6. Leave in the tin until cold before cutting into squares.
BISCUITS “MAMA PILZECKER”

250g flour
1tbsp baking powder
1 egg
100g sugar
125g margarine
60g pounded groundnuts
METHOD
1. Knead all ingredients together. Divide the dough in 4 pieces.
2. Chill for not less than 30 minutes.
3. Roll out thin and use cutter forms. The remaining dough chill again until finish.
4. Bake on ungreased oven tray at 160º for about 10 minutes.

MELTING MOMENTS
100g margarine
4tbsp icing sugar
1tsp almond essence
Pinch of salt
100g plain flour
1tsp baking powder
METHOD
1. Cream margarine, sugar, almond essence, and salt until light and fluffy.
2. Add flour and baking powder and blend. Chill.
3. Form into balls, using a teaspoon of dough for each ball.
4. Place on ungreased baking sheet. Flatten with fork dipped in four.
5. Bake in moderate oven 160º for 8 – 10 minutes.
SCOTCH SHRTBREAD (MASTER RECIPE)

200g soft butter or margarine
150g sugar
250g plain flour
METHOD
1. Cream butter and add sugar gradually, blending thoroughly.
2. Add flour slowly and mix thoroughly to a smooth dough. Chill.
3. Roll out about ½ cm thick. Cut into desired shapes (small leaves, ovals, squares etc).
4. Flute edges if desired by pinching between fingers as for a pie crust.
5. Place on ungreased baking sheet. Bake in slow oven 150º about 20 – 25 minutes or until
golden brown.
RECIPIES
CONTENTS

BATTERS
 Basic Recipe 1
 Pancakes
 Toad in hole
 Apple Fritters
SALADS AND DRESSS
 Beetroots Salad 2
 Carrot Salad
 Pasta Salad
 Cole Slaws
 Soured Cream Dressing 3
 Master Italian Dressing
 Yoghurt Salad Dressing 4
 Whipped Cream Dressing
VEGETABLES
 Bean Goulash 4
 Vegetable Curry
 Mixed Vegetables Casserole 5
 Mushrooms with tomatoes and peas
 Vegetables au gratin (with cheese)
POTATOES
 Crisps (Game Chips) 6
 Potatoes Anna
 Scalloped Potatoes 7
 Farmers Breakfast
 Fried or chipped potatoes
 Mashed potatoes 8
 Master Potato Salad
 Duchess Potatoes – Potato Cake 9
BEEF COOKERY

 Beef goulash 9
 Beef Burgers (Hamburger, Meat Balls)
 Beef Casserole 10
 Beef Stroganoff
 Spicy meat loaf
 Beef Stew 11
 Beef Balls in tomato sauce
 Curried Beef 12
DESSERTS
 Bread and butter pudding 12
 Ground rice pudding
 Steamed sponge pudding 13
 Vanilla Ice-Cream
CHICKEN COOKERY
 Chicken Noodle Casserole 14
 Chicken Vegetable Rice Casserole
 Chicken Curry
 Maryland Fried Chicken 15
 Fricassee of Chicken
 Chicken Tikka 16
 Chicken a la king
RICE
 Rice indienne 16
 Rice Mexican
 Rice Pilaf 17
PASTA
 Lasagne 17
 Pasta with vegetables
 Spaghetti bolognaise 18

 Macaroni cheese 19
BAKING; RUBBED IN METHOD
 Scones and quick rolls 20
 Short crust 21
BAKING; CREAMING AND MELTING METHOD 21
 Marble Care
 Delicious chocolate cake 22
 Muffins (Master Recipe)
 Quick Fruit Cake
 Madeira Cake 23
BAKING; YEAST DOUGH 23
 White bread
 No-Knead Bread
 Yeast Rolls 24
 Basic Sweet Dough 25
 Pizza 26
BAKING; BISCUITS 27
 Brownies & Biscuits “Mama Pilzecker”
 Melting moments & Scotch
BATTERS
A batter is smooth mixture of flour, milk (or milk and water) and generally an egg. The mixture
is beaten well, as the name implies, and in the mixture. This air expands in cooking to give light
texture.
Basic Recipe
100g Plain flour
Pinch of salt
2 Egg
300ml Milk (or milk and water
METHOD
4. Mix flour and salt in a basic, make a hollow in the centre and drop in egg.
5. Stir with a wooden spoon and add liquid gradually, until all the flour is worked in.
6. Beat well and add remaining liquid.
PANCAKES
150g Whole wheat flour or cake flour 4 servings
300ml Milk
A pinch of sugar
½tbs sugar
Sunflower oil
METHOD
6. Mix the ingredients and whisk them nicely.
7. Pour sunflower oil in the frying pan and heat it until the point it becomes hot.
8. Add just enough mixture to cover the bottom of the frying pan.
9. Turn after it is cooked.
10. Put them on a plate and warm it in an oven (100ºc).
VARIATION
- Prepare the batter without sugar.
- Simmer some seasonal vegetables e.g spinach and onions, carrots, green pepper,
mushrooms. Add spices, fill the pancakes, roll them and put some prated cheese on the
top. Bake it for 10min at 150ºc in the oven.
TOAD IN THE HOLE

Basic Recipe Batter
450g Sausages
METHOD
4. Heat oven to 220ºc.
5. Place sausages in a shallow dripping tin and cook for about 10 minutes.
6. Pour batter over the partly cooked sausages and cook for a further 30 minutes.

APPLE FRITTERS
- Basic Recipe Batter
- Cooking apples
- Oil or fat for frying
- Caster sugar
METHOD
2. Peel, core apples and cut into rings with batter and deep fry in oil heated to 180ºc, cook
both sides until golden brown.
SALADS AND DRESSINGS
Beet Roots Salad
300g beetroots 4 servings
200g apples
3tbs sunflower seeds or sesame seeds
2tbs sunflower oil
1-2tbs lemon juice
3tbs apple or orange juice, lemon-ginger-dressing
salt, black pepper
1pinch ginger
METHOD
1. Peel the beetroots and grate them. Squeeze the lemon.
2. Wash the apples and grate them, mix with beetroots and lemon juice.
3. Peel the ginger and them smallish.
4. Sunflower seeds or sesame seeds dry frying.
5. Mix all ingredients for the lemon-ginger-dressing.
6. Mix the vegetables and the dressing, put it in the fridge and let it cool until serving.
7. Garnish e.g with chives.

CARROT SALAD
400g carrot 4 servings
1 apple
1tbs sugar
1½tbs sunflower oil, lemon juice from 1 ½ lemon
METHOD
1. Wash the carrots and the apples pees them.
2. Squeeze the lemon.
3. Carrots and apple finely grated.
4. Add sugar sunflower oil and lemon juice, mix it nicely.
5. Take it in the fridge until serving.
PASTA SALAD
350g pasta 8 servings
Water
Oil
Salt
4 eggs
4-6 tomatoes
200g cheese
2 cucumber
300g yogurt
8tbs mayonnaise
Mustard
Salt, pepper
Herbs as garnish
METHOD
1. Cook the pasta according to pack instructions and drain.
2. Cook the eggs for 10 minutes, shell and slice them.
3. Grate the cheese or cut it in cubes.
4. Wash the vegetables and slice them.

