Water Recycling: An Overview

1. Introduction
Water is a vitally important resource that is often taken for granted. We expect the water to be there every
time we turn on the tap. We take long showers, and as a result waste a lot of water. Year after year, many
places in the world experience drought for months at a time. Some places like California seem to be in a
constant state of drought. An obvious solution to this water problem is water recycling. Water recycling is the
reclamation of water from wastewater. It can be done on many different levels, depending on what the
person or organization is willing to spend, and the purity of water that is desired. Everyone is a stakeholder
in this matter, because we all need water and require a basic level of sanitation. The option of recycling
water is appealing and can lead to a more efficient water use for everyone. Recycling water isn't a new
concept. Many ancient civilizations, including those in Egypt, used to recycle their wastewater by passing it
through various layers of sand and gravel to get rid of the solid wastes. After the water passed through the
sand and gravel, it would be poured back into the Nile which was used for just about anything. This provided
a primitive level of treatment to the water that has become so crucial today. Now with modern technology,
and the vast array of possible sources for wastewater, taking from sewage to storm run-off, water recycling
has the potential to provide a nearly limitless supply of water, given that there is more research and
development in the area.

1.1 Importance of Water Recycling

A main reason for recycling water is to reduce the need for fresh, potable water. By using recycled water,
communities can offset a large percentage of their water demand with water that is suitable for most
beneficial uses. This, in turn, lessens the reliance on fresh water sources, enabling them to be reserved for
more critical uses, and can also reduce the cost of water for the community in the long run. For example,
Haws Corporation currently uses 300,000 gallons of water per year and is expecting to reduce their water bill
by $180,000 annually due to using recycled water at 60 cents less per 1000 gallons. By doing so, they will
not only reduce cost but also help sustain the underground aquifers from which they currently pump fresh
water.

In times of increasing water scarcity, where the supply of freshwater remains static yet the demand steadily
increases, it is necessary to embrace alternative sources of water to balance the equation. Most often, water
is reclaimed not from pristine sources, but from wastewater, stormwater, and recycled water which can be
treated and used for a variety of beneficial uses. This is where water recycling—taking waste water and re-
purifying it so it can be used again—comes in.

1.2 Benefits of Water Recycling

Recycling water is now becoming a necessity. Ecosystems, drinking water supplies, and agricultural
practices are in need of clean water and at the same time producing more waste making it hard to maintain
clean water supplies. So reusing water for various purposes makes sense. It's cost-effective and entirely
possible. Recycling can be done on both scales, large and small. An example of a small-scale recycled water
application would be using treated wastewater for landscape irrigation. A large-scale application would be
recharging groundwater aquifers with recycled water. Between small and large applications, there are many
common water recycling methods. Direct potable reuse, which involves moving treated wastewater to the
intake of a drinking water treatment plant or distribution system. Indirect potable reuse, which involves
putting recycled water into a potable water supply through an environmental buffer such as a reservoir or
aquifer and Non-Potable Water Reuse, which is often used for irrigation, dust control, and toilet flushing and
is the least costly method. Each of these methods has its own challenges but generally this can open up the
door to the use of recycled water to substitute for applications needing high-quality water. There are many
reasons why we should recycle water. Water is a finite necessity and the most precious resource that living
organisms have, without it life could not exist. Providing a sufficient supply of water of adequate quality is
one of the best ways to assure the health of a community. Water is also necessary for economic success,
therefore finding ways to reduce the costs of water to industries is very important. The environment will
benefit if less water is diverted from rivers, lakes, and aquifers, reducing the harm to natural habitats and
wildlife. Water conservation and not using too much of it too quickly is key in avoiding water supply shortfalls
in the future. As world population grows and the demand for water increases, recycling will be a valuable
strategy towards assuring a safe and reliable water supply.

1.3 Challenges in Water Recycling

There are, however, a number of challenges that must be faced in order to increase the level of water
recycling. The primary challenge is to change the public perception of recycled water. People are generally
disgusted by the idea of recycled water and do not want to use it in their everyday lives. There is a
widespread public perception that recycled water is of a lower quality than potable (drinkable) water, no
matter how clean it comes out the other end of the treatment process. In a recent survey of public opinion on
the subject, when asked "which one of the following uses of recycled water would you find the least
acceptable," the majority of respondents selected "use of recycled water for drinking water." This was the
case regardless of the level of water scarcity in the respondents' home states. This points to a clear and
widespread aversion to recycled water, an attitude which will be a major obstacle to increasing water
recycling in the future. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that, although in a number of cases recycled
water is of a higher quality than water from other sources, the variability of recycled water quality is higher
than for other sources. This can be a major issue in terms of consumer confidence in recycled water. High-
quality recycled water can be used as a substitute for potable water in specific cases; however, it is
perceived to be more suitable for some uses rather than others. This leads into the second major challenge
in increasing water recycling.

