Mechanical Engineering Capsule

Youth Competition Times
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
CAPSULE
Useful for All Competitive AE/JE Exam :
UPPSC AE UKPSC AE BPSC AE CGPSC AE MPPSC AE RPSC AE UPSSSC JE

SSC JE DMRC JE LMRC JE JMRC JE BMRC JE DSSSB JE UP Jal Nigam JE
UKSSSC JE RSMSSB JE MPPEB SUB ENGINEER HPSSC JE HSSC JE
Punjab JE CGPEB SUB ENGINEER BSSC JE DRDO JE ISRO JE
UPPCL AE/JE UPRVUNL AE/JE JVUNL JE SAIL JE
GAIL JE BHEL JE NTPC JE DFCCIL
COAL INDIA LTD. JE RRB JE etc.
Chief Editor
A.K. Mahajan
Compiled & Written by
Er. Brijesh Kuamr
Computer Graphics by
Balkrishna, Charan Singh
Editorial Office
Youth Competition Times
12, Church Lane Prayagraj-211002
Mob. : 9415650134
Email : yctap12@gmail.com
website : www.yctbooks.com
Publisher Declaration
Edited and Published by A.K. Mahajan for YCT Publications Pvt. Ltd.
and printed by Laxmi Narayan Printing Press, Prayagraj.
In order to publish the book, full care has been taken by the editor and
the publisher, still your suggestions and queries are welcomed. Rs. : 150/-
In the event of any dispute, the Judicial area will be Prayagraj.
INDEX
Mechanics ...................................................................................................... 3-8
Strength of Material ................................................................................... 9-17
Theory of Machine ................................................................................... 18-34
Machine Design ........................................................................................ 35-43
Material Science ....................................................................................... 44-50
Production Engineering ........................................................................... 51-71
Metrology .................................................................................................. 72-75
Industrial ................................................................................................... 76-86
Engineering Drawing ............................................................................... 87-99
CAD-CAM, NC & CNC Machine ...................................................... 100-106
Robotics & Mechatronics .................................................................... 107-111
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine ............................................. 112-126
Hydraulic Machinery ........................................................................... 127-136
Thermodynamics ................................................................................. 137-146
Thermal Power Plant ........................................................................... 147-156
IC Engine .............................................................................................. 157-163
Refrigration & Air Conditioning ........................................................ 164-169
Heat and Mass Transfer ...................................................................... 170-176
Mechanical Engineering Capsule 2 YCT

Mechanics
Newton's law of motion Principle of transmissibility of force–
First law of It states that everybody continues in When a force acts on a body, this force may be
motion the states of rest or of uniform motion, assumed to be acting on all particles of the body
in a straight line, unless it is acted which lie on the line of action of the force.
upon by some external force to change Parallelogram law of forces–
that state.
Second law dP R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos θ
F∝
of motion dt
F = ma
Third law The forces of action and reaction
of motion between bodies in contact have same
magnitude, same line of action but
opposite in direction.
Newton's Every particle of matter attracts every

law of other particle of matter a force directly
gravitation proportional to the product of the
masses and inversely proportional to Q sin θ P sin θ
tan α = tan β =
the square of the distance between P + Q cos θ Q + P cos θ
then.
Case Resultant
m1m 2
F=G I. If two forces are like parallel R=P+Q
r2
θ=0 o
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N-m2/kg2

II. If forces are unlike parallel R=P–Q
Types of forces
θ = 180 o
Coplanar Line of action of all forces lying on

III. If forces are perpendicular
forces single plane R = P2 + Q2
θ = 90 o
None- Line of action of all forces are not
coplanar lying on a single plane. IV. If magnitude of two forces α = θ/2
forces are same
Concurrent Line of action of all forces passes Law of triangle of forces–
forces through a single point. If three forces acting a point are in equilibrium, then
None Line of action of all forces do not pass their magnitude & directions can be represented by
concurrent through a single point. successive sides of a triangle.
forces Lami's theorem–
Collinear Line of action of all forces passes
forces through a single line.
Parallel Line of action of all forces are parallel
forces to each other.
(a) Like Line of action of all forces are parallel
to each other in same direction P Q R
parallel = =
forces sin α sin β sin γ
(b) Unlike Line of action of all forces are parallel Law of polygon of forces– If all the forces acting at
parallel to each other in different direction. a point can be represented by successive sides of a
forces closed polygon, then forces will be in equilibrium.
Resolution of forces Geometrical representation of moment of a
force–
• If magnitude & direction of forces are known then

there will be only one resultant of definite Suppose a force 'P' is acting along AB on a body. Body
magnitude & direction. is free to rotate about a fixed point.
R sin β R sin α Moment of a force = 2 × area of ∆OAB
P= Q=
sin ( α + β ) sin ( α + β )
Resolution of force in two perpendicular Varignon's Algebric sum of moment of two

direction– theorem coplanar forces about a point is equal
to the moment of resultant force about
that point.
Principle If algebric sum of moments of all
of moment forces acting on a body about a point is
zero, then body will be in state of
P = R cos α Q = R sin α
rotational equilibrium ∑M = 0
Resolution of concurrent coplanar forces– Lever
Principle of lever–
An ideal lever works on principle of moments when
the lever is in equilibrium.
Load Effort arm
M.A. of lever ⇒ =
Effort Load arm
Class I lever • Fulcrum is between effort & load

MA ≥ 1
• {may be}
MA < 1
Ex. ⇒ Scissors, see-saw, claw

∑ Fx = F1 cos θ1 + F2 cos θ2 + F3 cos θ3 + F4 cos θ4 + ... hammer etc.
∑ Fy = F1 sin θ1 + F2 sin θ2 + F3 sin θ3 + F4 sin θ4 + ... Class II lever • Load is in between effort &
fulcrum
( ∑ Fx )2 + ( ∑ Fy )
2
Resultant force, (R) =
• MA > 1
Direction of resultant– Ex. ⇒ Wheel barrow, lemon
• If resultant is inclined at θ angle with X axis crusher, nut cracker, paper cutter.
∑ Fy Class III lever • Effort is in between fulcrum &
tan θ =
∑ Fx load
Moment– • MA < 1
• Vector quantity Ex.⇒ Sugar tongs, forearm used
• Moment of force = Force × Perpendicular distance for lilting a load.

Friction– • Path of projectile is parabola.
Time of flight 2u sin θ
(T) =
g
Range u 2 sin 2θ
(R) =
g
Maximum height u 2 sin 2 θ
(H) =
2g
Condition for maximum α = 45o
range
u2
Law of static friction Law of kinetic friction R max =
2g
• Frictional force (fS) ∝ • µs > µ k
Normal reaction (RN). • Force of dynamic Body projected upward Body projected
• Frictional force is friction is to inclined plane downward inclined
independent of surface independent of plane
area of contact. relative motion.
• Frictional force depends • Force of friction is
upon surface roughness. opposite to relative
• Friction force depends motion.
upon materials of
2u • T = 2u sin ( α + β )
surfaces in contact. • T= sin ( α − β )   
g cos β  g cos β
• Coefficient of friction (µ) =
u2 u2
f • R= • R=
f ∝ RN , f = µ RN, µ= g cos 2 β g cos 2 β
RN
sin ( 2α − β ) − sin β 
f = Friction force RN = Normal reaction sin ( 2α + β ) + sin β 
• Limiting friction– • Condition for maximum
range–
f lim = µS × R N • For maximum range
β
• Kinetic friction– α = 45o + β
2 α = 45 −
f K = µK × R N fS > f K 2
µS > µ K Maximum height Motion of an object

obtained by an object falling freely under
• Angle of friction– thrown in upward gravity
tan θ = µS θ = tan −1 ( µs )
• Angle of repose– It is angle of inclination of the

plane to the horizontal, at which the body just begins
to move down the plane.
α=φ
• Maximum height • Velocity before
Angle of inclination of plane = Angle of friction. 2 hitting the ground
u
Projectile motion– H=
2g v = 2gH
• Time taken by object to • Time taken by object
2 reach the ground.
1 gx to reach the ground.
y = x.tan θ −
2 u 2 cos 2 θ 2u 2H
t= t=
g g

System of pulleys– Semicircle 1 2 r 4r
n πr
First system of pulleys Velocity ratio (VR) = 2 2 3π
Second system of pulleys VR = n Quadrant 1 2 4r 4r
πr
Third system of pulleys VR = 2n – 1 circle 4 3π 3π
n = number of pulleys Three 3 2 4r 4r
Motion of a lift– πr
quadrant 4 9π 9π
Lift is moving upward Lift is moving circle
downward Centre of gravity for given area–
a1x1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 + ........
x=
a1 + a 2 + a 3 + .......
a1 y1 + a 2 y2 + a 3 y3 + ........
y=
a1 + a 2 + a 3 + ......
• R–mg = ma • mg – R = ma • Centre of gravity for remains part after cut out a
• R = m (g + a ) • R = m (g − a ) lamina–
Screw jack–
p
tan α =
πd a1x1 − a 2 x 2 a1 y1 − a 2 y 2
x= y=
a1 − a 2 a1 − a 2
Effort required
•For raising the load P = W tan (α + φ) Mass moment of inertia–
• For lowering the load P = W tan (α – φ) Shape Name I
Note– Rod mL2

1. When friction is neglected then φ = 0 12
Po = W tan α Rod mL2 sin 2 θ
2. The efficiency of screw jack– 12
tan α
η=
tan ( α + φ ) Ring mR2
3. The efficiency of screw jack is maximum–
φ
α = 45 −
2
Disc mR 2
1 − sin φ
ηmax =
1 + sin φ 2
i Centroid of regular plane figure

Lamina Area x y
Right angle 1 b h Hollow mR2
b.h cylinder
Triangle 2 3 3
Solid mR 2
Rectangle b.h b h
cylinder 2
2 2

Spherical 2 u = Initial velocity of body, v = Final velocity,
mR 2
shell 3 t = Time, a = Uniform acceleration,
s = Distance covered, ω = Final angular velocity,
ωo = Initial angular velocity,
Solid 2 θ = Angular displacement, α = Angular acceleration.
mR 2
sphere 5 • Distance covered in nth second–
a
Sn = u + ( 2n − 1)
2
Rectangular
plate
(
m a 2 + b2 ) Motion of particle in a plane (2D motion)–
12 Velocity Acceleration
dx d ( vx )
• (vx) = • (ax) =
Square dt dt
ma 2
plate 6 • vy =
dy
• ay =
( )
d vy
dt
dt
Area moment of inertia– • vresultant = v 2x + v 2y
• aresultant = a 2x + a 2y
3
bd
• About x axis I XX =
Rectangular 12 P2
Momentum– P = mv KE =
section 2m
db3
• About y axis I YY =
12 Impulse momentum theorem–
Impulse = change in momentum
BD3 bd 3
• About x axis I XX = −
Hallow
rectangular
12 12 ∫
Impulse ( J ) = Fdt = ∆ P = Pf - Pi
3 3
section DB db Law of conservation of momentum–
• About y axis I YY = −
12 12 If Fext. = 0 then,
initial momentum = final momentum
Circular πD 4
IXX = IYY
section 64 m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1v1 + m 2 v2
• About an axis Angular momentum– L = Iω
passing
Conservation of angular momentum–
through its 3
bh If Text. = 0 then,
centre of IG =
Triangular 36 initial angular momentum = final angular momentum
gravity and
section parallel to the I1ω1 = I2 ω2
base Simple harmonic motion–
• About the bh 3 From From
IB =
base 12 origin extreme
Equation of motion– position
For linear motion For circular motion Displacement x A sin ωt A cos ωt
• v = u + at • ωw = ωo + αt Velocity v = ±ω A ω cost ωt –A ω
A −x2 2 sin ωt
• v2 = u2 + 2as • ω2 = ωo2 + 2αθ
• s = ut +
1 2
at • θ = ωo t +
1 2
αt Acceleration –ω2x –Aω2 sin ωt –Aω2
2 2 cos ωt