5. Prepare the yogurt-mayonnaise-dressing.
6. Mix the ingredients and dressing together, let it cool.
7. Correct seasoning and garnish the salad.
COLE SLAWS
Cole Slaw – Master Recipe
Sometimes erroneously called core slaw, the name of this popular salad is derived from the
Dutch words for cabbage and salad. Use fresh, tender cabbage. Red cabbage may be used or
equal amounts of red and white cabbage. Remove the discard the wilted outer leaves and the
hard core from a small firm head of cabbage shred the cabbage extra-fine, using a chef‟s knife or
grater, cutting only as much as is needed for immediate use. To avoid last minute rush, toss
cabbage with ice cubes; drain well and dry between towels.
200g white or Chinese cabbage 4 portion
123ml mayonnaise or natural yogurt
50g carrots
25g onions (optional)
METHOD
1. Trim off the outside leaves of the cabbage.
2. Cut into quarters. Remove the centre stalk.
3. Wash the cabbage, shred finely and drain well.
4. Mix with a fine julienne of raw carrot and raw onion. To lessen the harshness of raw
onion, blanch and refresh.
Immediately before serving, moisten by tossing with one of the following dressings (replacing
the mayonnaise or yogurt):
- Cooked dressing or salad dressing; fresh dressing; soured cream dressing.
- Mix 2 to 3 tbs sugar, 3 tbs vinegar, salad oil, and 1 tsb salt. Stir until sugar dissolves.
- Mix 100 g salad dressing, 2 tbs vinegar, and 1 tsb French mustard.

SALAD DRESSINGS
Hints about salad dressing
We have suggested suitable dressings for individual salads in most cases. We advise, however,
experimenting with variations of the master recipes to suit the ingredients and your individual
taste. The dressing as well as garnishes should enhance the salad with contrasts in colour, flavor,
and texture. What type of dressing to choose – sweet or tart, thick or thin – may be determined
by your guests taste. Main – dish salads made with meat, fish, poultry, eggs, beans, cheese or
potatoes usually call for a mayonnaise-type or cooked salad dressing. But some of these more
substantial salads are good with tart French dressing. Tart French dressing is the most likely
choice for vegetable salads and vegetable-fruit combinations. But some vegetable salads may
well take a mayonnaise or cooked dressing. Reserve sweet, clear French dressing for salads with
fruit. Mayonnaise made milder with whipped cream or thinned and sweetened with fruit juice is
good from these salads too.

SOURED CREAM DRESSING
250ml thick soured cream
1tbs lemon juice
1tbs horseradish
1tbs sugar
½tbs Salt
1/8tbs dries mustard
Whip soured cream; fold in remaining ingredients. Serve at once.
MASTER ITALIAN DRESSING
1 clove garlic
½tbs dries mustard
½ tbs salt
4tbs wine vinegar
125ml olive oil
Cut garlic clove in half. Mix mustard, salt, garlic, and vinegar thoroughly. Add oil and stir until
all ingredients are blended. Store in covered jar in cold place. Shake well just before using.
YOGHURT SALAD DRESSING

250g yoghurt
1tsp lemon juice
2-3tsp mustard
¼tsp onion salt
Combine ingredients in jar, Mix well. Cover and store in refrigerator. Serve with tossed salad or
potato salad.
WHIPPED CREAM DRESSING (MASTER RECIPE)

250ml double cream
¼tsp salt
2tsp lemon juice or vinegar few grains of black pepper
Best cream until stiff. Fold in other ingredients very slowly. Chill and add to salad just before
serving. Whipped cream dressing may be used as a sweet or savory dressing by the addition of

flavorings and seasonings. It may be delicately tinted with a very small amount of liquid food
coloring.
VEGETABLES
Bean Goulash
200g red kidney or other beans 4 portions
60 ml sunflower oil
50g onion, finely chopped
1clove garlic, crushed
Paprika
2 red pepper
1 green pepper
yellow pepper
200g sliced button mushroom
50g tomato puree
750ml vegetable stock, seasoning
8 small turned potatoes (cooked)
METHODS
1. Soak the bens for 24 hours in cold water. Drain, place into a saucepan. Cover with cold
water, bring the boil and simmer until tender.
2. Heat the oil in a sauce pan, sweat the onion and garlic without colour for 2 – 3 minutes
and add the paprika; sweat for further 2 – 3 minutes.
3. Add the peppers, cut in halves, seed removed and cut into 1 cm dice. Add the button
mushrooms; sweat for a further 2 minutes.
4. Add the tomato puree, vegetable stock. Bring to the boil and simmer until the pepper and
mushrooms are cooked.
5. Add the drained cooked beans, correct seasoning and stir.
6. Garnish with potatoes and chopped parsley.
VEGETABLE CURRY 4 serves
500g vegetables (eg carrots, broccoli, onions, cauliflower,
Cabbage, tomatoes) salt, black pepper and curry.

METHOD
1. Boil vegetables with water; let it simmer until the consistency is covered.
2. Remove the water. Correct seasoning.
3. Serve with cream, if desired and rice, pasta or potatoes.
MIXED VEGETABLES CASSEROLE 6 serves
3medium carrot, sliced
1head cauliflower or broccoli, separated into flowerets
1small onion, sliced
2tbsp margarine or butter
2tbsp flour
½tsp salt
1tsp pepper
50ml whipping cream
1tbsp grated cheese
METHOD
1. Boil all vegetables including onions in salted water for 5 minutes.
2. Drain vegetables, reserve liquid.
3. Prepare white sauce
4. Grease casserole plate.
5. Put vegetables very after layer put sliced tomatoes. Sprinkle pepper, another layer till
finished.
6. Sprinkle top with grated cheese and baked in hot oven at 200ºc for some minutes
MUSHROOMS WITH TOMATOES AND PEAS
1medium onion, sliced
½to 1tsp ground turmeric
½tsp ginger
1tbsp vegetable oil
500g peas sauté and drained
250g mushrooms
2tsp lemon juice

1¼tsp salt
2medium tomatoes cut into wedge

METHOD
1. Cook and stir onion. Add turmeric and ginger over medium heat until onion is tender
about 3 minutes.
2. Stir in peas, mushrooms, lemon juice and salt. Stirring occasionally until peas are tender.
3. Stir in tomatoes, heat until hot.
VEGETABLE AU GRATIN (WITH CHEESE)

Suitable vegetable are celery, cauliflower, leek, onions, vegetable marrow or potatoes, or a
mixture of root vegetables including potatoes.
500g vegetable
300ml cheese sauce
2tbsp extra grated cheese
2tsp bread crumbs
METHOD
1. Boil the vegetables until tender. Drain them and keep it hot in a shallow.
2. Make the sauce within 150 ml vegetable water and 150 ml milk, add the cheese and taste.
3. Coat the hot vegetables with the sauce.
4. Mix the extra grated cheese with the crumbs and stew this all over the sauce.
5. Brown under a moderate grill.
POTATOES
Crisps (Game Chips)
1. Wash, peel and rewash the potatoes.
2. Cut in thin slices on mandolin.
4. Cook in hot deep fat until golden brown and crisp.
5. Drain well and season lightly with salt.