2. Methods of Water Recycling

Industrial water recycling involves reclaiming waste water from an industrial source and purifying it for
certain reuses, such as cooling systems, boiler feed water, or the manufacture of a product (after further
treatment). There are many different methods of industrial water recycling, but they all have the same goal:
to reduce the impact of industry on the environment, save money that would have been used on mains
water, and act as a sustainable source for the future.

Rainwater harvesting, as the name suggests, involves collecting and storing rainwater that has been
released from the atmosphere before it reaches the ground. This method is very environmentally friendly
and can be a sustainable way of reducing mains water usage. The rainwater is usually collected from a
rooftop and stored in specially designed containers or even underground concrete tanks. This water can be
used for many things, such as washing the car, flushing the toilet, garden irrigation, or even as a drinking
water source with further treatment. This method can result in a significant reduction in the use of mains
water and, over time, can recoup the cost of installation.

One such method is greywater recycling. Greywater is the waste water from baths, showers, washing
machines, and sinks. It does not include water from the toilet or water contaminated with faeces. Greywater
can be recycled by collecting it and sending it through a series of filters and disinfectants to make it fit for
purpose. This water can then be used to flush the toilet or for garden irrigation, resulting in a saving of up to
70 litres of clean drinking water per person per day.

Water recycling is a scientific and intricate process with many methods that can be employed to ensure that
the recycled water is fit for purpose.

2.1 Greywater Recycling

Greywater is the wastewater that is produced from kitchen and bathroom sinks, laundry, and institutional
activities. It comprises no sewage from toilets or unhealthy waste flow. It is the largest source of wastewater,
comprising approximately 60-65% of the wastewater created within the typical household. By virtue of this
and the fact that much of the psychological state connected to sewage is absent, it is considered to be much
easier to treat and recycle than blackwater. Greywater is especially appropriate to be used in gardening and
for toilet flushing. This is because its nutrient content is about the same as that in the fertilizers usually
applied to these activities, and because plants typically thrive on water containing fewer nutrients and fewer
pathogens than is contained in the greywater. In fact, many current laundry detergents and powders on the
market contain a large proportion of sodium, which could be damaging to soil structure and plant growth.
Reusing the rinse water would actually help to maintain the balance of cation exchange properties in the soil,
leading to healthier plant growth. Sodium build up in the soil is really a problem that is connected to using
water; so if the water is recycled through the garden it may actually mitigate a problem caused by using the
same water!

2.2 Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting entails accumulating rain and runoff from structures for future use. Usually, this
involves digging a fish pond, tank, or setting up storage containers on a larger scale. It is a good way to
preserve water. Water quality is normally relatively high, and this system requires less treatment than other
sources of recycled water, saving both energy and chemical costs. By collecting and storing rainwater for use
during dry months, rainwater harvesting can complement other sources. The use of cisterns (small storage
tanks) to store runoff from rooftops provides high-quality drinking water for household use. Two incentives
for rainwater harvesting have been found in the southwest United States: the ability to reduce flash flooding
and the potential to capture surface water behind small check dams along with the cisterns. A small-scale
example of this system can be seen in the Channel Islands National Park, where they use large tarps to
collect rainfall in cisterns. The water is then filtered through a UV system and used in the park's residence.

2.3 Industrial Water Recycling

In industrialized societies, large industries are typically the greatest consumers of municipal water supplies.
The use of water in industry varies widely. It ranges from water as the primary product in industries such as
beverages, food, and pharmaceuticals, to water being used for cleaning purposes in industries such as
building and construction. Water may be used for cooling and heating, for example, the heat from an
electricity generating station may be dissipated by raising water temperature and then using a cooling
tower. Water is frequently used as a carrier of conveying solvents or chemicals and as a process component
in that it can be a direct or an indirect raw material. For example, it can be used in the fabrication of
semiconductors and in the manufacturing of paper. These different uses of water in industry may affect the
types of recycling practiced as some process waters are more amenable to recycling than others.