Time period for different pendulum– Principle of transmissibility of force– When a
Type of pendulum Time period force acts on a body, this force may be assumed to
Simple pendulum be acting on all particles of the body which lie on
ℓ
T = 2π the line of action of the force.
g
Spring-mass system m Principle of • It states that for a body to be in
T = 2π
k virtual equilibrium, the virtual work should be
Compound pendulum work zero.
k G2 + h 2
T = 2π If, P1 , P2 ........ Pn = force
g.h
δ1, δ2 .......... δn = corresponding
Conical pendulum ℓ cos θ displacement
T = 2π
g M1, M2 ..........Mn = moment
• Time period of second's pendulum is 2 second. δθ1, δθ2 ........... δθn = Corresponding
• Equivalent length of compound pendulum is– angular displacement
P1δ1+ P2δ2 ...+ M1δθ1 + M2δθ2 + ... = 0
k2 + h2
L= G Centre of percussion–
h
Truss– • Point at which a blow may be struck on a suspended
Plane truss If all members lie in a single plane body on a suspended body so that the reaction at the
support is zero.
Space truss Consists of members joined together
at their ends to form a stable 3D
structure.
Plane truss Space truss

Statically m = 2j – 3 m = 3j – 6
determinate
Statically m > 2J – 3 m > 3j – 6 • Centre of percussion is always below the centre of
indeterminate k G2
gravity. (ℓ) =
Unstable truss m < 2j – 3 m < 3j – 6 h
Collision between two bodies • The distance between the centre of suspension (O) &
Perfectly • Initial kinetic energy = Final kinetic the centre of percussion (C) is equal to equivalent
elastic energy length (L) of simple pendulum
collision •e=1 L = ℓ+h
• Velocity of approach = Velocity of
• Centre of suspension (O) and centre of percussion
separation
(C) are interchangeable
• u1 – u2 = v2 – v1
D'-Alembert's principle–
Perfectly •e=0
• It is used for analyzing the dynamic problem which
inelastic • (KE)loss = (KE)initial – (KE)final
collision can reduce it into a static equilibrium problem.
Partially •0<e<1 • It is an alternative form of Newton's second law of
elastic • Velocity of separation = e (velocity of motion.
approach) • F = ma (Newton's second law)
• v2 – v1 = e (u1 – u2) • F + (–ma) = 0 (D' Alembert's principle)
• Coefficient of restitution (e) = Where,
Velocity of separation along line of impact F = Real force,
Velocity of approach along line of impact (–ma) = Inertia force or Fictitious force

Strength of Material
Types of Material Relation between E, G, K & µ
Homogeneous A material which have same • E = 2G (1+µ)
Material elastic properties at any point in a
given direction. • E = 3K(1−2µ)
Isotropic Material This material has same 9KG
• E=
identical properties in all 3K + G
direction at a point. 3K − 2G
Anisotropic It has different properties in all • µ=
6K + 2G
Material direction at a point in the body.
Orthotropic A material which has different
Material properties in three mutually Types of Total number of No. of
perpendicular planes. Material Elastic Independent
Material Poission's Ratio Constants Elastic Constant
Cork - 0
Homogeneous 4 2
Glass - 0.02 - 0.03
and Isotropic
Cast Iron - 0.23 - 0.27
Elastic Material - 0.25 - 0.40 Orthotropic 12 9
Steel - 0.27 - 0.33 (wood)
Rubber - 0.50 Anisotropic ∞ 21
Human Tissues - –1
Axial Elongation in Different Types of Bar–
Wrought Iron - 0.30
Concrete - 0.10 - 0.20 Type of bar Elongation due to
Elastic Constant external load
Elastic Constant Formula Prismatic bar
Young's Modulus or Longitudinal Stress Pl σl
E= δl = =
Modulus of Elasticity Longitudinal Strain AE E
σ Fl
= =
ε δl× A
Circular tapered bar 4Pl
Modulus of Rigidity/ Shear stress τ δl =
Shear Modulus G= = π d1d 2 E
Shear strain φ
Poisson's Ratio Lateral Strain δd / d
µ=− =−
Linear Strain δl / l Rectangular tapered bar b 
Pl loge  2 
Bulk Modulus Direct stress σ  b1 
K= = d δl =
Volumetric Strain ε v (b2 − b1 )Et
Load with respect time t = thickness
Type of load Stress Composite bars P = P1 + P2
Gradual P Change in length
load σ=
A P1L PL
δ1 = δ 2 = = 2
A1E1 A 2 E 2
Impact W 2hAE  A1E1
σi = 1 + 1 +  P1 = ×P
load A Wℓ  A1E1 + A 2 E 2
A2E2
P2 = ×P
Sudden load σsudden = 2σ A1E1 + A 2 E 2

Types of bar Elongation due to self (4) Case 4 : Taper section
weight
d2
1. Prismatic 1 σ 2max σ th = Eα∆t
bar U= d1
2 E
wl 2
ρgl 2 True stress and strain & there relation with
= = engineering stress and strain-
2E 2E
(w or γ = ρg) Stress Strain
2. Uniform tapering WL γl 2 P ℓ 
or conical bar δlc = = σT = ε T = ℓn  i 
6AE 6E Ai  ℓo 
or
1 Wl 1
δlc = × = × δlP σT = σ (1 + e ) ε T = ℓn (1 + e )
3 2AE 3
3. Prismatic bar due PL WL Modulus of Elasticity for different types of Material
to external load & δl = + Material Young's Modulus (E)
self weight AE 2AE
(MPa)
Thermal Stress 5
Steel 2×10
(1) Case 1 : Free expansion or
contraction :- Copper 1.17×105
σth = 0 (No thermal stress) Cast Iron 1.7×105
(2) Case 2 : Fully prevented-
Timber (wood) 0.10×105
σth = Eα∆T, δℓ = 0
Aluminium 0.70×105
(3) Case 3 : Partially prevented
Glass 0.80×105
E ( ℓα∆T − x )
σth =
ℓ
Stress strain curve for different material

For ductile material For different types of material
Resilience-(Energy absorbed by body within Proof resilience –(Energy Modulus of Toughness–

elastic limit) absorbed by body upto elastic
limit)
Modulus of resilience –(Proof

resilience per unit volume)
1 σ 2max
U=
2 E

Theory of failure • Tangential or shear stress, τ =
Theory Given by Suitable Graphical  σx − σ y 
= −  sin2θ + τ xy cos2θ
for representation
 2 
Material
Maximum Rankine Brittle 2τ xy
• Principal Plane tan 2θ =
Principal σx − σ y
Stress or Case-1 : Uniaxial or 1 D load :
normal
P
stress
(Rectangular) •Normal Stress(σn)= cos 2 α
A
Maximum St. Brittle P
Principal Venants •Shear stress(τ)= sin 2α
Strain 2A
P
•Resultant stress (σr)= cos α
A
(Rhombus) Case-2 : 2D- Biaxial (Mohar's Circle)
Maximum Guest & Ductile
Shear Stress Trasca's
Maximum High & Ductile

Strain Beltrami
Energy
σ1 = Major principal stress (normal)
σ2 = Minor principal stress (normal)
2
σx + σy  σ − σy 
Maximum Vonmises Ductile • σ1 = +  x  + τ xy
2
Shear Strain and 2  2 

Energy Hencky 2
σx + σy  σ − σy 
• σ2 = −  x  + τ xy
2
2  2 
• Radius of Mohor's circle (τmax)
Principle stress/Principal strain 2
σ1 − σ 2  σx − σ y 
 + τ xy
2
Normal stress & shear stress on any plane : = = 
2  2 
• Normal stress, (σn) =
(σ x + σ y )  σx − σ y 
+
2  σ x + σ y
• Center Mohor's circle = 
 
 ,0 
 cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2  2   2  

Strain in diagonal due to φ 2
Principal strain sin θ
shear (τ) 2
Maximum shear φ  e1 − e 2 
φ   = 
strain    2  max  2 
Strain in diagonal due to excos2 θ  2 max
σx Principal strain (e1,2) 2
ex + ey  ex − ey   φ 
2
Strain in diagonal due to eysin θ

2 ±   + 
σy
2  2  2
Shear force and Bending moment diagram

dV
• Rate of change of shear force is equal to load = −W
dx
• Rate of change of bending moment along the length of beam is equal to
dM
shear force =V
dx
Shape
Beam
SFD BMD

Bending of Beam Solid Circular πD 4 πD3
I XX = I YY = Z=
M σb E section 64 32
• Bending equation- = =
Hollow circular π ( D 4
− d4 ) π
I y R
section
I XX = I yy =
64 Z= ( D4 − d 4 )
Where, σb = Bending stress an any section 32D
y = Distance of any layer from N.A. Diamond section a4 a3
Id = Z=
M = Resisting bending moment. 12 6 2
I = Area M.O.I. about N.A. Square section a4
a3
R = Radius of Curvature I xx = I yy = Z=
12 6
Bending stress- M× y
σb = Section (τmax/τavg ) = r
I
Section modulus of I F
Z= if Z ↑→ Strength↑ • τavg =
beam (Z) y bh
3 F
Radius of curvature (R) EI • τmax =
R= 2 bh
M
3
Flexural Rigidity E×I • r=
2
Some Important M.O.I. & section modulus F
• τavg =
Cross Section M.O.I Section Modulus bh / 2
I 3 F
Z= • τmax =
y 2 ( bh / 2 )
Rectangular bd 3 db3 bd 2 4 F
I XX = I yy = Z= • τNA =
section 12 12 6 3 bh / 2
bd 3 3
Ibase= • r=
3 2
Triangular bh 3 bh 2 4F
I XX = Z= • τavg =
section 36 24 πD 2
bh 3 16 F
I base = • τmax =
12 3 πD 2
bh 3 4
Itop = • r=
4 3

Design of shaft–
(Design of shaft subjected to combined twisting &
bending moment)
According to According to maximum
maximum shear stress normal stress theory
theory
1 2 •
• τ max = σ b + 4τ 2
2 1 1
( σb )max =
σb + σ b2 + 4τ 2
16T 32M 2 2
τ = 3 , σb =
πd πd 3 16T 32M
τ = 3 , σb =
πd πd 3
16 16 
• τmax = M2 + T2 • σb max = M + M2 + T 2 
πd3 πd3  
• Te = M 2 + T 2 1
• Me = M + M2 + T2 
2 
Deflection of beam
• Relation between loading, S.F., B.M. Slope &
Torsion
deflection –
T τ Gθ
• Pure torsion equation- = = , Where, Deflection equation EI.y
J R L
T = Torque, J = Polar moment of inertia
Slope equation  dy 
EI  
τ = Shear stress, R = Radius of shaft  dx 
G = Shear modulus, θ = Angle of twist Moment equation  d2 y 
L =Length of shaft EI  2 
T × R 16T  dx 
• Shear stress- τ = = Shear equation
J πD3  d3 y 
EI  3 
π  dx 
• Torque (T) = × τ × D3
16 Load equation  d4 y 
2πNT EI  4 
• Power transmitted by shaft ( P ) = k.W
60 × 1000  dx 
J Method to Determine Slope and Deflection–
• Polar section modulus (ZP) =
R 1. Double Integration Method
π 2. Macaulay's Method
• Strength of solid shaft- Ts = × τD3
16 3. Area Moment Method/ Mohr's Method
π 4. Strain energy Method
• Polar M.O.I of solid shaft- J = d 4
32 5. Conjugate Beam Method
π 6. Superposition Method
• Polar M.O.I. of Hollow shaft- J = ( D 4 − d 4 )
32 Maximum slope (θmax) & deflection (ymax) under
THollow D 4 − d 4 different loading condition-
• Ratio of torque- =
TSolid D4 Beam (θmax) (ymax)
ML ML 2
Connection of shaft
EI 2EI
Parallel Series
WL2 WL3
2EI 3EI
wL3 wL4
T1 = T2 = T, θ = θ1 + θ2 6EI 8EI
T = T 1 + T 2, θ1 = θ2