NOTE
Crisps are not usually served as a potato by themselves, but are used as a garnish and are also
served with drinks and for snacks.
Crisps can also be made from other root vegetables eg parsnips, carrot, beetroot, and turnips.
Vegetable straw can be made by the same method using any root vegetable or combination or
vegetables.
BAKED POTATOES
For a well-baked potato, wrap a scrubbed, dried and greased baking potato in foil. Bake a from
175 - 220º c for 40 to 50 minutes. Keep inside foil until ready to serve – it will keep hot and
most. Remove from oven, cut 2 crossed slits on one side, and pinch potato until it opens a slit.
Put a lump of butter or margarine in opening; sprinkle with paprika.
Baked Stuffed Potatoes: Bake as above, the cut in half lengthwise. Carefully scoop out potato
without breaking skin. Mash potato with butter or margarine, salt, pepper, and enough milk or
potato water to give a fluffy texture. Pile mixture into shell sprinkle with grated cheese and
paprika. Return to oven to brown.
Baked Stuffed Potatoes with Eggs: Prepare as above and, for every potato, add 1 chopped, hard-
boiled egg to the mixture.
Baked Stuffed Potatoes with Meat, Fish, or Vegetables: Omit milk in baked stuffed potatoes.
Combine potato with any leftover creamed fish or vegetable, or cooked poultry or meat
moistened with fat.
POTATOES ANNA 6 serves
6 medium-sized potatoes (about 1 kg), peeled and shiny sliced
6tbsp butter or margarine
1½tsp salt
¼tsp pepper, grated onion, grated parmesan cheese
METHOD
1. Lightly grease a frying pan with a heat-resistance handle or a shallow casserole, with
tight fitting cover.
2. Arrange the potatoes in slightly overlapping spirals until the bottom of the pan is filled.

3. Do with bits of butter. Add a sprinkling of salt, pepper, grated onion, and grated
parmesan cheese. Repeat with 2 additional layers.
4. Cover pan and bake in hot oven at 200ºc for 30 minutes. Remove cover and bake 5
minutes. Remove cover and bake 5 minutes longer.
5. To serve, invert on platter.
SCALLOPED POTATOES (BASIC RECIPE)

6 medium potatoes
3tbsp butter or margarine
2tbsp flour
600-800ml milk
1tsp salt
½tsp pepper
2tbsp chopped onion
Peel potatoes and slice thin. Melt butter in saucepan; blend in flour. Slowly add milk; cook
medium heat until thickened, stirring constantly. Put half the potatoes in greased casserole.
Cover with half the sauce, seasoning, and onion. Add remaining potatoes, seasoning, and onion.
Top with remaining sauce. Cover and bake in moderate oven at 180ºC about 1 hour. Uncover
and bake until top is browned.
Variations:
Scalloped Potatoes with Cheese (au gratin): Prepare as in basic recipe. Sprinkle each layer with
cheese. Or, cheese may be melted in white sauce.
layers with potatoes. Season to paste.
layers with potatoes.
Scalloped Potatoes with Meat: Pre-peel as in basic recipe. Add cooked diced or sliced leftover
meat, dried beef, corned beef, bacon, or harm. If desired, bake a slice of harm or minced meat
patties with the potatoes, placing it on the bottom of casserole, on the top, or between layers.

FARMERS BREAKFAST 4 servings
1,2kg potatoes (Irish)

50g bacon
4 eggs
1 onion
____________________________________________________
Sunflower oil
Salt, black pepper, paprika
____________________________________________________
4 pickled gherkin or tomato slice as garnish
METHOD
1. Boil the potatoes until they are cooked, peel them and cut into slices.
2. Cut the bacon and the onion into small pieces.
3. Whisk the eggs properly.
4. Fry the potatoes in a heated frying pan with sunflower oil. Add salt, black pepper and
paprika.
5. Fry the chopped onion and bacon separate.
6. Prepare a oven tray with potatoes, onion and bacon, pour the whisk eggs on top.
7. Bake them under 150º 15-20 minutes.
8. Serve them with a pickled gherkin or tomatoes.
FRIED OR CHIPPED POTATOES

1. Prepare and wash the potatoes.
2. Cut into slices 1 cm thick and 5 cm long.
3. Cut the slices into strips 5 x 1 x 1 cm.
5. Cook in a frying-based without colour in moderately hot fat.
6. Drain and place on kitchen paper on trays until required.
7. When required, place in a frying-pan and cook in hot fat until crisp and golden.
8. Drain well, season lightly with salt and serve.

NOTE
Because chips are so popular, the following advice from the Potato Marketing Board is useful.
 Cook chips in small quantities which will allow the oil to regain its temperature
more quickly; the chips cook faster and absorb less fat.
 Do not let the temperature of the oil exceed 199º C as this will accelerate the fat
breakdown.
 Ideally use a separate fryer for chips and ensure that it has the capacity to raise
the fat temperature rapidly to the correct degree when frying chilled or frozen
chips.
MASHED POTATOES
Boil potatoes. Force through a rice or mash well. Season to taste with salt and pepper. Add
approximately 100 ml hot milk and a 2 tbsp of butter or margarine, sour cream for every 5
potatoes. Beat well until light and fluffy. To keep hot, set oven pan of hot water or pile lightly
in casserole and place in slow oven.
MASHED POTATOES VARIATIONS
Baked Potato Puff: Add 1 egg York to 450 g mashed potatoes. Beat well. Fold in 1 stiffly
beaten egg white. Place in greased baking pan and bake in moderate oven 180ºC until brown.
Mashed Cheese Potato: Add 50 g grated cheese to 450 g mashed potatoes. Sprinkle grated
cheese and paprika on top. Brown in a moderate oven at 160ºc.
Mashed Potato with Fried Onions: Prepare mashed potatoes. Before serving, cover with
sliced fried potatoes.
Parsley Mashed Potatoes: Beat finely chopped parsley into mashed potatoes.
Mashed Potatoes with Pumpkin: Boil potatoes and pumpkin together, mash well and season
with salt and a tip of butter.
MASTER POTATO SALAD
Picnic Potato Salad Hints
One of the most popular of all picnic foods, potato salad must have potatoes and salad dressing
but you can add almost any combination of vegetables and seasonings to produce a delicious

picnic salad unlike any other. Potatoes for the salad are best when freshly cooked, although the
mixed salad can stand overnight for a better blending of flavors. Keep the picnic salad well
chilled until serving time, and for and attractive serving, first line plates with a layer of lettuce or
young spinach leaves. Of course, potato salad is more attractive when garnished with sliced
hard-boiled eggs, parsley, and strips of canned pimiento.
625g diced cooked potatoes, cooked in jackets
1tbsp grated onion
3tbsp French dressing
1tbsp chopped parsley
1tsp salt
¼tsp paprika, mayonnaise
METHOD
3. Combine ingredients; expect mayonnaise, tossing lightly with a fork. Chill 3 to 4 hours.
4. Just before serving add mayonnaise, mixing carefully. Serve on lettuce or watercress.
Hint: if the salad is too dry, add some milk!
Potato Salad Variations:
Potato salad with Celery: To master potato salad, add 100 g diced celery.
Potato-Egg-Salad: To master potato salad, add 100 g diced celery and 4 chopped hard-boiled
eggs.
Potato Salad with Carrots: To master potato salad, add 100 g finely cut cabbage.
Potato Salad with nuts: To master potato salad, add 4 diced celery and 75 g salted peanuts.
Potato Salad with cucumber: To master potato salad, add 100 g diced celery and ½ diced
cucumbers.
DUCHESS POTATOES
½kg potatoes
1 egg
25g margarine, seasoning
METHOD
1. Wash, peel and rewash the potatoes and cut into an even size.
2. Cook in salted water.
3. Drain off excess water return to heat to dry.