2.4 Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

According to usage, virtually wastewater can come from any of our activities involving water. We tend to use
water for various purposes, for example, domestic use of water includes washing, bathing, flushing the toilet,
preparing food, etc. Using water for cooling and heating processes is included in industrial usage of water,
and the other uses of water mentioned above. All of these activities result in the production of greywater,
and sometimes the water becomes mixed with various contaminants and dirt, ending up as black water. Due
to the similarity with greywater recycling, in Japan, there is a classification of the treated water based on
quality. The water that can be used for flushing the toilet and construction usage is called L3 water, the
water that can be used for car washing, plant watering, and other light activities is called L2 water, and the
water for cooking and drinking water equivalent is called L1 water.

Wastewater treatment and reuse involve a series of processes aiming to reduce the contaminants present in
the water and turn it into water that can be reused by humans and other organisms with minimal change or
harm to the environment. The fact that it is the treatment of wastewater, wastewater that can virtually be
obtained from any point sources such as kitchens, bathrooms, industries, etc., is what separates this method
from other recycling methods. There is a slight similarity between this method and greywater recycling, but
this method usually involves a larger scale and aims to treat the water to a higher quality.

3. Applications of Water Recycling

From the treatment facility, treated effluent may be transported through pipelines, canals or rivers to the
location where it is to be reused. Usually, this will be some distance from the point of treatment which will
often be near the source of the wastewater. Transporting the water can take place in a number of countries,
including the US, Spain, Israel, and Australia leading to some controversy and resistance. For example, in
2003, Arizona's state water and wastewater management agency declared that in the state, recycled water
soon will become more valuable than water from any other source. In New York City, in recent years, an
average of 1.2 billion gallons of treated effluent has been discharged per day into the river and the areas
that it is to be transported to may make good use of the treated effluent, so this discharge has a significant
opportunity cost and impact on the environment. The specific fate of the treated effluent upon reaching the
environment of interest or its final destination is considered in the sub-sections of this one.

A great deal of data on water recycling is focused on sources and treatment, as opposed to the uses of the
treated water. This is somewhat surprising because putting the water to a beneficial and productive use is
the final step of the treatment process and arguably the most important one. A report by the National
Research Council (1996) identified beneficial use as reusing the water to offset or augment the use of a fresh
water source or the use it was intended for, i.e. not discharging the treated effluent back into a river from
which water was withdrawn. It suggested that now is the time for a meaningful shift in water resource
management, moving away from what it termed the "one pass through" concept of water use, towards an
approach that exploits the value of treated effluent as a water resource.

3.1 Agriculture and Irrigation

Internationally, Israel has been the longtime leader for using reclaimed wastewater in agriculture and
irrigates approximately thirty thousand hectares with secondary effluent. Reclaimed water serves as a buffer
to offset reductions in fresh water allocations. The displaced fresh water is often routed to areas of higher
quality end use such as drinking water. This creates a chain reaction allowing the availability of lower quality
water for use in agriculture. In Orange County, California, recycled water has been used to supplement or
replace existing water supplies for agricultural irrigation and to increase instream flows for sensitive habitat
in various watersheds. The Orange County Water District's water replenishment project has targeted the
eventual recharge of recycled water for indirect use of offsetting seawater intrusion in the local groundwater
basins.

Once thought as a sink for wastewater, agriculture's reliance on low quality water sources and the significant
opportunity cost of using higher quality water for irrigation has been a rational driver for utilizing recycled
water in the agriculture and irrigation sectors. The 1992 United States "Federal Water Pollution Control Act"
defined irrigation return flow as a nonpoint source of pollution. This definition required those farmers who
"discharge" recycled water instead of using it exclusively on site to obtain National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permits. While providing elevation of recycled water above low quality surface
water supplies, this has also caused some farmers to refrain from using recycled water fearing future liability
of having to comply with clean water regulations.

3.2 Residential and Commercial Use

The residential and commercial uses of water are similar and are likely to be in close proximity, however
they will be dealt with separately here. Residential use of water occurs in households and includes a wide
range of activities that require water, such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, and lawn watering.
However, the single biggest use of water in this area is for watering gardens and lawns. There is an
increasing trend towards reticulated watering systems, primarily because they are more convenient for the
householder. These, however, use far more water than handheld hoses and gardeners are often unaware of
how much water is being used. This is an area where water recycling can have a significant impact.
Greywater, which is wastewater from all sources except for toilets, can be relatively easily treated and
reused for garden irrigation and toilet flushing. This represents a saving of potable water and can reduce the
load on stormwater drainage systems. Furthermore, the recycled water will be returned to the environment
via the same pathway it was extracted, reducing the impact on the environment. In areas where water
resources are scarce, such as Perth, it may be necessary to provide further treatment of greywater to allow it
to be used for garden irrigation and toilet flushing, but with ever-increasing strain on water resources, this is
likely to become more commonplace. This represents the best opportunity to reduce household water usage
and assist in preserving the environment, particularly in newly developed housing areas where dual
reticulated supply systems can be cost-effectively installed. Dual supply systems provide "Class A" water
(further information to be provided in 3.2.2) for internal use, and rainwater or recycled water can be used for
exterior uses. Although on a per capita basis, water savings will be small, the large number of households
makes this an attractive area for water recycling.