wL3 wL4 • Case- 4 : Strain energy due to torsion in solid shaft
24EI 30EI 1 τ2
U= Tθ = × Volume of Shaft
2 4G
WL2 WL3
16 EI 48EI • Case-5 : Strain energy due to torsion in hollow shaft-
wL3 5 wL4 τ2  D 2 + d 2 
U= ×  × Volume of shaft
24EI 384 EI 4G  D 2 
π 2
3 4
V=
4
( D − d2 ) L
wL 5 wL
120EI 192 EI • Case 6 : Strain energy due to bending-
M 2x dx
U=∫
2EI
ML yc = 0 Types of Beam Strain Energy
24EI
W 2l 3
ML ML2 6EI
2EI
( yc )max =
8EI
θA = θB = 0 WL3
( y max ) = w 2l 5
192EI
40EI
θΑ = θΒ =0 wL4
( y max ) =
384EI
W 2l 3
96EI
Strain energy
• The energy absorbed or store by the material is called w 2l 5
strain energy 240EI
• Strain energy under elastic limit-
Strain energy = Work done on body W 2l 3
U = Area under curve 384EI
1
U= × δℓ × P
2
w 2l 5
• Case 1 : Due to axial loading on uniform bar- 1440EI
P2L σ2 V
U= U=
2AE 2E M 2l
• Case 2 : Uniform bar having under it's own weight- 2EI
w 2 Aℓ 2
U= Analysis of thin cylinder
6E
• Case- 3 : Strain energy due to shear load-
τ2
U= ×V
2G

t 1 • Critical load (Pcr)/Euler's load (Pb)/Crippling load (Pe)
if ≤ →Thin wall cylinder
D 20 π2 EImin
( Pb ,Pcr , Pe ) =
ℓ 2e
t
> 20 → Thick wall cylinder Note :
D
Euler's formula is applicable only for long column.
Effective length of column based on end condition
Stress Strain
End One end Both Both One end
PD 1. Hoop strain
1. Hoop stress σ H = PD
Condition Fixed and end end Fixed and
2t εh = (2 − µ) other end Hinged Fixed other Hinged
4tE Free
2. Longitudinal stress 2. Longitudinal strain Effective le = 2L le = L le = L/2 L
l =
PD Pd length = 0.5L e 2
σL = εL = (1 − 2µ )
4t 4tE = 0.70L
3. Radial stress σr = –P 3. Volumetric strain Buckling π2 EI π2 EI 4π2 EI 2π2 EI
PD Load/ Euler 4L2 L2 L2 L2
εv = ( 5 − 4µ ) load
4tE
π2 EI
4. Maximum shear stress ε 2−µ Pe =
PD 4. h = le2
(τmax) = ε L 1 − 2µ
8t Rankine's Formula–
5. Relation between σH & σL • (Applicable for both medium & long column)
σh = 2 σL • Column fail due to both crushing & bending
Analysis of thin sphere 1 1 1
= +
1. Hoop stress/longitudinal 1. Hoop strain/longitudinal PR Pc Pe
stress strain Where,
PD PD
σL = σH = εL = εh = (1 − µ ) Pc =Crushing load
4t 4tE Pe =Euler load
2. Volumetric strain σc .A
3PD PR = 2
εv = (1 − µ ) ℓ 
1+ a  e 
4tE
k
Column σc
Where, a =
π2 E
• Any slender body subjected to axial compressive load is
called column. σc = Compressive stress
• Slenderness ratio (S.R.) A = Cross section of column
Effective length of Column ( ℓ e ) a = Rankine constant.
= Material σc Rankine's Constant
Minimum radius of gyration (K min )
(N/mm2 ) When both ends are
Imin hinged
• I = AK 2 ⇒ K min =
A Cast Iron 550 1
Classification and failure of Column Based an 1600
Slenderness Ratio
Wrought Iron 250 1
S.R Types of Fails in
9000
column
Mild Steel 320 1
< 32 Short column Crushing
7500
32-120 Intermediate Combined, crushing and
column buckling Strong Timber 50 1
750
>120 Long column Buckling
Max. Limit of eccentricity Spring
(A) Closed coil helical spring under axial pull :
Section Max. Eccentricity Shape of
Limit core • Spring are use to absorb energy and restore it slowly or
rapidly
Solid Rectangular d b Rhombus
Section e x−x ≤ , e y−y ≤
6 6
Side of core =
b2 + d2
6
This known as middle
third rule.
Solid Length (Ls) n×d
Square Cross section a Square
e≤ Spring Index (C) D
6
d
a a
Kernel size, × Stiffness (S) W Gd 4
3 3 =
δ 8D3 n
Axial deflection of 8WD3 n
spring (δ) Gd 4
Solid Circular d Circular
Section e max ≤ Shear stress in spring 8K w WD
8 τ max =
(τmax) πd 3
Dia of core, d/4
Where, K W→ Wahl's
Known as middle correction factor
fourth rule.
4C − 1 0.615
KW = +
4C − 4 C
Connection of spring
Hollow BD3 − bd 3 Rhombus Parallel combination Series combination
Rectangular ex − x ≤
6D(BD − bd) F = F1 + F2 +...Fn 1 1 1 1
Section = + ... +
Keq= K1 + K2 ...Kn K eq K 1 K 2 Kn
DB3 − db3
ey− y ≤
6B(BD − bd) F = F1 = F2 = Fn
(B) Leaf spring :
3 WL 3 Wℓ3
σ= 2
δ= ×
2 nbt 8 Enbt 3
How Circular D2 + d 2 Circular
Section e max ≤ Where,
8D
W = load
D2 + d 2 b = width of plate
Dia of core,
4D
ℓ = spring span length
n = number of plate
t = thickness of plate

Theory of Machine
Simple Mechanism Forced Continuous • Higher pair
closed pair external force between cam
Kinematic Every part of machine which is having required to & follower
link some relative motion with respect to maintain this pair • Automatic
some other machine part. clutch
Type of link operating
Rigid link Deformation are negligible e.g. ⇒ system
Crank, C.R., Piston etc.
Type of relative motion–
Flexible Deformation are not negligible but are
link in permissible limit, e.g. ⇒ Belt drive, Completely Only one output motion with respect
rope drive etc. constrained to input
Fluid link Where power is transmitted because of motion e.g.– Prismatic pair, shaft with both
fluid pressure. end collar
e.g. ⇒ Hydraulic/Pneumatic system Successfully Only one output motion with respect
like brake, jack etc. constrained to input.
Kinematic pair/joint– motion e.g.– Foot step bearing, piston-
Any connection between the two link is known as cylinder arrangement in IC engine.
kinematic pair. Incompletely More than one output motion with
Classification of kinematic pair constrained respect to input.
(A) According to types of relative motion– motion e.g.– Circular shaft in circular hole
Turning Crank pin, gudgeon pin, pin joint Degree of freedom (DOF)– No. of independent
pair variables required to define a position (or) motion of
Sliding Piston inside cylinder of I.C. engine the system.
pair DOF = 6 – No. of restraints (in space)
Rolling Rolling of cylinder on flat surface
pair • If a link of redundant chain is fixed → Structure or
Screw pair Nut-bolt locked system is formed.
Cylindrical Two co-axial cylinder in contact If DOF is (–ve) ⇒ Super structure
pair If DOF = 1 ⇒ Constrained chain
Flat pair Two flat surface in contact DOF > 1 ⇒ Unconstrained chain
Spherical Ball and socket joint, open stand, the Degree of freedom of plane (2D) mechanism
pair mirror attachment of vehicles. (Grubler's criteria)
(B) According to types of contact– Kutzback's equation– F = 3 (L – 1) – 2J – h
Lower pair Surface contact Turning pair, Where,
or sliding pair screw L → No. of link
Area contact pair, spherical pair, J → No. of binary joint
cylindrical pair
h → No. of higher pair
Higher pair Point or line Rolling pair, pair
Grubler's equation–
contact between cam &
(Zero area follower DOF = 1 & h = 0
contact) Then, 3L – 2J – 4 = 0
Wrapping Multiple point • Belt – pulley Following relationship–
For a kinematic chain, having lower pairs
pair contact • Rope – pulley
(Close to • Chain – sprocket 3
L = 2P – 4 J= L−2
higher pair) 2
(C) According to types of closure– L.H.S. > R.H.S. ⇒ Locked chain
Self closed No external force Turning pair,
L.H.S. < R.H.S. ⇒ Incompletely constrained chain
pair required to sliding pair,
L.H.S. = R.H.S. ⇒ Completely constrained chain
maintain this pair screw pair etc.

Note– Crank & slotted lever QRMM–
Minimum no. of link to have a mechanism (1 DOF)
with only lower pairs is 4 link. But minimum no. of
links to have a mechanism (1 DOF) with both lower
& higher pair is 3 link.
1 HP = 2 LP + 1 extra link
L.P. ⇒ 1 D.O.F.
H.P. ⇒ 2 D.O.F.
Mechanism
4-bar mechanism
Grashof's law–(S + L) ≤ (P + Q) β 360 − α
Quick Return Ratio = = >1
Here, S = shortest link α α
L = longest link
α OA Length of crank
P, Q = remaining link cos = =
2 OO ' Length of connecting rod
Inversions : No. of inversions ≤ No. of link (N)
Inversion-1 Crank-rocker Beam engine 2 × Lcrank × LSlotted bar
Length of stroke =
(Frame fixed) mechanism Lconnecting rod
Inversion-2 Double-crank Coupling rod
Approximate Watt indicator
(Crank fixed) mechanism mechanism straight line Modified scott-russel mechanism
locomotive mechanism Grass hopper mechanism
Inversion-3 Crank-rocker Beam engine Exact straight Peaucellier mechanism
(Coupling mechanism line mechanism Hart's mechanism
fixed) Scott-Russel's mechanism
Inversion-4 Double-rocker Watt's indicator
(Rocker mechanism mechanism Mechanism No. of link
Hart's mechanism 6 links
fixed)
Peaucellier mechanism 8 links
Inversion of slider crank mechanism– 3TP + 1 SP
Scott Russel's mechanism 3 moving link of which
Inversion-1 Crank slider mechanism, 1 rotating/sliding pair
(Frame fixed) reciprocating engine/compressor Mechanical advantage–
Inversion-2 Whitworth quick return Output force or torque
(Crank fixed) mechanism, rotary (radial) engine MA =
Input force or torque
Inversion-3 Crank & slotted lever mechanism,
(Connecting rod oscillating cylinder engine Fo To Load
MA = = =
fixed) mechanism Fi Ti Effort
Inversion-4 Hand pump, bull engine. Relation between MA and efficiency–
(Slider fixed) P F .v Tω
η= o = o o = o o
Inversion of double slider crank mechanism– Pi Fi .vi Ti .ωi
2TP + 2SP
vi ω
Link 1 is fixed Elliptical trammel ⇒ MA = η. =η i
vo ωo
Slider 2 is fixed Scotch yoke mechanism (follow
sine curve) Velocity & Acceleration Analysis
Rotory 
converts
→ reciprocating
Link 3 is fixed Oldham coupling

(Used to transmit power between
offset shafts) VA = OA.ω
ωdriver : ωdriven = 1 : 1 O → Centre of rotation
A → Point whose velocity is to be calculated
I-centre (Instantaneous centre)– Velocity of rubbing–
It is a point about which a body is said to have pure ( ω1 ± ω2 ) r
rotation.
Centrode The locus of all these ω1, ω2 ⇒ Angular velocity of link at joint
instantaneous centre for a (+ve) ⇒ Opposite direction
particular link. (–ve) ⇒ Same direction
Axode The line passing through Acceleration analysis–
instantaneous centre &
Tangential Acceleration dv
perpendicular to the plane of at = = rα
motion is known as instantaneous dt
axis. It is a surface Centripetal acceleration
v2
No. of I-centre n ( n − 1) n (or) Radial acceleration ac = = ω2 r
I= = C2 r
2
(Here, n = no. of links) Coriolis acceleration
a c = 2 ω× v 
Kennedy's If three plane bodies have relative component
theorem motion among themselves, their I- Direction of coriolis
centre must be lies on a straight 1. Rotate velocity
line. vector by 90o
2. The sense of rotation
Motion of link Centrode Axode
Motion of slider on should be same as ω.
General motion Curve Curve surface
rotating link
Pure translation Straight line Plane surface
Pure rotation Point Line
Cams
I-centre of different pair– The cam may be rotating or reciprocating whereas
Turning pair the follower may be rotating, reciprocating or
oscillating.
A cam and follower combination belongs the
Sliding pair category of higher pairs.
Cam– Cam is the driving link and has a curved (or)
straight contact surface.
Rolling pair Follower– It is the driven link and it gets motion by
contact with the cam surface.
Concave surface
Convex surface
1. Wedge & flat cam A flat cam has a

translational motion
Rolling with sliding I-centre lies on the common & the follower can
normal at the point of contact either translate (or)
Angular velocity ratio theorem– oscillate
ωm ( I mn I1m ) = ωn ( I mn I1n )
If I1m and I1n lies at same side of Imn then sense of ωm
× ωn will be same.
2. Radial (or) disc cam • The axis of rotation 3. Flat face follower Here contacting area
of cam is (dA) → 0
perpendicular to line
of motion of follower Wear is highly reduced
• The axis of the as compared to knife
follower passes edge.
through the axis of • Here surface stress
the cam.
are generated
• To minimize surface
3. Cylindrical cam Cam has a
circumferential stress spherical faced
contour cut in surface follower used
& rotates about its
axis.
4. Conjugate cams This cam is preferred
when the requirement
of low wear, low
noise, better control
of the follower
5. Globoidal cam • It has two types of Note– Mushroom follower– Flat face follower in
surface i.e. convex which flat face is in the form of circular disc. It does
(or) concave. not create the problem of jamming the cam
• Used when
moderate speed & According to the location of line of action–
angle of oscillation of
the follower is large. Radial follower– Here line of motion of follower is
passing through the centre of rotation of CAM.
Offset follower– Here line of motion of follower is
little bit offset from the centre of rotation of CAM.
Purpose of giving offset to follower–
By offset, pressure angle (φ) decreases.
• Less force required to lift the follower
Types of follower–
1. Knife edge follower Area of contact is zero • As result of that, wear side thrust is also little bit
Excessive wear reduced.
⇓
Wrost follower
2. Roller follower (Best • Here because of pure

follower) rolling, friction is very
low, hence wear is zero
Because of roller (3D
body) space
requirement are high.
Used in– Gas engines,
Aircraft engine, Valve
operating mechanism.