4. Pass through a sieve.
5. Add margarine and an egg. Stir in vigorously with a wooden spoon.
6. Place in a piping bag and pip out on to a baking sheet.
7. Place in a hot oven for 5 minutes. Remove from oven and brush with egg.
8. Brown again in a hot oven.
POTATO CAKES
Use duchess mixture moulded into flat cakes, 3 cm diameter, 1 cm thick. Shallow fry on both
sides in very hot oil and serve.
BEEF COOKERY
Beef Goulash
500g stewing beef meat
1glove garlic
2 medium onions
2cubes beef stock
800ml water
2tsp paprika
300g raw dices potatoes
METHOD
1. Cut meat into 1-inch cubes and brown in a little hot fat.
2. Add crushed garlic, sliced onions, seasonings, and stock cubes dissolved in hot water.
Cover and simmer 2½ hours.
3. Add 1 hot water and potatoes cut in ¾ inch cubes. Cook for 20 minutes longer, or until
potatoes are tender.
4. Season to taste and thicken, if necessary.
BEEF BURGERS (HAMBURGER, MEAT BALLS)
500 g minced meat
1 egg, breadcrumbs or whole wheat flour
2 tbsp chopped onion, optional, salt, black pepper (paprika,
Cayenne pepper)
METHOD

2. Shape into 4 thick or 8 thin patties. Brown on one side in hot fat. Do not press the
patties. Do not overcook. Turn to brown other side.
Sauce: When patties are done, remove from the pan. Add 2 tbsp flour, 1 tbsp Worcestershire
sauce or ketchup. Stir and pour over hamburgers.
BEEF STEW
500g meat
1 onion
3 tomatoes
1 carrot
25g flour
25g fat
375ml stock or water, salt, pepper
METHOD
1. Cut meat into neat pieces and season.
2. Heat fat in a saucepan; fry the meat until lightly brown. Remove meat from the pan.
3. Fry the sliced onion. Add flour and fry until roux is a rich brown colour.
4. Add water or stock season with salt and bring to boil.
5. Put in meat, add tomatoes and carrots diced. Cover the pan and simmer for 2 hours until
meat is quiet tender.
6. Sean well.
BEEF BALLS IN TOMATOSAUCE
500g minced meat
1 egg, breadcrumbs or whole wheat flour
2tbsp chopped onion, optional, salt, black pepper, (paprika,
Cayenne pepper)
METHOD

2. Shape into 12 – 16 balls. Brown one side in hot fat. Do not press the balls. Do not
overcook. Turn to brown other side.
TOMATO SAUCE
80g margarine
100g flour
1ml milk
1 small onion
500g tomatoes
Salt, black pepper, sweet basil
METHOD
1. Cut out the core and score an „x‟ on the base with a tip of a small knife. Immerse in
boiling water until the skin splits of. Transfer to cold water and peel off the skin.
2. Dice tomatoes and onion.
3. Melt the margarine and stew the onions without browning in a thick bottom pan.
4. Add flour and mix in, stir continuously until thickened.
5. Cook for a few minutes over a gentle heat without colouring. Add tomatoes; let it
simmer for a few minutes.
CURRIED BEEF
500g stewing beef
3tbsp oil
200g onions
1glove garlic
10g curry powder
10g tomato puree
½1 stock of water
25g chopped chutney
25g desiccated coconut

25g Sultanas
50g chopped apple, grated root ginger
METHOD
1. Trim the meat and cut into even pieces.
2. Season and quickly colour in hot oil.
3. Add the chopped onion and chopped garlic, cover with a lid and sweet for minutes.
Drain off the surplus fat.
4. Add the curry powder and flour mix in and cook out.
5. Mix in the tomato puree and gradually add the hot stock; stir thoroughly; bring to the boil
and season with salt and skim.
6. Allow to simmer and add the rest of the ingredients.
7. Cover with a lid and simmer in the oven or on top of the stove until cooked. Correct the
seasoning and consistency; skim off all fat. At this stage a little cream or yoghurt may be
added.
8. Serve accompanied with rice which may be plain boiled or pilaf.
DESSERTS
Bread and butter pudding
25g sultanas
2sliced white or whole meal bread, spread with butter or
Margarine
3 eggs
50g castor
2-3drops vanilla essence
½1 milk
METHOD
1. Wash the sultanas and place in a pie dish.
2. Remove the crusts from the bread and cut each slice into four triangles, neatly arrange
overlapping in the pie dish.
3. Whisk the eggs, sugar and essence.
4. Pour on the warmed milk, whisking continuously.
5. Strain on to the bread, dust lightly with sugar.

6. Stand in a roasting tray half full of water and cook slowly in a moderate oven at 180ºc for
45 minutes to 1 hour.
7. Clean the edges of the pie dish and serve.
GROUND RICE PUDDING

500ml milk
Pinch of salt
40g sugar
100g rice
METHOD
1. Bring milk to the boil and stir in rice, salt and sugar.
2. Boil gently for 5 minutes and then simmer for 15 – 20 minutes.
3. Serve hot or cold with cinnamon or fresh fruits.
STEAMED SPONGE PUDDING (BASIC RECIPE)
100g margarine or butter
100g castor or brown sugar
2medium eggs
10g baking-powder, few drops of milk
METHOD
1. Cream the butter or margarine and sugar in a bowl until fluffy and almost white.
2. Gradually add the beaten eggs, mixing vigorously.
3. Sieve the flour and baking powder.
4. Gradually incorporate into the mixture as lightly as possible keeping to a dropping
consistency by the addition of the milk.
5. Place in a greased pudding basin.
6. Cover security with greased grease proof paper. Steam for 1 - 1½ hours.
VARIATIONS

Vanilla sponge pudding: Add a few drops of vanilla essence to the basic mixture, and serve with
a vanilla-flavored sauce.
Chocolate sponge pudding: Add 25 g chocolate or cocoa powder in place of 25 g flour that is
125 g flour, 25 g chocolate to basic recipe. Serve with chocolate sauce.
Lemon sponge pudding: Add the grated zest of one or two lemons, and a few drops of lemon
essence to basic recipe. Service with vanilla sauce.
Sultana sponge pudding: Add 100 g of washed well dried fruit to basic recipe. Serve with
custard sauce.
VANILLA ICE-CREAM
4 egg yolks
100g castor or unrefined sugar
Vanilla pod or essence
375ml milk
125ml cream
METHOD
1. Whisk the yolks and sugar in a bowl until almost white.
2. Boil the milk with the vanilla pod or essence in a thick-based pan.
3. Whisk on to the eggs and sugar; mix well.
4. Return to the cleaned saucepan, place on a low heat.
5. Stir continuously with a wooden spoon until the mixture coats the back of the spoon.
6. Pass through a fine strainer into a bowl.
7. Whisk the cream and mix in. Freeze for at least 6 hours.
Variations include:
 Coffee ice-cream: Add coffee essence to taste to the custard after it is cooked.
 Chocolate ice-cream: Add 50-100g of chopped chocolate to the milk before boiling.
CHICKEN COOKERY
Chicken Noodle Casserole
200g noodles
200g mushrooms
300g diced, cooked chicken
100g dry bread crumbs

½ medium onion, finely chopped
2sprigs parsley, chopped
1tsp salt
1/8tsp black pepper
400ml hot chicken stock
30g chicken fat
METHOD
1. Cook noodle in boiling salted water, Drain.
2. Alternate noodles, mushrooms, and chicken in a well-greased casserole.
3. Sprinkle each layer with breadcrumbs, chopped onion, parsley, salt and pepper.
4. Pour hot stock over ingredients. Top with crumbs and dot with fat.
5. Cook uncovered in moderate over at 180º until top layer of crumbs is golden brown,
about 30 minutes.
CHICKEN-VEGETABLE-RICE-CASSEROLE
150g chopped cooked chicken

1 small jar chopped stuffed olives
150g cooked peas
50g cooked celery, chopped
1½tsp salt
¼tsp black pepper
1tbsp lemon juice
25g dripping or cooking fat
2tbsp flour
400ml milk
150g rice, cooked
25g melted butter
50g dry breadcrumbs
METHOD
1. Combine chicken, olives, peas, celery, salt, pepper, and lemon juice.
2. Melt fat and blend in flour, add milk gradually, stirring constantly to prevent lumping.
Cook until consistency of thin white sauce. Add chicken mixture to sauce.