3.3 Industrial Processes

Beverage companies, an example of a water-intensive industry, may benefit from water recycling by simply
reusing the water in which it is not greatly contaminated. This water can subsequently be used in rinsing or
cleaning equipment. A paper mill, an example of a highly water-intensive industry, can make significant
progress with water recycling due to the wide scope of the industry's use and water pollution problem. Any
improvements in the industry's efficiency essentially result in reductions in fresh water demand. This can be
reflected in washing and cleaning, where the water can be used in a less contaminated stage for the same
purpose before switching to fresh water. The recycling of paper mill process and cleaning water in Japan can
be seen as a case in point of global restrictions on industry fresh water usage.

Using the former method, water recycling can be accomplished without a separate treatment stage. In a
chemical process, for example, heat exchangers can be installed to recover waste heat by using water that
is then discharged as hot water. This water can be rerouted and instead substituted with waste effluent or
cooler water that needs disposal. Heat exchanger leakage and minor spills can usually be recovered by
creating a sump that can be drained and refilled occasionally. This purloined effluent can be used for non-
critical purposes such as washing. With any success, the sum total of this recycling should result in a steady
decrease in fresh water demand.

Unfortunately, the wastage of water isn't peculiar to the general public. According to California's Department
of Water Resources, industry accounts for 9% of the state's water usage, while in arid districts such as the
San Joaquin Valley, the percentage can be significantly higher. Specific industries, such as chemical, paper,
food and drink, and refining normally have high demands for fresh water. Recycling and reusing is becoming
indispensable in these sectors to reduce costs and comply with environmental regulations. Recycling can
basically be implemented in two different ways: either directly within the process or by treating the
effluent/storm water and reusing the treated water.

3.4 Environmental Restoration

Use of reclaimed water for environmental restoration is one of the most recent, and also one of the most
promising, of the various water recycling applications. Since the mid-1970s, the Florida Department of
Environmental Protection had been experimenting with the use of reclaimed water for wetlands restoration.
When the South Florida Water Management District established a program to build constructed wetlands to
improve water quality and provide wildlife habitat in 1982, they began to utilize reclaimed water. This trend
spread across the Southeast, up the Atlantic seaboard and into California and the arid West during the
1990s. Throughout the 1990s and into the new millennium, a host of reclamation-based restoration projects
have been established to enhance river flow and improve the water quality of various receiving waters. One
such project took place in the floodplain of the middle San Pedro River in southeastern Arizona. The National
Forest Service developed an indirect system to recharge the river with reclaimed water from the local
communities in order to simulate the natural hydrologic conditions. This project received the AwwaRF
(American Water Works Association Research Foundation) Exemplary Project Award in 2003. In another
Arizona project, the city of Peoria initiated a program which would eventually lead to an agreement with
several New River communities, the New River itself, and the Arizona Department of Environmental Quality,
to help improve the water quality and enhance the base flow of the river. This is to be done through a point
source discharge permit which will help to regulate the discharge of reclaimed water into the river. Finally, in
the state of Virginia, the Town of Leesburg entered into a partnership with the Virginia Department of
Environmental Quality and the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation to use reclaimed water
to augment the flow of the Potomac River through the Goose Creek Watershed. This decision was made in
order to alleviate the demand for surface water and groundwater, and to conserve the natural resources of
the town. All of these projects and the many others not mentioned have been based upon the use of
reclaimed water to mitigate the adverse effects to ecosystems caused by natural and agricultural induced
changes in hydrologic conditions and water quality. This is an important and growing field within
environmental restoration and will no doubt yield positive results for various ecosystems in years to come.