Base circle It is smallest circle tangent to the cam bearing.
profile drawn from the centre of Pitch point It is point on pitch curve at which the
rotation of radial cam pressure angle is maximum
Trace point It is a reference point on the follower Pitch circle Circle passing through the pitch point
to trace cam profile. & concentric to base circle
Trace pt. = Centre of roller (of a roller Prime circle The smallest circle drawn tangent to
follower) the pitch curve
Trace pt. = Point of contact (in rest Dwell It is the zero displacement of follower
follower) Note–
Pressure It is the angle between the normal to 1. The size of the cam is specified by the diameter of
angle the pitch curve at a point and the the base circle, therefore its radius is also known as
direction of the follower motion. minimum radius of the cam.
• A high value of 'φ' is not desired as 2. Pitch point can be more than one depending upon,
it might jam the follower in the on how many points pressure angle is maximum.
Uniform Uniform SHM Cycloidal

velocity acceleration
Vmax ωS 1  ωS  π  ωS   ωS 
2  2
θ  θ  2  θ   θ 

amax ω2 S 0  ω2S  π2  ω2S   ω2S 

4 2   2  2π  2 
θ2  θ   θ 
  2  θ   
Jerk ω3S 0 ω3S π3  ω3S   ω3S 
0  3  4π2  3 
θ 3
θ3  θ 
2  θ   
• Wrost • It is next to • It is a better • It is the best follower
follower wrost follower follower • Used for high speed
• Use for • Used for very • Used for application
very-very slow speed medium speed
slow speed application
Belt drive Power

transmitted
Velocity Velocity of driven by Belt
=
ratio of belt Velocity of driver
drive (VR)
N 2 d1
= P = ( T1 − T2 ) V watt
N1 d 2
If belt Ratio of
N 2 d1 + t
thickness is = = driving
N1 d 2 + t
(t), VR tension for
Peripheral flat belt
πd1 N1
velocity V1 = m/s drive
60
πd N
V2 = 2 2 m / s Centrifugal
60 tension
Total (S) = S1 + S2
percentage % S1 = Slip between driver & belt
of slip % S2 = Slip between driven & belt
Max. Tension in the belt
N 2 d1 + t  S 
= 1− Tmax = T1 + TC
N1 d 2 + t  100 
Condn for max. power transmission
→ Tmax = 3TC 2. Spur rack & • It converts rotary motion into
Tmax pinion translatory motion (or) vice-
TC = versa
3
• It is made of infinite dia. so that
Velocity of Tmax the pitch surface is plane (gear
belt for V= (Tmax = T1 + TC)
3m with ∞ radius i.e. rack).
max power
3. Helical gears • The teeth are inclined to the
2
T1 = Tmax (or) helical axis of rotation
3 spur gears • They can be used at higher
Initial T1 + T2 velocity & have greater load
tension in Tinitial =
2 carrying capacity.
belt If TC is given– Draw back
T1 + T2 + 2TC Problem of axial thrust.
Tinitial = 4. Double • It is equivalent to a pair of
2
Creep in Differential elongation of belt drive helical (or) helical gears.
belt drive due to difference in tension on two Herringbone • No axial thrust is present.
sides of the pulley– gears • Higher load carrying capacity.
(B) Intersecting shaft–
N 2 d1 E + σ2
= × Straight bevel Teeth are straight, radial to the
N1 d 2 E + σ1 gears point of inter-section of the shaft
Note–Included angle in V-belt drive = 30o to 40o axis and vary in cross-section
throughout their length.
Gear Mitre gears Gear of the same size and
connecting two shafts at right
angle to each other.
( VR )mitre gear = 1
Spiral bevel • There is gradual load
Point P can be assumed on gear 2 (or) gear 1– gears (or) application and low impact
Vp = ω2 r2 = ω1r1 helical bevel stresses.
gears • There exists an axial thrust
ω2 r1 N 2 T1
= = = • Used for the drive to the
ω1 r2 N1 T2
differential of an automobile
• Gear transmits motion by pure rolling at pitch Zerol bevel gear Spiral bevel gear with curved
point and partial sliding. teeth but with a zero degree
Classification of gear spiral angle.
Axes are neither parallel nor intersecting
Skew shaft In case of skew shafts a uniform
rotary motion is not possible by
pure rolling contact.
(a) Crossed • It is limited to light loads.
helical gears • These gears are used to drive
(or) Spiral gears feed mechanism on machine
tools, camshafts and oil pumps
in I.C. engine.
Classification of gears– (b) Worm gears • Velocity ratio is very high (50:1
(A) Parallel shaft axes– to 100:1)
1. Spur gears • Straight teeth parallel to the (Very large speed reduction
axes of gear. ratio).
• High impact stresses & Sliding velocity of worm gear is higher as
excessive noise at high speed compared to other types of gear.

Classification of gear according to peripheral Face The surface between the pitch circle
velocity of gear– and top land
Low velocity gear : 0–3 m/s Contact It shows the average number of teeth
Medium velocity gear : 3–5 m/s ratio in contact during meshing
High velocity gear : > 15m/s Arc of contact
CR =
Gear terminology Circular pitch
Note– For continuous motion
transmission contact ratio must be
greater than unity (1). (Generally,
CR = 1.6)
Full depth It is the total radial depth of the tooth
of teeth space.
Full depth = Addendum + dedendum
Working Working depth = sum of the
depth of addendums of the two gears
teeth
Gear ratio T T → No.of teeth on the gear
Pitch circle It is an imaginary circle drawn in G= > 1
t  t → No.of teeth on the pinion
such a way that a pure rolling motion
on this circle gives the motion which
Velocity ω2 N 2 d1 t
is exactly similar to the gear motion. VR = = = =
ratio
Pressure It is the angle between the pressure ω1 N1 d 2 T
angle (φ) line and the common tangent to the Velocity ratio can be less than one
pitch circles. (or) greater than one but G is always
greater than 1.
D Pitch circle diameter ( mm )
Module (m)
m= = Module is always same for two mating gears.
T No.of teeth
1
Velocity ratio ∝
( Gear train value )
Circular It is a distance along a pitch circle
Law of gearing–
pitch from one point on a tooth to the
The law of gearing states–
corresponding point on the next tooth.
Gear tooth profiles must fulfilled a constant
πD angular velocity ratio between two gears.
Pc = = πm
T For constant angular velocity ratio of the two gear,
the common normal at the point of contact of the
Diametrical T 1
Pd = = two mating teeth must pass through the pitch point
pitch D m ω1 BP
=
Pc × Pd = π ω2 AP
Tooth It is the thickness of tooth measured
thickness along pitch circle
Tooth It is space between the consecutive
space teeth measured along the pitch circle
Backlash Difference between space width and
tooth thickness along the pitch circle.
Addendum It is the radial height of the tooth
above the pitch circle. Its standard Velocity of sliding–
value is one module. (i.e. 1 A = 1 m) ( ω1 + ω2 ) PC
Dedendum It is the radial depth of the tooth
(sum of angular velocities × distance between the
below the pitch circle. Its standard
pitch point and point of contact)
value is 1.157 module. (i.e. De =
Where,
1.157 m)
ω1 = angular velocity of gear 1 (clockwise)
Clearance Its standard value is 0.157 m ω2 = angular velocity of gear 2 (anticlockwise)

• At pitch point, PC = 0 2a p
Sliding velocity = 0 t min =
1 + G ( G + 2 ) sin 2 φ − 1
So, gear have sliding + rolling motion but at pitch
point only rolling is there. 2a w T
Common forms of teeth that also satisfy law of Tmin = G=
11  t
gearing– 1+ + 2  sin 2 φ − 1
G  G 
→ Cycloidal profile teeth
→ Involute profile teeth Where, ap, aw = fractional addendum (addendum of
Parameter Cycloidal teeth Involute teeth pinion & wheel for 1 mm module)
Pressure angle Varies at each Constant at tmin to avoid G = 1 and 1 m addendum; ap
(φ) point (Max - each point interference =1
zero- max) between gear & 2
Profile Double curve Single curve pinion t min =
1 + 3sin 2 φ − 1
profile profile
(epicycloids and φ tmin
hypocycloid) 14.5 23
Interference Does not occur May occur 20o 13
Strength More strong due Less strong 22.5 11
to the wider Interference 2a r
base between rack & t min =
sin 2 φ
Wear Less More pinion
Centre distance Not allowed Smaller When ar = 1 φ tmin
variation (Exact centre variation is
14.5 32
distance is allow o
20 18
required)
22.5o 14
Application Suitable for Suitable for
Methods to avoid interference
motion motion as well
transmission as power Methods Remarks
(light duty) transssmission Undercutting Removal of material of non-
Involute profile– of gear involute portion below base circle.
• Involute is a curve generated by point on a tangent Limitation : Strength of tooth ↓ at
which rolls on a circle without slipping. the base, so used only in low power
• A normal on any point of involute profile will be transmission.
tangent to the base circle. Increasing 'φ' Non-involute portion is reduced,
• Tooth profile is always generated from base circle. by decrease stronger tooth, contact ratio (↓)
• If center distance changes, VR remains the same. base circle interference ↓
radius Limitation :
Base circle = Pitch circle diameter × cos φ
Path of contact (POC) = Path of approach + path φmax = 20o to 25o
of recess Stubbing the φ- No change,
Path of contact teeth stronger tooth,
Arc of contact (AOC) = less cost, addendum & addendum
cos φ
radius of wheel ↓,
No. of pairs of teeth in contact (or)
path of contact & contact ratio ↓
Arc of contact AOC
Contact ratio = = Increasing the φ → No change
Circular pitch πm
no. of teeth Addendum & addendum radius ↓
Interference in involute gears (best method) Circular path ↓
• Mating of two involute and non-involute profiles
Contact ratio ↑
results in interference.
Interference ↓
• Minimum teeth required to prevent interference

Helical & spiral gear Worm & worm gear
For large speed reduction
Lead (L)– The distance by which the helix advances
along the axis of gear for one turn around.
L = n × Pa ψ + λ = 90o
Lead angle (λ)–
Where, • It is the angle at which the teeth are inclined to
ψ = Helix angle the normal to the axis of rotation.
P = Circular pitch • As the shaft of worm (1) and worm gear (2) are
Pn = Normal pitch at 90o
• For two mating gears–
ψ1 + ψ 2 = 90o
mn  T1 T2 
Centre distance =  +  90 – λ1 + ψ2 = 90o
2  cos ψ1 cos ψ 2 
1 − sin φ
Efficiency– λ1 = ψ 2 ηmax =
1 + sin φ
cos ( θ + φ ) + 1
ηmax =
cos ( θ − φ ) + 1
Gear train
Requirement of gear trains