3. Spread rice in buttered casserole. Pour sauce mixture over rice. Toss crumbs with
melted butter and sprinkle over casserole.
4. Cook in moderate oven at 180º for 25 minutes.
CHICKEN CURRY
large chopped onion
25g minced green pepper
2tbsp lemon juice
2tbsp tomato ketchup
400g cooked chicken & gravy
¼tsp curry powder
METHOD
1. Mince onion and green pepper. Add lemon juice, ketchup and crushed garlic clove.
2. Simmer together until sauce has cooked down almost dry.
3. Cut chicken into fork-size pieces.
4. Add chicken and to gravy to sauce.
MARYLAND FRIED CHICKEN
1.5kg young chicken
Salt and pepper
100g flour
2 eggs, slightly beaten
4tbsp water
100g dry breadcrumbs
50g margarine
50g lard
METHOD

1. Cut chicken in pieces for serving, wash and dry. Season with salt and pepper, roll in
flour, dip in slightly beaten eggs, dilutes with water, and roll in crumbs.
2. Sauté in margarine and pork fat in heavy frying pan until browned on all sides; cover and
place in slow oven at 140ºC for ½ to ¾ hour, or until tender.
3. If chicken weighs more than 1.5kg, add 100ml hot water to pan in oven.
4. Serve with cream gravy made from cooking juices in pan.
Chicken Cream Gravy: To 4 tbsp of cooking juices add 4 tbsp of flour. Stir until blended.
Slowly add 500-750 ml of milk or half milk and half cream. Heat slowly over low heat, stirring
constantly until thick and smooth. Season to taste.
FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN
1.25-1.5kg chicken
50g margarine
35g flour
½ litre chicken stock (or ½ litre water + ½ cube chicken
stock)
1-2 cream
4tbsp chopped parsley

METHOD
1. Cut the chicken as for sauté and season with salt and pepper.
2. Place the butter in a sauté pan. Heat gently.
3. Add pieces of chicken. Cover with a lid.
4. Cook gently on both sides without coloring. Mix in the flour.
5. Cook out carefully without coloring. Gradually mix in the stock.
6. Bring to the boil and skim. Allow to simmer gently until cooked.
7. Mix the yolks and cream in a basin (liaison).
8. Pick out the chicken into a clean pan.
9. Pour all back into the sauce, combine thoroughly but do not reboil.
10. Correct the seasoning and pass through a fine strainer.
11. Pour over the chicken, reheat without boiling.
12. Serve sprinkled with chopped parsley.
CHICKEN TIKKA
1½ chicken cut for sauté
125ml natural yoghurt
1tsp grated ginger
1tsp ground coriander
1tsp ground cumin
½-1tsp chilli powder
1clove garlic crushed and chopped
½ lemon juice
50g tomato puree
50g onions, finely chopped
60ml oil, salt
METHOD
1. Place the chicken pieces into a suitable dish.
2. Mix together the yoghurt, seasoning, spices, garlic, lemon juice and tomato puree.
3. Pour this on the chicken and mix well and leave to marinade for at least 3 hours.
4. In a suitable shallow tray add the chopped onions and the half the oil.

5. Lay the chicken pieces on top and gently cook in a moderate oven.
6. Baste with remaining oil.
7. Serve.
CHICKEN A LA KING
100g margarine
50g flour
¾tsp salt
Few grains black pepper
1½tsp aromat
1½tsp paprika
300g grilled mushrooms
1l milk (about)
600g diced cooked chicken
300g cooked peas
240g cooked rice.
METHOD
1. Melt margarine; blend in flour, salt, pepper, Aromat and paprika.
2. Drain liquid from mushrooms into measuring cup; and milk 800ml; add to first mixture.
3. Cook over low heat, stirring constantly, until smooth and thickened.
4. Add mushrooms, chicken, and peas.
5. Line oblong baking dish with rice. Fill the chicken mixture. Dot rice with butter.
6. Cook in slow oven at 160ºc for 15 – 20 minutes.
RICE
Rice Indienne
200g uncooked rice
375g chicken stock
25g margarine
50g sultanas or raisins
½tsp salt
25g browned silvered almost
METHOD

1. Combine rice, stock, margarine, sultanas or raisins and salt in the saucepan.
2. Bring to the boil and stir. Cover and simmer for 14 minutes.
3. Add almonds and mix lightly with a fork.

RICE MEXICAN
200g rice
1 small onion, chopped
25g margarine or lard
1tsp salt
½ medium sized green pepper, chopped
1-2tsp chili seasoning or cayenne pepper
200g tomatoes, boiled and skinned
375ml beef stock.
METHOD
1. Wash rice, sauté with garlic and onion in the hot fat until browned.
2. Add salt, green pepper, chili seasoning, tomatoes and stock. Cover and simmer about 20
minutes until rice is soft.
3. Remove a lid during the last 5 minutes to finish evaporation and allow mixture to dry out.
RICE PILAF
Pilaf, also spelled pilau, pilaff, and pilaw, is a term applied to any of Near Eastern dishes, usually
highly seasoned. The rice is often fried in butter or oil before the liquid is added; nuts, bits of
meat, poultry, or fisch are sometimes mixed in or served on top. The same term is often applied
to other gain dishes, for example Bourghol Pilaf.
200g uncooked rice
1 chicken cubes
350ml boiling water
50g slivered blanched almonds
METHOD
1. Brown rice lightly in uncovered heavy saucepan or frying pan with tight-fitting cover.
Stir occasionally to distribute heat evenly.
2. Dissolve stock cubes in water and add rice. Cover and bring to boil over medium heat.
Reduce heat to low and cook until rice is fluffy and done, 25 to 30 minutes.

3. Cook almonds in half the butter until lightly browned, stirring constantly.
4. Melt remaining butter with nuts, then mix with rice, tossing lightly with a fork.
RICE SAUTE
Sauter – To shallow fry in pan with a smaller quantity of fat or oil. Hence sauté –shallow fried.
PASTA
Lasagne
For the best lasagna, prepare traditional Bolognese meat sauce and béchamel sauce. The
Bolognese and béchamel sauces should not be too thick as the pasta absorbs the liquid while
cooking.
Preheat the oven to 180ºc. Butter an over proof 20 x 30 cm dish. Layer meat sauce, lasagna
sheets and béchamel sauce, starting with meat sauce and ending with béchamel.
The layer should be paring and are repeated (3-4 times) until all sauces have been used up. Do
not overlap pasta pieces. Sprinkle grated cheese on top.
Allow lasagne to stand for 30 minutes.
Bake for about 40 minutes or until pasta has softened and topping is golden brown. Stand
lasagna for 19 minutes before serving.
BOLOGNESE SAUCE
2tbsp oil
2clove garlic, crushed
1large onion, chopped
500g minced beef, lean
600g tomatoes, chopped
250ml beef stock (or 250 ml water + 1 cube beef stock)
250ml red wine or water
1tbsp tomato paste
1tsp mixed dried herbs
½tsp sugar
Salt and black pepper
METHOD
1. Heat oil in a large saucepan.
2. Cook onion and garlic until soft but not browned.