4. Future of Water Recycling

New technologies will play a significant role in shaping the future of water recycling. Innovative approaches
in membrane technology will lead to higher quality recycled water. Membranes such as microfiltration and
ultrafiltration allow for physical filtration, removing particles regardless of their solubility. The most common
form of membrane filtration is reverse osmosis. This method has proven to be the most effective in removing
contaminants from water and is becoming more cost efficient with the development of more advanced high-
pressure pumps. Despite this, the future will see an increase in the use of advanced oxidation processes
(AOPs) such as ultraviolet radiation or the addition of chemicals. As the name suggests, this process involves
the generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals which attack and mineralize organic and inorganic
pollutants. This will be a key step in recycling water to potable quality as it is a more effective method of
killing persistent organic contaminants compared to the conventional use of chlorine. High-tech
advancements aren't solely based around treatment methods. An example of this is the development of an
online water quality monitoring system which is crucial to ensuring the safety of recycled water served to the
public. This particular system has been implemented by NEWater in Singapore. It continuously tracks key
quality parameters in the water and immediately signals an alert if there are any deviations from the
standard. The automation and continual supervision allow for a rapid response action and is a significant
improvement compared to the taking of manual samples.

4.1 Technological Advancements

The focus of technological research and development in water recycling systems in several countries was the
driver that raised this to the forefront. 21st century technologies offer more economical, higher performance
treatment systems for effluent and recycled water. New membrane technology, modular treatment plants,
the use of ozone as a disinfectant and an alternative to chlorination, UV radiation, and the development of
online water quality monitoring devices all have the potential to reduce the costs of recycling and increase
the safety and reliability of recycled water. In the past, recycled water was often of lower quality than the
water from whence it came, often due to its indirect potable reuse with the natural environment as a final
treatment step. Nowadays, with direct potable reuse becoming popular, recycled water quality goals are
surpassing those for conventional drinking water supplies. This requires transformation of the treatment
process to produce recycled water that is of higher quality and reliability than in the past, at a competitive
price. With direct potable reuse, the line between recycled water and drinking water diminishes and there is
no choice but to produce water that is of potable quality. Treated effluent is being used to recharge valuable
aquifer and groundwater resources, providing a high-quality source of water in the future. High technology
treatment processes with multi-barrier treatment trains are being employed to produce water of very high
quality and reliability.

4.2 Policy and Regulation

In Australia, there has been significant progress at both the state and federal level in the development of
regulations for water recycling. This has been supported by research to develop guidelines for the safe
application of recycled water which will have high utility in the absence of jurisdiction-specific regulations. In
other countries, there has been a lot of investigation and discussion, but less implementation of new
regulations. This was concluded during debate, the session led to a clear agreement that water recycling is a
valuable means of increasing water resources and that new policy and regulations are needed to enable it to
be pursued safely and effectively. Evident from the level of activity and success in various places around the
world, it can be anticipated that future policy and regulation for water recycling will be an active area of
research and development for many years to come.

The development of new policy and regulations can be a slow process and as a result, water recycling in
many places has been governed by regulations which were designed to control direct and indirect potable
reuse on the one hand, or to differentiate water recycling from planned indirect reuse with some
consideration for its benefits and risks on the other. In the United States, there has been increasing activity
in the development of state regulations for water recycling and this trend is likely to continue. This state-
level activity may eventually drive the development of new federal NWQS for water recycling.

Water recycling has been internationally recognized as a valuable and necessary means of augmenting
water supplies. Consequently, there has been increased interest in developing and implementing suitable
policy and regulations to govern water recycling. This is best accomplished when there is a clear
understanding of the benefits of water recycling, the potential health and environmental risks, and
knowledge about existing water uses and supplies and their associated needs and qualities. These issues are
being addressed to varying degrees in a number of countries around the world.

4.3 Public Awareness and Education

Education may take place using a variety of media including television, radio, newspapers, pamphlets,
hotlines, websites, direct mail, public meetings and presentations, workshops, and free water testing. It is
important to use culturally sensitive and appropriate materials that target the specific ethnic and age
demographics of the population. Of particular importance is targeting school children who can exert
significant influence on family attitudes and behaviors. A public prepared to use recycled water for potable
purposes may feel less resistant to the use of recycled water in an unplanned emergency situation. This may
be an opportune time to use some education on the reality of our water sources and the benefits of
introducing recycling as a 'drought-proofing' measure. Any media used needs to be an ongoing initiative as
studies have shown that the public quickly forgets information stated and demonstrated in a once-off
education program.

Public awareness and education has been identified in numerous country studies as vital to the successful
implementation of water recycling. Community acceptance of recycled water, or lack thereof, will ultimately
determine the success of a scheme. When beginning education processes on recycling, it may be beneficial
to draw from health education models used in developing countries when introducing new ideas on
preventative health maintenance. These models emphasize making the educational messages memorable
and include a clear demonstration of the link between the new idea and positive health outcomes. This
approach is particularly pertinent when educating the community on the safety of recycling and its similarity
to the treatment processes of potable water.