• Large center distance is there
• Very large/very less velocity ratio are required within a small space.
• Multiple velocity ratio are required.
Types of gear trains
1. Simple gear trains • Same module
• A pair of mated external gear always move in opposite direction
• Bevel gear worm & worm wheel are simple gear train.
N driving
• Velocity ratio ( VR ) =
N driven
(Idler gear have no effect on the No.of teeth on driving gear

• Train value ( TV ) =
speed ratio) No.of teeth on driven gear
1
• Speed ratio ( or ) Velocity ratio ( SR ) =
Train value
2. Compound gear train • At least one of the intermediate shaft have more than one gear in use.
N 4 Product of no. of teeth on driving gear
=
N1 Product of no. of teeth on driven gear
N 4 T1 × T3
T.V. = =
N1 T2 × T4

3. Reverted gear train • The axis of the first and last wheel of a compound gear concide.
• Used in clock & in simple lathe
N 4 T1 × T3
Train Value ( T.V ) = =
N1 T2 × T4
r1 + r2 = r3 + r4
If module of all the gears are same–
T1 + T2 = T3 + T4
4. Planetary (or) Epicyclic gear • Arm fixed ⇒ Simple gear train
train • Sun gear fixed ⇒ Planetary gear train
• In general, DOF = 2
• Large speed reduction is possible with this gear
Application– In transmission, computing devices
Sun & Planet gear • It does not control the speed variations caused by
• When an annular wheel is added to the epicyclic the varying load.
gear train, then referred as sun & planet gear. • It does not maintain a constant speed also.
• Used in pre-selective gear box. δN
• Flywheel controls whereas governor controls
• Input is given to either S (or A) or arm. Planet can δt
never be input link. δN.
• More than one planets are there to balance and Turning moment diagram–
load distribution. It is the graphical representation of the turning
Differential gear– moment (or) crank effort with crank angle (θ).
It permits the two wheels to rotate at the same speed Work done per cycle
when driving straight while allowing the wheels to
Work done per cycle = Tmean × θ
rotate at different speeds when taking a turn.
Where,
• An epicyclic gear having two degrees of freedom has
Tmean = mean torque
been utilized in the differential gear of an
θ = angle turned in one cycle
automobile.
Flywheel θ = 2π ( for 2 − stroke engine )
• Flywheel reduce fluctuation of speed due to cyclic = 4π ( for 4 − stroke engine )
variation of torque.
Fluctuation of speed N max − N min
(CS) CS =
N mean
Coefficient of 1 N mean
steadiness m= =
CS N max − N min
Maximum fluctuation ∆E = maximum energy – minimum energy
of energy
∆E = E max − E min , ∆E =
1
2
( 2
I ωmax 2
− ωmin )
ω + ωmin
∆E = Iω2mean CS , ωmean = max
2
Coefficient of Maximum fluctuation of energy ∆E
fluctuation of energy CE = CE =
Work done per cycle Workdone / cycle
(CE)
Dimension of the
σ
flywheel rim V=
ρ

• mass = ρ × V = ρ × circumference × cross section area
m = ρ × πDA
Note– 1. Watt Governor • Simplest form of

(i) Flywheel for medium speed → Flywheel with centrifugal governor
spokes with a ball or
(ii) Flywheel for high speed → Disc shaped flywheel pendulum with links.
(iii) Best flywheel → Rim type flywheel • It is attached to a
sleeve of negligible
I = mk2, k → radius of gyration
mass.
k = R (for rim type)
g 895
k=
R
(for disc shape) h= 2
=
2 ω N2
• The rim of a flywheel is subjected to direct tensile • Not suitable for high
speed.
& bending stresses.
• This governor failed
• The spoke of a flywheel is subjected to direct
after 60 rpm.
tensile stress.
2. Porter governor • If the sleeve of watt
Governor– governor is loaded
The function of a governor is to maintain the speed with a heavy mass.
of an engine within specified limits whenever there
2mg + ( Mg ± f )(1 + k )
is a variation of load (i.e. δN). h=
Difference between flywheel & governor 2mω2
Flywheel Governor
Limits cyclic fluctuation Control the speed Where,
due to change in torque variation due to loads tan β
k=
during each cycle over a no. of revolution tan θ
No influence on mean Controls mean speed by If k = 1, f = 0
speed keeping it within  m + M  895
specified limits h= 
 m  ω2
Has large inertia Has less inertia
Continuous operation Intermitted operations 3. Proell governor a  m + M  895
h=
Not used in all type Used in all type of e  m  N 2
engine engine as it adjusts the
fuel supply as per N proell < N porter
demand For same N
m proell < m porter
4. Hartnell governor • Sleeve displacement

b
x =   ( r1 − r2 )
a
• Spring stiffness
 a   Fc − Fc2 
2
S = 2   1 
 b   r1 − r2 
5. Pickering governor It is used in gramophone.

Controlling force–
Properties of governor • Controlling force is equal and opposite to the
1. Sensitiveness • When it readily responds to centrifugal force and acts radially inward.
of governor small change of speed. • The graph between 'Fc' and 'r' is known as
N controlling force curve.
Where, i.e., Sensitivity =
N 2 − N1 • It helps to find stability & sensitiveness & effect of
N1 = Minimum
But when governor is fitted to the friction.
equilibrium
speed engine– Governor name Controlling force
corresponding to Supplied by
Range of speed
full load condn Sensitivity = Watt Gravity of mass of ball
Mean speed
N2 = Maximum Porter & Proell Gravity of mass of ball
N 2 − N1 and dead weight of sleeve
equilibrium =
speed N mean Hartnell & Hartung Gravity of ball masses and
corresponding to spring force
no load condn
2. Hunting If a governor is too sensitive
3. Isochronism • When the equilibrium speed is
constant for all radii of rotation,
i.e. range is zero.
• Isochronism is a stage of ∞
sensitivity. • For spring loaded governor
4. Effort of • Mean force acting on the sleeve
governor to raise (or) lower it for a given
change of speed.
• At constant speed, the governor
is in equilibrium and the
resultant force acting on the
sleeve is zero.
1
• Effort = ×S× h [For Hartnell]
2 Dynamics force analysis
5. Power of • Work done at the sleeve for a • Velocity & acceleration of piston–
governor given percentage change of
speed.
Power
= Effort of governor ×
displacement
6. Coefficient of N1 to N2 = Range of equilibrium
insensitiveness speed within which the sleeve
[coefficient of displacement is zero.
L
detention] N1 − N 2 • Obliquity ratio ( n ) =
(C.O.D.) C.O.D. = r
N
N mean =
N1 + N 2
2
•
 ( )
x = r (1 − cos θ ) + n − n 2 − sin 2 θ 

• For porter governor– x = Displacement of piston from inner dead centre
f L and r = lengths of connecting rod and crank
C.O.D. = respectively.
(m + M)g For connecting rod–
• For watt governor ⇒ M = 0
x = r (1 − cos θ )  When, n 2 >> 1
 
f
C.O.D. = 'n' is kept large in order to–
mg
(i) Decrease secondary unbalance force

(ii) Piston excutes SHM Balancing of single revolving mass–
dx  sin 2θ 
Static balancing ∑ F = 0
• Velocity of piston, V = = rω sin θ +  
dt  2n  meω2 = m b rb ω2
 cos 2θ  me = m b rb
• Acceleration of piston, a = rω2 cos θ +
 n 
(Along stroke length)
Dynamic balancing ∑ F = 0
 
θ a Remarks [ me = m1r1 + m2 r2 ]
o
0 (Inner dead  1 Maximum ∑ MB = 0
rω2 1 + 
centre)  n  m1r1 ( a + b ) = meb 
o
180 (Outer 1  Minimum
rω2  − 1
dead centre) n  Dynamic balancing–
• A system of rotating masses is in dynamic balance
when there does not exist any resultant centrifugal
Angular velocity and sin θ force as well as resultant couple.
sin β =
angular acceleration n To balance force–
of connecting rod cos θ ∑ mi ri + mc1 rc1 + mc2 rc2 = 0
ωc = ω
n 2 − sin 2 θ To balance couple–
∑ mi ri ℓ i + mc1 rc1 ℓ c1 + mc2 rc2 ℓ c2 = 0
• If n2 > > 1
Balancing of reciprocating masses–
cos θ
ωc = ω
n
Piston effort FP = P1A1 – P2A2
(effective driving Fb = ma
force) Inertia force  cos 2θ 
Fb = mrω2  cos θ +
 n 
Force along the F
connecting rod Fc =
cos β Force required to accelerate mass 'm'
Fn = Fc sin β = F tan β cos 2θ
Force (or) thrust to F = mrω2 cos θ + mrω2
cylinder wall n
Radial thrust on Fr = Fc × cos (θ + β) Primary accelerating mrω2cosθ
force
crank shaft bearing
Secondary accelerating cos 2θ
Crank effort (Ft) Ft = Fc sin (θ + β) force mrω2
n
Turning moment on T = Fr × r (Generally 'n' is very high
crank shaft   So, secondary force can
sin 2 θ
= F.r sin θ +  be neglected for lower
 2 n 2 − sin 2 θ  speed engine)
Partial balancing of primary forces–
Balancing If 'c' is the fraction of the partial balance
reciprocating mass then–
• Partial primary balanced force = cmrω2cosθ
• Primary unbalanced force = (1–c) mrω2 cos θ
• Vertical component unbalanced force = cmrω2 sinθ
• Resultant unbalanced force–
2 2
= (1 − c ) mrω2 cos θ  + cmrω2 sin θ 
   

Secondary balancing– Longitudinal If the shaft is elongated & shortened
cos 2θ 2 cos 2θ vibration so that the same moves up and down
Secondary force = mrω2 = mr ( 2ω) resulting in tensile & compressive
n 4n
Effect of partial balancing in locomotives– stresses in the shaft
Torsional When the shaft is twisted &
Hammer blow • Vertical unbalanced
vibration untwisted alternately and torsional
force = Bbω2sinθ
shear stresses are induced.
• Hammer blow ∝ square Transverse When the shaft is bent alternately and
of the speed vibration tensile and compressive stresses are
Variation of tractive • Unbalanced portion of induced due to bending.
force the primary force which Free longitudinal vibration–
acts along the line of 1. Equilibrium method–
stroke. This is accordance with D'
• Total unbalanced Alembert's principle that the
primary force sum of the inertial forces and
= (1 – c) mrω2 (cos θ – the external forces on a body
sinθ) in equilibrium must be zero.
When θ = 135o (or) 315o mxɺɺ + sx = 0 ....(i)
Then, Max. tractive force
x + ( ωn ) x = 0
2
ɺɺ ....(ii)
= ± 2 (1 − c ) mrω 2
Comparing (i) & (ii)
Swaying couple Unbalanced primary forces
along the line of stroke are s
• ωn = rad/s (s = stiffness of the spring)
separated by a distance l m
apart and thus constitute a
1 s
couple. • Linear frequency, f n = Hz
Swaying couple 2π m
= (1–c) mrω2(cosθ + sinθ)
1 m
ℓ • Time period = T = = 2π sec
fn s
2
When θ = 45o (or) 225o 2. Energy method– In a conservative system (no
Max. swaying couple damping) total mechanical energy i.e. the sum of the
1 kinetic & the potential energies remains constant.
= ± (1 − c ) mrω2 ℓ d
2 ( KE + P.E ) = 0
dt
Vibrations
d 1 2 sx 2 
 mxɺ +  = 0
To & fro periodic motions about their equilibrium dt  2 2 
position, harmonic motion (sine curve) is called
vibration. s
ωn =
Type of vibration m
Free Elastic vibration in which there is no
vibration friction & external forces after the
Inertial effect of mass of spring–
initial release of the body.
Forced When a repeated force continuously 1 s
fn = (mass of spring = m1 is
vibration acts on a system. 2π m1
m+ considered)
Damped When the energy of a vibrating 3
vibration system is gradually dissipated by Damped longitudinal vibration–
friction and other resistance. The damping force ∝ velocity of vibration
Undamped When there is no friction (or) [at lower speed]
vibration resistance present in system to ∝ square of the velocity
contract vibration. [at higher speed]