3. Add mince, stirring, until meat is browned and crumbly. Stir in the tomatoes, stock,
wine, tomato paste, herbs, sugar and seasoning.

BECHAMEL SAUCE
90g butter
75g flour
1litre Milk
METHOD
1. In a separate saucepan melt butter and add flour.
2. Cook for a minute, stirring until smooth. Remove from stove.
3. Add milk gradually, stirring continually.
4. Cook gently on low heat until thickened.
5. Season to paste.
TOPPING
125g grated cheese
PASTA WITH VEGETABLE
250g pasta
2l water
Salt
(Oil)
METHOD
4. Boil water with salt
5. Add the pasta (and oil) let it simmer for 8 – 12 minutes.
6. Drain the remaining water using a colander rinse with cold running water briefly.
150 – 200g carrots
150 – 200g green pepper
150 – 200g broccoli
1 onion
1 crushes garlic cloves
Salt, pepper, curry, sunflower
METHOD
1. Wash the vegetables, scrap or peel carrots, cut the pepper in small pieces.
2. Stew the broccoli in less water with salt.
3. Onions and garlic cut in small pieces.

4. Fry all vegetables in a frying pan with sunflower oil. Add the spices, fry until golden
brown.
SPAGHETTI BOLOGNAISE
Spaghetti alla Bolognese
25g butter or oil, optional
50g chopped onion
1clove garlic, chopped
100g minced meat
125ml vegetables stock
1tbsp tomato puree
Marjoram or oregano
100g diced mushrooms
Salt, mill pepper
100g spaghetti, cooked.
METHOD
1. Place 10g butter or oil in a saucepan. Add the chopped onion and garlic and cook for 4-5
minutes.
2. Add the vegetable stock, the tomato puree and the herbs. Simmer till tender.
3. Add the mushrooms and simmer for 5 minutes, the correct the seasoning.
4. Meanwhile cook the spaghetti in plenty of boiling salted water. Allow to boil gently and
stir occasionally with a wooden spoon. Cook for 12 – 15 minutes. Drain well in a
colander.
5. Return to a clean pan containing 10 g butter. Correct the seasoning.
6. Serve with the sauce in centre of spaghetti. Serve grated cheese separately.
MACARONI CHEESE
100g macaroni
25g butter
100g grated cheese
500ml thin béchamel
½tsp mustard
Salt, black pepper

METHOD
1. Plunge the macaroni into a saucepan containing plenty of boiling salted water.
2. Allow to boil gently and stir occasionally with a wooden spoon.
3. Cook for approximately 12 – 15 minutes and drain well in a colander.
4. Return to a clean pan containing the butter.
5. Mix with half the cheese and add the béchamel and mustard.
6. Place in an earthenware dish and sprinkle with the remainder of the cheese.
7. Brown lightly under the salamander and serve.
BAKING: RUBBED IN METHOD

Scones and Quick Rolls
Baking powder scone hints
For high, light, tender, piping hot, crusty scones.
1. Turn on the oven first as correct baking temperature is important for perfect results.
After assembling the ingredients and sifting them together into mixing bowl, measure fat
into mixing bowl and cut into flour mixture with pastry blender (or 2 knives used scissors
fashion) until finely blended. Mixture should look like coarse crumbs.
2. Measure the maximum amount of milk specified. Do not add all of it at first. Add
almost all of it, mix it in and see if the dough seems easy to handle. Then add the rest if
necessary. Too much milk makes the dough sticky and difficult to handle. Not
enough milk makes the dough stiff and the finished scones tough and dry.
3. Round up on a lightly floured board. Kneed very gently and quickly just too thoroughly
mix ingredients and even up texture. This means turning the dough 2 or 3 times – not
more than 15 to 20 punches with flour dusted hands. Too much handling at this point
makes the scones tough.
4. Roll dough or pat it out (with floured hand) until dough is ½ cm thick.
5. Cut with pastry cutter (dipper in flour first to prevent sticking). Cut as close together as
possible. (Leftover bits of dough should be fitted and pushed together, patted out and cut
– not re-rolled). Place scones close together on baking sheet for scones with soft sides –
or far apart for scones with crusty sides.

BAKING POWDER SCONES (MASTER RECIPE)
200g plain flour
3tsp baking powder
½tsp salt
50g fat
125-150ml milk or water
1-2tbsp sugar
METHOD
1. Sift together dry ingredients. Cut fat into flour with 2 knives or pastry blender until
consistency of breadcrumbs.
2. Add liquid, mixing lightly with a fork until a ball forms that separates from the sides of
bowl.
3. Turn out on lightly floured board. Knead gently ½ minute. Roll or pat floured biscuit
cutter.
4. Bake on ungreased baking sheet in very hot oven at 200º 12 to 15 minutes. Serve
immediately.
SCONES VARIATIONS:
Cheese scones: In master recipe add 25g grated cheese to dry ingredients.
Chive Scones: In master add 3 – 4 tbsp freshly chopped chives to mixture of flour and fat.
Fruit scone: In master add 75g chopped dates, figs, prunes, or raisins to mixture of flour and fat.
Nuts Scones: In master add 1 tbsp grated orange rind to mixture of flour and fat.
Peanut Scones: Substitute 75g peanut butter for fat in master.
Sour milk Scones: Follow m.r. Add ½tsp bicarbonate of soda, sifting it with flour. Use sour
milk for liquid.
SHORTCRUST (BASIC RECIPE)
Oven temperature: 200 grad gas no. 6
200g plain flour
100g fat 50g margarine / 50 g lard
½tsp salt

Sufficient cold water to mi to a firm dough.
METHOD
1. Set oven at 200 Grad, fairly hot.
2. Sieve flour and salt together into a mixing bowl.
3. Rub fat into four until consistency of fine bread crumbs is obtained.
4. Add cold water by the teaspoon, mixing thoroughly with a round blade knife until firm
dough is obtained. Knead lightly with fingers and turn out onto a lightly floured surface.
5. Roll out and shape according to use for which it is required.
6. Bake until golden brown.
Uses:
Sweet and savory dishes in the shape of pastries, open tarts, pies, sausage rolls, apple dumplings
etc. Baking temperature and time for cooking may vary with the thickness of pastry and size or
the dish used.
BAKING: CREAMING AND MELTING METHOD

Marble Cake
500g flour
2tsp baking powder
150g sugar
1 pinch of salt
250g margarine
4 eggs
125ml milk
50g sugar
30g cocoa
6-6tsp milk
METHOD
1. Cream butter until light; gradually add sugar, creaming until very light and fluffy.
2. Beat in eggs.
3. Mix and sift flour, baking powder, and salt. Add to creamed mixture alternately with
milk, blending quickly but thoroughly.

4. Divide batter in half. To one half add sugar, cocoa and milk. Blend well.
5. Place alternate spoonfuls of white and dark batter in well greased tube tin.
6. Bake in moderate oven (180ºC) 50 – 60 minutes.
7. Turn out on cake rack and cool thoroughly.
8. If desired cover top and sides with chocolate icing.
DELICIOUS CHOCOLATE CAKE

3 eggs, separated
120g flour
120g sugar
60ml sunflower oil
125ml hot water
25g cocoa
10ml baking powder
Salt
5ml vanilla essence
METHOD
1. Sift flour, baking powder and salt together.
2. Mix cocoa and hot water and allow cooling.
3. Combine egg yolks, oil, sugar, vanilla and cocoa mixture.
4. Add this to dry ingredients and mix well into cocoa mixture.
5. Whip egg whites till stiff and fold lightly into cocoa mixture.
6. Bake at 200ºC for 20 – 25 minutes.
7. Decorate if desired.
MUFFINS (MASTER RECIPE)
200g flour
3tsp baking powder
Pinch of salt
3tbsp sugar
1 egg, well beaten
200ml milk

3tbsp melted fat
METHOD
1. Sift together dry ingredients.
2. Combine egg, milk and fat. Add quickly to flour mixture, stirring only until just
moistened. Do not beat!
3. Drop batter gently by spoonful into greased muffin tins. Filling 2/3 full.
4. Bake in moderate oven at 180 - 200ºC 20 – 25 minutes.
QUICK FRUIT CAKE

80g sugar
2 eggs, lightly beaten
225g flour
pinch of salt
3tsp baking powder
300g mixed dried fruits
50g glace cherries washed and sliced.
METHOD
1. Line and grease a deep 18 cm round cake tin.
2. Cream the butter or margarine with the sugar until light and fluffy.
3. Gradually beat in the eggs, adding a little of the flour to prevent curding.
4. Mix the dried fruits and cherries with a spoonful. Fold the remaining flour into the
creamed mixture, and then fold in the fruit. Spoon the mixture into the prepared tin.
5. Level the top of the cake and bake in the moderate oven for 1 - 1¼ hour or until a skewer
inserted into the centre of the cake comes out clean. Leave to cool in the tin for 5
minutes; then turn out and cool completely on a wire rack.
MADEIRA CAKE
129g sugar
3medium eggs, lightly whisked
225g flour

Pinch of salt
3tsp baking-powder
Few drops lemon essence
Thin slices citron peel (optional)
METHOD
1. Heat oven to 180ºC. Grease an 18 cm cake tin.
2. Cream fat and sugar; beat in lightly whisked eggs with a little flour.
3. Add essence, and then fold in the remaining flour, salt and baking-powder.
4. Bake for about 1¼hours. Place peel on top after half an hour in the oven.
BAKING: YEAST DOUGH
White Bread (N-Dissolve Method)
700g bread flour
2tsp salt
15g fresh yeast or 1½tsp dried yeast
Pinch of salt
400ml water
METHOD
1. In a large bowl thoroughly mix flour, sugar, salt, and undissolved dry yeast
2. Heat oven low heat water until lukewarm.
3. Gradually add to dry ingredients and beat some minutes with the wooden spoon, scraping
bowl occasionally.
4. Stir in enough water of flour to make soft dough. Turn out onto lightly floured board;
knead until smooth and elastic, about 8 – 10 minutes.
5. Place back in bowl, cover; let rise in warm place, free from draught, until doubled in
bulk, about 1 hour.
6. Punch dough down; turn out onto lightly floured board; let rest 15 minutes. Place in
greased loaf tin. Cover, let rise in warm place, free from draught, until doubled in bulk.
7. Bake in hot oven at 180 - 200ºC about 25 – 30 minutes, or until done.
8. Remove after some 10 minutes and cool on wire racks.
NO-KNEAD WHITE BREAD (MASTER RECIPE)

180ml scalded milk

50g fat
30g sugar
1tsp salt
180ml water
1½tsp dried yeast
1 egg
550g sifted plain flour
METHOD
1. Combine milk, fat, sugar and salt. Cool to lukewarm by adding 180 ml water.
2. Add yeast and mix well. Blend in egg.
3. Add flour slowly. Mix until dough is well blended. Place in large, greased bowl.

YEAST ROLLS
Roll Dough (Straight-Dough Method)
180ml milk
50g sugar
1tsp salt
50g fat
2tsp dry yeast
225g plain flour
Additional 225 g plain flour (about)
METHOD
1. Scald milk. Stir in sugar, and salt. Cool to lukewarm.
2. Measure 180 ml warm water into bowl. Sprinkle in yeast. Stir until dissolved. Stir in
3. Add 225 g flour. Beat until smooth. Stir in additional flour.
4. Turn out on lightly floured board. Knead until smooth and elastic. Place in greased
bowl; brush with fat. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from draught, until doubled in
bulk, about 1 hour.
5. Punch down and turn out on lightly floured board.
6. Proceed according to directions for shapes.
Clover Leaf Rolls
Divide Roll Dough in half. From each half into roll. Cut into 9 equal pieces. From each piece
into 3 small balls. Brush sides with melted margarine. Place 3 balls in each section of greased
bun tins. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from draught, until in bulk. Brush lightly with
melted margarine. Bake in hot oven at 180ºC. Make 18 rolls.
Bowknots
When Roll Dough is ready for shaping, roll dough under hand to 1cm thickness. Cut in pieces
about 15 cm long. Tie in knots. Place on greased baking sheet.
Crescents

Divide Roll Dough into 3 equal pieces. Roll out each piece into circle about 15 cm in diameter.
Brush lightly with melted margarine. Cut into 8-pie-shaped pieces. Roll up tightly beginning at
wide end. Seal points firmly. Place on greased baking sheets, with points underneath, about 5
cm apart. Curve to form crescents. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from draught, until
doubled in bulk. Brush lightly with melted margarine. Bake in hot oven at 190ºC about 15
minutes.
Butterflies
When Roll Dough is ready for shaping, roll dough into rectangular sheet 0.5 cm thick and 16cm
wide. Brush with melted margarine. Roll up like Swiss roll. Cut into pieces 5 cm long. Press
across centre of each piece with knife handle or small rolling pin.
Snails
When Roll Dough is ready for shaping, roll dough under hand to form long pieces 1cm in
diameter. Cut into 20 cm length. Twist each piece by rolling ends in opposite directions. Coil
to form snail. Tuck end under edge of roll to hold it in place. Place on greased baking sheet.
Sweet Dough‟s
A sweet dough is a basic yeast-flour-liquid mixture containing more sugar, shortening, and eggs
than the dough for non-sweet (plain) breads and rolls. Some bread that is considered sweet
breads, such as Danish pastry, is made from a plain dough; the sweetness comes from the filling
they contain.
BASIC SWEET DOUGH (TRAIGHT-DOUGH METHOD)
An easy-to-handle kneaded dough for sweet rolls coffee cakes
125ml milk
75g sugar
½tsp salt
50g fat
3tsp dry yeast
2 eggs, beaten
750g plain flour
METHOD
1. Scald milk. Stir in sugar, salt, and fat, cook to lukewarm.