Equation of equilibrium– q 1 q
ɺɺ + Cxɺ + sx = 0
mx ωn = fn =
I 2π I
C → Damping coefficient (N/m/s)
C s (When inertia effect 1 q
x+
ɺɺ xɺ + x = 0 of mass of shaft is ( fn ) =
m m 2π I1
considered) I+
3
x + 2ξωn xɺ + ω2n x = 0
ɺɺ
Where, I1 = moment of inertia of shaft
C
= 2ξωn Torsional vibration in two rotor system–
m
Natural frequency of rotor A & B is same
C ωn1 = ωn 2
• Damping factor (or) damping ratio ⇒ ξ =
Cc
GJ GJ
=
ℓ1I1 ℓ 2 I2
( C / 2m )2 C
ξ= =
s/m 2 sm ℓ1 I 2
=
Actual damping coefficient ℓ 2 I1
ξ=
Critical damping coefficient If the no. of rotors ⇒ n
Here, Cc = 2 sm No. of node point ⇒ (n – 1)
Thus when, Torsionally equivalent shaft–
ξ = 1, critical damping 4 4 4 4
 d   d   d   d 
ξ > 1, the system is over damped L = ℓ1   + ℓ 2   + ℓ 3   + ℓ 4  
ξ < 1, the system is under damped  d1   d2   d3   d4 
3. Rayleigh's method (Method of static deflection of
mass)–
Assumption–
• There should be only one mass in system & that
must be the point mass.
• Only applied in natural vibration in spring mass
system
g g
= Shaft carrying several loads
∆ mg / s
s g
ωn = =
m ∆
Combination of spring–
0.4985
Series Parallel Dunkerley's method– f n = Hz
∆
∆1 + ∆ 2 + ..... S
1.27
1 1 1 1
= + + ......
f n2 f n21 f n22 f n2s
∆S = Deflection of shaft due to its self weight

Torsional vibration–
1 g 0.4985
T  GJ  f n1 = =
q= = (q= Torsional stiffness of the shaft) 2π ∆1 ∆1
θ  L 
Equilibrium equation–
Whirling of shaft–
I ɺɺ
θ + qθ = 0 Critical (or) whirling (or) whipping speed is the
speed at which the shaft tends to vibrate violently in
the transverse direction.

m(e + y) ω2 = sy Forced vibration–
By solving– ɺɺ + sx = F0 sin ωt
mx
e Forced damped vibration (Running machine analysis)
y= 2
 ωn 
 ω  −1
  • Impressed oscillating
• When ω = ωn, y = ∞ ⇒ Resonance force F = F0 sin wt
s g At t = t
ωcritical (ωc) = ωn = =
m ∆
• So critical speed depends on–
Rotor mass (m) ɺɺ + cxɺ + sx − F0 sin ωt = 0
mx
Diameter of shaft (d)
Length of shaft (l) F 
x + ( 2ξωn ) xɺ + ωn2 x =  0  sin ωt
ɺɺ
Stiffness of shaft (s) m
Elastic modulus of shaft (E)
F0 / s
Amplitude = x =
2
1. Overdamped system– (ξ > 1)   ω 2   ω 
2
1 −    +  2ξ 
• No Vibrations  ω  ωn 
• Decreasing function of time   n  
• No wave form Independent of time
2. Critical damped system (ξ = 1) So, known as amplitude of steady state vibration.
ωd = 0, Td = ∞ Magnification factor–
The system does not A 1
M.F. = =
vibrate for critically ( F0 / S)  2
 ω   
2 2
1 −  ω 
damped system.   +  2ξ 
 ω  ωn 
e.g. Door closers   n  
(overdamped) Where, F0/S = Static deflection of spring with
AK-47 (Critically damped) constant S under F0.
3. Underdamped (ξ < 1)
Frequency of damped vibration
ωd = 1 − ξ 2 ωn ωd < ωn
2π
Time period Td =
ωd
ωd
Linear frequency f d = ( Hz )
2π
Logarithmic decrement ratio (δ)– • If Magnification factor increases, running life
decreases.
ω
• At resonance = 1 and if ξ = 0, MF = ∞
ωn
ω
• At < 1 (Underdamping viscous damping)
ωn
 x 
δ = ℓ n  n  = ℓ ne ( ξωn Td ) • At
ω
= 1 (No damping)
 xn +1  ωn
2πξ ω
δ = ξωn Td δ= • At = 0 (Overcritical damping (or coulomb)
1− ξ 2 ωn

Vibration Isolation Therefore, ωp = 0
• Vibration are transmitted to the foundation of
machines which is not desired. Ship will not experience any gyroscopic effect
• So, machines are usually mounted on springs or during rolling.
dampers or some vibrations isolating material. Gyroscopic effect on Aircraft–
Transmissibility (∈)
2
 ω 
1 −  2ξ 
Ft  ωn 
∈T = =
F0 2
  ω 2   ω 
2
1 −    +  2 ξ 
 ω  ωn 
  n  
Direction of Direction Nose Tail

engine of taking
rotation turn
viewed from
tail
Clockwise Left turn Go up Go down
Clockwise Right turn Go down Go up
Anticlockwise Left turn Go down Go up
Anticlockwise Right turn Go up Go down
ω Gyroscopic effect on ship–
(i) When < 2 , Ft > F0 (∈↑) vibration isolation
ωn
will be effective
ω
(ii) When = 2 , Ft = F0 (∈ = 1)
ωn
ω
(iii) When > 2 (0 < ∈ < 1)
ωn
∈T increases as damping is ↑es (i.e. ξ ↑es).
So, damping becomes detrimental (harmful).
Gyroscope
Effect of reactive gyro-couple during steering
Direction Direction Bow Stern
of steering of rotation
(viewed
from bow
end)
Left turn C.W. Go down Go up
Right turn C.W. Go up Go down
Direction Direction Bow Stern
Gyroscopic couple acting on the aeroplane– of steering of rotation
C = Iωωp ωp = Angular speed of precession axis (viewed
v = Linear velocity of aeroplane from
v R = Radius of curvature
ωp = stern)
R I = mk2 Left CW Go up Go down
ω = Angular speed of engine Right CW Go down Go up
• Gyroscope effect on ship during rolling– Left CCW Go down Go up
During rolling, the direction of spin and the axis of Right CCW Go up Go down
rolling is same.
Machine Design
σact
Static & Fluctuating Stresses Theoretical stress conc. factor (kt) =
Metal subjected to fluctuating load will fail under σ0
fatigue fracture.
Types of stresses
Fluctuating
Stress
• Direction
remains
fixed
• Only Method to reduce KT –
magnitude For Axial load For Bending For Twisting
varies Produce more Undercutting Drill holes
Completely notches near key way
Reversed Removal of Providing notch
Stress material
• Magnitude Drilling hole Provide radius
remain of curvature
fixed Endurance strength–
• Only Max. amplitude of completely reversal stress that the
direction standard specimen can sustain for unlimited no. of
varies cycles without fatigue failure.
Alternating σe = k a .k b .k c .k d .k e .σe *
stress
• Magnitude ka → surface finish factor
& direction Roughness ↑ → ka ↓ → σe ↓
both varies kb → size factor
size ↑ → more crack propagation
Repeated kt ↓ → σe ↓
stress
• Variation of Notch sensitivity (q)–
stress from Increase in fatigue over nominal k −1
zero to max q= q= f
Increase in staticstress over nominal kt −1
q → 0 if kf = 1 (Notch is not sensitive to fatigue)
Some values of Stress q → 1 if kf = kt (Notch is fully sensitive)
Mean stress (σm) σ max + σ min S-N curve–
σm =
2 Soderberg σ m σa 1
+ ≤
Stress amplitude σmax − σmin Syt σe N
σa =
2 Goodman σ m σa 1
+ ≤
Stress range σ r = σ max − σmin Sut σe N
Stress ratio σmax Langer line σ m σa 1
R= + ≤
σ min Syt Syt N
Amplitude ratio σa Gerber 2 2
A= parabola
 σ .N   σ N 
σm  m  + a  ≤1
 Syt   σe 
 
Stress concentration–
ASME Ellipse 2 2
Localization of high stresses due to irregularity  σm   σa  1
present in component & abrupt change in cross-   +  ≤ 2
   σe 
section.  Syt  N

Parameter P.F.W. T.F.W.
Direction of Parallel to ⊥ to length
er
loading length of fillet of fillet weld

weld
Papplied P Psinθ
Pn 0 Pcos θ
θ 45o 67.5o
Throat thickness, 0.707 t 0.765 t
t
h=
( cos θ + sin θ )
• Soderberg is most conservative theory
Area of fillet weld 0.707 t. Le 0.765 t Le
Effect of thermal stress on fatigue life–
1. Due to compressive thermal stress, fatigue life ↑ Strength of fillet 0.707 t. Le τper 0.8528 t. Le τper
weld
2. Due to tensile thermal stress, fatigue life ↓
Process of improve fatigue life– Note – TFW is about 18% stronger than PFW.
• Shot peening • Coining • Case hardening So, design on the basis of weakest.
• Polishing • Rolling. Butt weld–
Cotter joint Knuckle joint

• Used to connect two co- • Used to connect two
axial rods which are rods whose axis
subjected to either axial either coincide or
tensile force or axial intersect & coplaner
compressive force. • Used to transmit only
axial tensile force. Strength of the plate consider without considering
Application– Application– height of reinforcement (xR).
• Joint between piston rod • Joint in valve
h=t p max = hL.σper
& cross head. mechanism of
• Joint between slide reciprocating engine
Riveted Joint
spindle & the fork of the • Joint between link of
volve mechanism suspension bridge.
• Foundation bolt.
Welded Joint
Strength of rivet joint

1. Strength of solid plate (P) = p × t × σt
2. Tearing strength of plate (Pt) = (p – d) × t × σt
π 2
3. Single shear of rivets (Ps) = n × d × σs
4
π 2
4. Double shear of rivets (Ps) = n × 2 × d × σs
4
5. Crushing strength of rivet (Pc) = n × d × t × σc
Efficiency of riveted joint ⇒
Least of Pt , Ps , Pc  d
η= ηtearing = 1 − 
p × t × σt  p

Type of rivet heads Tf ' = n × Tf n = n1 + n 2 − 1
Snap head • High fatigue strength Where,
• Boiler, structural work n = no. of frictional surfaces in contact
n1 = no. of plates on driver shaft
n2 = no. of plates on driven shaft
Pan head or cone • High corrosive strength
Parameters Single plate Multi plate
head • Used in ships & heavy clutch clutch
boilers 1. Contacting Maximum of Can be more
surface two than 2
2. Torque Less More (↓es with
Counter shunk head • Used in under water transmitting cooling oil)
working equipments capacity
• Leak proof 3. Heat Less More
generation
4. Space More Less
Flat head • Used in structural work requirement
mostly
5. Cooling oil Not required Required
• Suitable for thin plates
µ
• In case of cone clutch µ' →
sin α
Clutch where, α semi cone angle
Parameter Wet clutch Dry clutch

Coefficient of Less More
friction
Torque capacity Less High
Moisture Not a serious Proper
contamination issue sealing
required
Heat dissipation Lubricating oil Difficult
Wear rate Less More
Clutch Smooth Rough
engagement
Design of clutch Surface area Reduced More
Old or worn out clutch New clutch (Uniform (Groovings)
(Uniform wear theory) pressure theory) Centrifugal clutch–
To transmit power from an engine/motor which
W W
Pind = Pind = produce very less torque/power.
2πR ( R o − R i ) π  R o2 − R i2 
  eg.– Mopeds, continuous transmission vehicles
(CTV) lawn moovers.
Tf =
1
µW ( R o + R i ) 2  R 3 − R 3i 
2 Tf = µW  2o 2 Brake
3  R o − R i 
Effective radius (Re) Short shoe brake (2θ ≤ 45o)
2  R 3 − R 3i 
R + Ri R e =  o2 
Re = o 3  R o − R i2 
2
Tf ( UPT ) > Tf ( UWT )
Multi plate clutch–

Every disc can wear same W but now every disc can
transfer torque.

Ft Differential band brake
mg (a)
ℓ
Ft T2 ( a ) + T1 ( b )
Ft
p=
ℓ
(A) Hinge about O1 – Σ.M0 = 0 (b) T1 ( b ) − T2 ( a )

b RN(b) + Ft(C) = pl p=
ℓ
O1 R N ( b + µC )
p=
Ft ℓ
(B) Hinge about O2 R N (b)

p=
ℓ
This is self energing brake
If T1b > T2a, Peff = +ve (controllable)
Ft T1b = T2a, Peff = 0 (Self locking)
T1b < T2a, Peff < 0 (Uncontrollable)
Different types of brake and their application
(C) Hinge about O3 R N ( b ) − Ft ( C ) Type of brake Application
p=
ℓ Mechanical brake Small vehicle such as
b scooters, bikes etc.
R N ( b − µC ) Hydraulic brake Passenger vehicle
p=
ℓ Electric brake Laboratory
Ft
dynamometer, electric
locomotive
Pneumatic brake Heavy load vehicle
such as trucks, bus etc.
Vacuum brake Exceptionally heavy
• If b > µC ⇒ Peff > 0 (Controllable)
ships etc.
• If b = µC ⇒ Peff = 0 (Self locking) Difference between disc brake and drum brake
• If b < µC ⇒ Peff < 0 (Uncontrollable) Disc brake Drum Brake
• It uses disc shaped • It uses cylindrical
rotor drum
Long shoe brake (2θ > 45o)
• Good braking even at • Reduced performance
4µ sin θ high temperature at high temperature
• µ eq = • Ft = µeq .R N
2θ + sin 2θ • Fast braking better • Slow braking
braking force • Slower heat
• Better heat dissipation dissipation
Simple band brake TF = ( T1 − T2 ) R • Cost is more • Cheaper than disc
• Generally used in brake
Τ1 modern bikes, cars • Used for trucks, bus
= eµθ
T2 • Total frictional area is • Total frictional area
less is more
(T1 > T2)
• Wear on the frictional • Non-uniform wear of
θ = angle of wrap surface is more friction surface
uniform

Theories of Failure
Theory Suitable material Graphical
Representation
Maximum Brittle material Rectangular
principal Sys
stress theory =1
Syt
or
Rankine's
theory
Maximum Ductile & brittle Rhombus
Principal but results are not
strain theory accurate in both
or Sys 1
St. Venant's = = 0.77
Syt 1+ µ
theory
Maximum Ductile material Hexagon Selection criteria of square key without stress
shear stress analysis–
Sys 1
theory = = 0.5 d
Syt 2 b=h= ℓ = 1.5d
or 4
Guest &
Tresca's For rectangular key–
theory d d 2b
b= h= = ℓ = 1.5d
Maximum Ductile material Ellipse 4 6 3
strain energy Sys 1
theory = = 0. Design of square or flat key–
or
Syt 2 (1 + µ )
Haigh & Key mainly fails in shearing & crushing.
beltrami dbL
theory Tmax = τ per
2
Maximum Ductile material Ellipse
Shear strength in key in terms of torque–
shear strain Sys 1
energy = = 0.577 dhL
Syt 3 Tmax = σper
theory or 4
Distortion
(Crushing strength of key in terms of torque)
energy
theory For square key–
or h=b
Von Mises σ c = 2τ
Hencky
theory Type of key
Key Sunk key Saddle key

• Made of plain carbon steel When keyway is in When keyway is in
• Withstand shear and compressive stresses. shaft as well as in hub. hub only
Suitable for high Suitable for low
power transmission power transmission
Shear resistance is Friction is
responsible for responsible for
transmitting power transmitting power

Gib head key • Tapered on one side
Woodruff key • Semi circular in shape which facilitates its easy
• Deal with any type of removal (Taper 1 : 100)
misalignment
• Extra depth of key in the
shaft provide more power
Splined key • Provides axial relative
transmission capacity.
motion between shaft &
Feather key • It allows axial relative
its assembly
motion of shaft & hub
• Key ⇒ Tight in shaft & • Used in automobile gear
loose in hub boxes & clutches.
Square & Rectangular sunk key is Coupling

rectangular sunk more stable compare to
key square sunk key
Oldham Used to connect two

Kennedy key A square taper key fitted
into a keyway of square coupling parallel shaft when they
section & driven from are at a small distance
opposite ends of the hub. apart
figure Hook's Used to connect two shaft
• High power transmission coupling having intersecting axis
capacity
Rigid/Flexible Used to connect two shaft
• Strong in shear &
crushing coupling which are collinear.
Tangent key • It is actually a pair. These

pairs of keys are placed at Sleeve or Muff coupling Flange coupling
right angles to each other
• Outer diameter of the • Outside diameter
& tangent to surface of
the shaft. muff or sleeve = 2d + 13 of hub = 2d
• Withstand torsion only in • Length of muff or sleeve • Length of hub =
one direction = 3.5 d 1.5d
Barth key Barth key is under • P.C.D of bolts =
compression rather than in 3d
being shear when under load
• D0(flange) = 4d
• tflange = 0.5d

Design of gear t2
y=
Design of gear– 6h
t = thickness of teeth
πD
• Circular pitch = h = height of teeth
T
Tangential load on gear teeth–
T
• Diametral pitch =
D 1000 P πDN
Ft = ν= m/s
D ν × KS 60 × 1000
• Module =
T Where,
• Addendum = 1 module P = Transmitted power by gear (kW)
• Dedendum = 1.157 m D = Pitch diameter
Length of arc of contact N = RPM of gear
• Contact ratio =
Circular pitch KS = Service factor.
Beam strength of gear teeth or Lewis equation Working stress on gear teeth (fw) & velocity
factor–
Tangential load on teeth–
fw = value depends upon gear material, heat
Ft = f w × b × y × pc treatment, machining accuracy and pitch linear
or speed.
Ft = f w × b × π× my f w = fo × cv
Where, Where,
fw = Allowable bending stress on teeth fo = static allowable stress of material or elastic
b = Face width of teeth f
limit stress = ut
y = Lewis form factor or teeth form factor 3
πm = π × module = circular pitch cv = velocity factor.
Bearing
Journal bearing
Journal bearing
Journal bearing

• Bearing characteristic number ⇒ Needle roller Fr
• =1
bearing Fa
ZN
• Heavy loaded engine

• Used when radial space
Rolling contact bearing (Anti-friction bearing) constrained
Ball bearing
Function of cage–
Deep groove • Wear both radial and Used to avoid clusting of rolling element at one
Fr location.
axial load >1
Fa Nomenclature of anti-friction bearing–
Angular contact • Preloading is required

bearing
Fr
<1
Fa
6 – Deep groove
3 – Taper roller
Self aligning ball • It permits misalignment
bearing 1 – Self align
Fr
=1 Bearing life under variable load–
Fa
n
C
L10(MR ) =   Million revolution
Thrust ball • Only for axial load  pe 
bearing
• For vertical shaft Where, n = 3 (ball bearing)
n = 10/3 (for roller bearing)
Roller bearing–
L n10 × 60 × N rpm
L10( MR ) =
Cylindrical roller • Suitable for radial load 106
bearing only (Faxial = 0) Where, Lh10 = bearing life in hour
• For horizontal shaft L10(MR) = bearing life in million revolution
Spherical roller • Permit misalignment Collar bearing–

bearing
• Two rows of moving U.P.T. U.W.T.
rollers are used.
• P = const. • Pr = const.
Tapered roller Fr W •
• >1 • Pind =
bearing Fa π  R 02 − R i2 
  W
Pind =
2πR i ( R 0 − R i )
• Used in pairs only
• Good for fatigue & 2  R 3 − R 3i  1

• Tf = µW  20 • Tf = µW R 0 + R i 
2 2
impact 3  R 0 − R i 

Flat pivot bearing– Trapezoidal thread • Included angle = 30º
UPT UWT • Less efficient & side thrust
W W is present
• Pind = • Pind =
πR 2 2πR i R o Buttress thread • Included angle = 45º
• Bench vice,
2 1
• Tf = µWR • Tf = µWR • Can transmit power only
3 2
one direction.
2 1
• R eff = R • R eff = R
3 2 • Designation of screw –
Tf U.P.T. 4
= = 1.33
Tf U.W.T. 3
Tf(U.P.T.) is 33% more than Tf(U.W.T.) Self locking screw
Torque required to lower the load
If conical collar dm
T = W. .tan ( φ − α )
µ 2
µ' →
sin α • For φ < α (overhauling) Torque = (–ve)
α → semi cone angle • For φ ≥ α (Self locking) Torque = (+ve)
2 µ  R 3 − R 3i  • If µ low ⇒ Self locking is not possible
Tf = W  20 
3 sin α  R 0 − R i2  • Torque requirement lifting & lowering–
dm
Screw threads T=W tan ( φ ± α )
2
British standard • Included angle = 55º
Where, dm = mean dia, φ = friction angle
whit worth thread • In automobiles, adjustment
(BSW) α = helix angle
screw.
British association 1º
• Included angle = 47 L
thread (BA) 2
• Used for instruments &
other precision work.
American National • Included angle = 60º tan α
Efficiency of square thread– η =
standard thread • For general purpose bolts, tan ( φ + α )
nuts.
φ
Square thread • Included angle = 0º α = 45o −
2
• Due to higher efficiency are Condn for max. efficiency–
1 − sin φ
widely used for ηmax =
1 + sin φ
transmission of power in
either direction. Condn for self locking– α≤φ
• Self locking purpose, screw,
tan φ 1 tan 2 φ
jack, clamp vice. η≤ or −
tan ( φ + φ ) 2 2
Acme thread • Included angle = 29º
Where,
• Can transfer power in both
α - helix angle
direction.
φ - friction angle
• Screw cutting lathe, power
Max. efficiency depends only on φ & must be ≤
transmission screw.
50%.

Material Science
General classification of materials Fatigue When a material is subjected to
repeated stresses, it fails at stresses
below the yield point stresses. Such
type of failure of a material is known
as fatigue.
Hardness It embraces many different properties
such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc.
• It also means the ability of a metal
Important mechanical properties of metals– to cut another metal.
Strength Ability of a material to resist the Remember
externally applied forces without • Decreasing order of the ductility of metals–
breaking or yielding. Mild steel > Copper > Aluminium > Nickel > Zinc
Stiffness Ability of a material to resist > Tin > Lead.
deformation under stress. • Decreasing order of the malleability of metals–
Elasticity Property of material to regain its Lead > Soft steel > Wrought iron > Copper >
original shape after deformation when Aluminium.
the external forces are removed.
Various types of material & its properties–
Plasticity Property of a material which retains
the deformation produced under load Material Properties
permanently. Aluminium Lightness, conductive
• This property useful for metal
forming work. Rubber Elastic, insulative
Ductility Property of a material enabling it to be Ceramics Thermal resistive
drawn into wire with the application
Cast iron High damping capacity
of a tensile force.
Brittleness Property of breaking of a material Copper High conductive, high corrosion resistive
with little permanent distortion.
Lead Highly malleable, high density
• Cast iron is a brittle material.
Malleability Special case of ductility which permits Steel High strength
materials to be rolled or hammered
into thin sheets. Iron ore Iron
Toughness Property of a material to resist fracture content
due to high impact loads like hammer i. As oxides (a) Magnetite 72%
blows. (Fe3O4)
(b) Hematite 70%
• This property is desirable in parts
(Fe2O3)
subjected to shock and impact
(c) Limonite 60-65%
loads.
(2Fe2O3.H2O)
Resilience Property of a material to absorb
ii. As carbonates Siderite (FeCO3) 48%
energy and to resist shock and impact
iii. As sulphides Pyrite (FeS2) 30-40%
loads. It is measured by the amount of
General classification of Ferrous metals–
energy absorbed per unit volume
within elastic limit. (This property is
useful for springs).
Creep When a part is subjected to constant
stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow
and permanent deformation called
creep.