2. Measure into bowl 100 ml warm water. Sprinkle in yeast. Stir until dissolved. Stir in
3. Add beaten eggs and 300 g flour. Beat until smooth. Stir in remaining flour. Turn
dough out on lightly floured board. Knead until smooth and elastic.
4. Place in greased bowl; brush top with soft fat. Cover. Let rise in warm place, free from
draught, until doubled in bulk, about 1 hour.
5. Punch down and turn out on lightly floured board. Proceed according to directions for
shapes selected.
Swedish Tea Ring
Use ½ recipes for Sweet Dough and when it is light roll into a rectangular sheet about 2.5 cm
thick.
Brush with melted butter and cinnamon. Nuts or raisins may be added.
Roll Swiss-roll fashion and shape into a ring on a greased baking sheet. Cut with scissors at 5cm
intervals, almost though the ring. Turn each slice slightly on its side.
Cover and let rise until doubled.
Bake in moderate oven at 160ºC 25 – 30 minutes.
Ice while warm with glace icing. Sprinkle thickly with chopped nuts.
PIZZA
Pizza is the Italian word for pie; specifically a pie of Neapolitan origin with a crust of bread
dough that is spread with tomatoes or tomato sauce, cheese, oregano, and sometimes other
topping. It is eaten hot.
Dough
300g sifted flour Additional 50g sifted flour
2tsp dried yeast
Pinch of sugar
1½ tsp salt
2tbsp vegetable oil
TOPPING
4tbsp tomato puree

4tbsp tomato sauce
3tsp oriegano
1tsp salt
black pepper
4tbsp grated cheese
300-500g mixed vegetables or
200g pork sausage or
100g chopped mushrooms
or
200g salami
METHOD
1. Sprinkle or crumble yeast into the 100 ml water and stir until dissolved. Stir is pinch of
sugar, salt and vegetable oil.
2. Add flour and beat until smooth, then gradually stir in the additional flour. Dough should
be as soft ad biscuit dough.
3. Turn out on lightly floured board and knead until smooth and elastic.
4. Place in bowl; eventually brush top with soft fat. Cover and let rise in warm place, free
from draughts, until doubled in bulk, about 45 minutes.
5. Mix together tomato puree, tomato sauce, salt and spices.
6. When dough is doubled in bulk, punch down, spread on a greased baking sheet or divide
in half, form a ball and place on greased baking sheet. Press out with palms of hands into
circles, making edges slightly thick.
7. On each circle or on the whole baking sheet arrange half or the full amount of tomato
mixture; sprinkle other topping and at least grated cheese.
8. Let the Pizza increase again and bake in hot oven at 200º about 20 minutes. Serve hot.
BISCUITS
Brownies
100g margarine
50g plain chocolate
140g soft brown sugar
2medium eggs, beaten
½tsp vanilla essence

100g flour
1½g chopped nuts
METHOD
1. Heat oven to 180ºC. Grease a tin 28 x 18 cm.
2. Melt margarine and chocolate over hot water. Remove from heat and cool.
3. Stir in sugar and add eggs, mixture with vanilla essence.
4. Mix in flour, baking-powder, salt and nuts.
5. Pour the mixture into the tin and bake for about 25 – 30 minutes until top is crispy and
inside soft.
6. Leave in the tin until cold before cutting into squares.
BISCUITS “MAMA PILZECKER”
250g flour
1tbsp baking powder
1 egg
100g sugar
125g margarine
60g pounded groundnuts
METHOD
1. Knead all ingredients together. Divide the dough in 4 pieces.
2. Chill for not less than 30 minutes.
3. Roll out thin and use cutter forms. The remaining dough chill again until finish.
4. Bake on ungreased oven tray at 160º for about 10 minutes.
MELTING MOMENTS
100g margarine
4tbsp icing sugar
1tsp almond essence
Pinch of salt
100g plain flour
1tsp baking powder

METHOD
1. Cream margarine, sugar, almond essence, and salt until light and fluffy.
2. Add flour and baking powder and blend. Chill.
3. Form into balls, using a teaspoon of dough for each ball.
4. Place on ungreased baking sheet. Flatten with fork dipped in four.
5. Bake in moderate oven 160º for 8 – 10 minutes.
SCOTCH SHORTBREAD (MASTER RECIPE)
200g soft butter or margarine
150g sugar
250g plain flour
METHOD
1. Cream butter and add sugar gradually, blending thoroughly.

2. Add flour slowly and mix thoroughly to a smooth dough. Chill.
3. Roll out about ½ cm thick. Cut into desired shapes (small leaves, ovals, squares etc).
4. Flute edges if desired by pinching between fingers as for a pie crust.
5. Place on ungreased baking sheet. Bake in slow oven 150º about 20 – 25 minutes or until
golden brown.

FN Pamplet

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FN Pamplet

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FOOD AND NUTRITION

TOPIC 1: THE KITCHEN.

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 1

MOST OF ALL REMEMBER:

QN.1. Identify different kitchen layouts.

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 2

 Kitchen units-These may be tall,base,wall units, island units, peninsular units

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 3

SECTION 1.2 LARGE AND SMALL EQUIPMENT.

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 4

SMALL EQUIPMENTS USES

Cutting tools Peeling vegetables, slicing, cubing and

Paring knives Peeling, trimming and cutting eyes out

Palette knives Mixing, folding, scraping, turning pan

Grape fruit knives Segmenting grape fruit and oranges

Potato peelers Peeling fruits and vegetables and

Graters Breaking food e.g cheese, apples into a

Kitchen scissors Cutting rind off bacon, chopping or

Pastry cutters Cutting pastry, scones and biscuits,

Spoons,lifers and turners wooden Creaming, beating, shaping a cottage

Slotted spoon Lifting food from pans, serving food,

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 5

Pestle and mortar Crushing foods to paste or powder

Sieves Drum and bowl shaped sieves for sifting

Forcing bags Large sizes for mashed potatoes,

Pastry brushes Applying glazes e.g milk, egg and syrup

Balloon whisk Introducing air into mixtures,e.g

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 6

Chopping board/pastry board For chopping vegetables, rolling out

BOWLS Mixing ingredients together, e,g, batters,

Pudding Mixing ingredients together, cooking

PLATES AND DISHES Making tarts(e.g. apple),steaming

Pie dishes Cooking pies,crumbles,cauliflower

au gratin(using Pyrex dishes)

BAKING TINS Baking biscuits,meringues,bread rolls,

Bread tins Baking bread, cooking pates and meat

Deep cake tins Baking rich cake mixtures e.g. Dundee

Shallow cakes tins Sandwich tins for sponges and Victoria

Bun tins Baking small cakes,pies,batters,tartlets

Flan rings Making flans and quiches

Roasting pans Roasting joints and vegetables

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 7

Milk pans Heating milk

Kettles Boiling water

Casseroles Stewing and casseroling

FRYING PANS Cooking pan- cakes, omelets ,fried eggs

Deep Cooking chips ,scotch eggs or batter-

MEASURING EQUIPMENT Measuring weight

Measuring spoons Measuring volume of small quantities

Measuring cups Measuring volume

Liquid and dry measures Measuring of volume

Thermometers Measuring of temperatures

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 8

Coffee percolator For making coffee -coffee never boils

Filter coffee maker For making coffee -As above

-Easier to clean due to

SLOW COOKING - Can be used -Good for people coming

NORTHERN PROVINCE/2016/CGG&MMM Page 9

CONTACT -To toast sandwiches -Useful if the cooker is -Difficult to clean

-easy to clean if with a

Blenders(liquidizers - To make -Saves food preparation -use only small

-can be used in rooms

- Germs are destroyed.

Q.N.5. Demonstrate the choice, use and care of large equipment.