Ferrous metals Carbon Production process 1. First stage ⇒ Charging
percentage furnace position
Pig iron 4-6% Blast furnace 2. Second stage ⇒ Blowing
Cast iron 2-4.5% Cupola furnace position
Wrought iron 0.017% Pudding process 3. Third position ⇒ Pouring
Steel 0.15-1.5% Crucible, position
Bessemer, open • Pig iron converted in steel.
hearth process etc. • Produced steel by this method
1. Pig Iron • Crude form of iron and is used as have good strength and
a raw material for the production ductility.
of various other ferrous metals. 4. Open hearth • Also known as Siemens–
Ex.– Cast iron, wrought iron, steel process Martin process
etc. • This process is more suitable
• Carbon content → 3.8-4.7% when a large quantity of mild
2. Wrought • Purest form of iron. steel, with definite quality and
Iron • Carbon content→ 0.02-0.03% composition, is required
• It is tough, ductile and can easily 5. Duplex • This steel making process is a
be forged. process combination of Bessemer and
basic open hearth process.
3. Cast Iron • Obtained by remelting of pig iron
with coke and lime stone in a • This process is in operation at
cupola furnace. Tata iron and steel works
Jamshedpur (Jharkhand)
• Carbon content → 2 to 4.5%.
Effect of alloying element in Cast iron–
• The cast iron also contains small
amounts impurities such as Silicon Up to 4%, Free graphite formation
silicon, sulphur, manganese and makes iron soft, and easily
phosphorous. machinable
Sulphur Makes hard and brittle, 0.1% for
Type of Cast Carbon Ductility Obtained most foundry purposes
Iron form by Manganese Makes white and hard, kept below
White cast Cementite No Fast cooling 0.75%
iron rate
Phosphorous Fusibility and fluidity, induces
Grey cast iron Flake No Slow cooling
brittleness, it is rarely allowed to
rate
exceed 1%.
Nodular cast Nodular Yes Additions of
iron (Spheroid) magnesium Steel Alloy of iron and carbon
element • Plain carbon steel can be further subdivided into low
made so carbon steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon steel.
nodular of Types of Steel Carbon %
graphite • Dead mild steel Upto 0.15%
form instead
of flakes • Low carbon steel or mild steel 0.15% - 0.3%
Malleable cast Flake to Yes White cast • Medium carbon steel 0.3% – 0.8%
iron Nodule iron by • High carbon steel 0.8% – 1.5%
annealing Effect of alloying element in steel–
heat Sulphur Increases machinability
treatment
Molybdenum Forms abrasion resisting
Principal methods of manufacturing steel–
particles/improves creep properties,
1. Cementation • Blister steel is produced. also increases red hardness.
process • Wrought iron converted in to Phosphorous Improves machinability in free
cemented steel. cutting steel.
2. Crucible • Produced steel by this method Cobalt Contributes to red hardness by
process is very homogeneous and hardening ferrite
much superior to cement steel. Chromium Corrosion resistance/increase
3. Bessemer • Steel is produced in 3 stages– hardness
Nickel Hardenability Cu and its alloys
Tungsten Heat resistance Cu & Zn Cu Zn other Application
Silicon Magnetic permeability/Increase Alloy
resistance to high temperature Brass 70% 30% - Bush musical
oxidation. instrument
Vanadium Hardenability/Increases strength Dutch metal 80% 20% -
Muntz Metal 60% 40% -
Manganese Hardness
Delta Metal 55% 41% 4% Fe
Designation of steel–
Gun metal 88% 2% 10% Sn Journal
2xxx → Ni 3xxx → Ni-Cr bearing
4xxx → Mo 5xxx → Cr
3213 → Stainless steel 31xx → Had field Cu & Sn Cu Sn other Application
Alloy
Stainless steel Bronze 88- 4- Sculptures,
• Steel which when correctly heat treated and finished, 96% 12% Medal
resists oxidation and corrosive attack from most Bell Metal 80% 20% Bells
corrosive media. Phosphor 87- 8- 0.1- Spring,
Martensitic Ferritic Austenitic bronze 90% 10% 0.3% P bearing
Al bronze 92% 8% Al Coin,
stainless steel stainless steel stainless steel
Jewellery
• Chromium • Chromium • Chromium Cu & Ni Cu Ni Other Application
= 12 to 14%, = 16 to 18%, = 18%, Alloy
Monel Metal 30% 70% Marine
Carbon Carbon Nickel = 8%,
bearing
= 0.12 to = 0.12%, German 60% 4% 35% Zn Jewellery
0.35%, Silver ornament
Rest-iron Rest-iron Rest-iron Constanton 55% 45% Thermocouple
Nickel Alloy
• Easily • Better • Non-magnetic
Nickel Composition Application
welded and corrosion • Also called 18/8 alloy
machined resistance steel Hastelloy 57% Ni + 23% Acid resistance
property
Fe + 20% Mo
• Magnetic Inconel 80% Ni + 14% High temperature
Free cutting steel (or Free machining steel) - Cr + 6% Fe heating element
• It contains sulphur and phosphorus. Nichrome 65% Ni + 15% Electric resistance
• Used where rapid machining and high quality Cr + 20% Fe
surface finish required. Invar 36% Ni + 64% Pendulum Clock,
• More liable to corrosion Fe High precision
• Have high tensile strength & low ductility. instrument
Nimonic Gas turbine
Non Ferrous metals Alloy
Aluminium Alloy
Alloy Composition Application
Duralumin Cu 4.0% + Al Al Alloys are
94.8% + Mn 0.5% extensively used
+ Mg 0.4-0.7% in making
automobile and
aircraft
components.
Y-Alloy Cu 4% + Mn 1.2-
1.7% + Ni 1.8-
2.3% + Si, Mg,
iron - 0.6% + Rest
Incoloy, Hastelloy, Inconel & Nimonic are high Al
temperature alloy.
Magnalium Mg 2-10% + Cu • A unit cell may also be defined as the smallest
1.75% + Rest Al parallel piped which could be transposed in three
Hindalium anodized utensil coordinate direction to build the space lattice. The
manufacture space lattice of various substances differ in size and
shape of their unit cells.
Alloy Application
Babbit alloy (Cu base Bearing, excellent • Any points defined in space, 6 variable parameters
alloy having Sn, Pb) embeddability are required.
Low carbon steel (mild Wire nails, crane hooks Three unit vector ⇒ a, b, c
steel) rolled steel section Mutual angle between axis ⇒ α, β, γ
Medium carbon steel Screw, shaft and axles System Definition Structure type
High carbon steel Commercial beams, Cubic system a = b = c Simple, BCC,
springs, cold chisels α = β = γ = 90º FCC
Hadfield Mn steel Buldozer rolls Tetragonal a=b≠c Simple
T- series  Milling cutter, drills,
α = β = γ = 90º Tetragonal, Body
W = 18%,Cr = 4%,  Lathe tools, taps,
  centred tetragonal
broaches, saw
V = 1%  Orthorhombic a ≠ b ≠ c Simple
HSS  
M- series  α = β = γ = 90º orthorhombic
Mo = 5%,Cr = 4%,  BCO, FCO, ECO
 
V = 2%,, W = 6%  Monoclinic a≠b≠c Simple
Tool steel Making die, ball bearing α = β = 90º ≠ γ monoclinic,
Silicon steel Transformer lamination BCM, ECM
Commercial bronze Forging and stamping Triclinic a≠b≠c Simple Triclinic,
(10% Zn) α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90º BCT, ECT
Red brass (15% Zn) Radiator Hexagonal a=b≠c Simple
Al brass (22% Zn, 2% Condenser tubes, heat α = β = 90º Hexagonal, BCH,
Al) exchanger ECH
γ = 120º
(Admirality brass)
Spring steel Non sparking character
Structure of solids– Characteristic BCC FCC HCP Simple
Crystalline In crystalline solid, the atoms Cubic
solids making up the crystals arrange Relation 4r a = 2 2r a= 2r a = 2r
between 'a' and a=
themselves in a definite and orderly 3
'r'
manner and form. All solid metals
such as iron, copper, aluminium, etc. Co-ordination 8 12 12 6
are crystalline Number
Semi In the amorphous solids, the atoms Average 2 4 6 1
crystalline are arranged chaotically. i.e. the number of
solids atoms are not arranged in a atoms
(Amorphous) systematic order. Ex-wood, plastic, Atomic 0.68 0.74 0.74 0.52
glass. Packing factor
(A.P.F.)
Non- –
Examples Na, K, Ca, Ni, Be, Po
crystalline
V, Mo, Cu, Ag, Mg,
• Space lattice or crystal lattice–The definite and
Ta, W Pt, Al, Zn
orderly manner and form of atoms producing a
Pb, Al Cd,
geometrical shape in the aggregate is called space
Te
lattice or crystal lattice.
Atomic packing density/factors (APD/APF)
• A crystal is composed of unit cells. A unit cell
Volume of effective number of atom
contains the smallest number of atoms, which when =
taken together have all the properties of the crystals Volume of unit cell
of the particular metal. Void ratio = 1 – APF
Crystal Imperfection– • A phase diagram has temperature as its ordinate and
Types of Examples alloy composition as abscissa.
Imperfection
(i) Point defect • Vacancy defect
• Interstitial defect
• Substitution defect
• Frenkel defect
• Schottkey defect
(ii) Surface defect • Grain boundary defect
• Twist boundary defect
• Tilt boundary defect
• Staking faults
(iii) Line defect • Edge dislocation defect
• Screw dislocation defect
1150ºC
Recrystallization and melting temperatures for • L ↽ 4.3%C ⇀ γ + Fe3 C [Eutectic reaction]
various metals– 725ºC
Metal Recrystallization Melting temp • γ ↽ 0.8%C ⇀ α + Fe3C [Eutectoid reaction]
temp (oC) (oC) 1495ºC
• δ + L ↽ 0.18%C ⇀ γ (Solid) [Peritectic reaction]
Tin –4 232
Remember
Zinc 10 420
Hypo-eutectoid C < 0.83%
Aluminium 80 660
steel Consist of ferrite + pearlite
Copper 120 1085
Eutectoid steel C = 0.83%
Brass 475 900
Consist of pure pearlite
Nickel 370 1455
Hyper-eutectoid C > 0.83% (but C < 2%)
Iron 450 1538
steel Consist of cementite + pearlite
Tungsten 1200 3410
Hypo-eutectic cast C < 4.3%
Corrosion iron Consists of α + Fe3C
• Corrosion is when a refined metal is naturally Eutectic cast iron C = 4.3%
converted to a more stable form such as its oxide, Hyper-eutectic C > 4.3%
hydroxide or sulphide state. This leads to cast iron
deterioration of the material.
Ex.- Fe + O + 2CO 2 + H 2 O ⇌ Fe ( HCO3 )2 Paramagnetic Electrons are unpaired and exhibit
material colour. Ex. - Earth, Alkline
(Ferrous bicarbonate)
Ferromagnetic Iron behaves paramagnetic as well
Fe ( OH ) CO3 + H 2 O ⇌ Fe ( OH )3 + CO 2 as diamagnetic. Ex.- Fe, Co, Ni
(Hydrated Ferric Carbonate) Diamagnetic Electrons are paired and such
• Method to prevent corrosion– alloys are colourless Ex. - Silver,
Process Description Gold, Bismuth
Galvanising Depositing a protective layer of Allotropic forms of pure iron-
zinc on iron or steel
Electroplating Deposition of metal over any
metallic or non-metallic surface.
Perkerizing Phasphate Coating
Cementation Sheradizing Zinc Coating
Process Cloradizing Al Coating
Chromizing Cr Coating
Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram
• Change of phase means either there is a change in
microstructure or there is change in the lattice Curie point (768ºC)–There is no change in phase and
structure. only magnetic properties are disappearing.

Micro constituents of iron and steel
Name Carbon Temperature Structure Other characteristics
Content
Ferrite (α) 0.022% Below 725ºC BCC • Softest Structure
• Interstitial solid solution of
Carbon in α-iron
Austenite (γ) 2.14% 910-1410ºC FCC Solid solution of Carbon in γ-
iron
Cementite 6.67% Below Orthorhombic Hardest structure on Fe-C
(Fe3C) 1175ºC diagram.
Pearlite 0.8% 723ºC Ferrite (87%) + Pearl like structure when viewed
Cementite (13%) through microscope.
Martensite Tetragonal • Needle like structure
• Supersaturated solid solution
of carbon in α-iron
Ledeburite 4.3% 1130ºC Austenite + Cementite
Heat Treatment hard lamellar or critical

network carbides temperature
of high carbon
steels into
globular or
spherical shapes.
o o
Diffusion • To homogenize 1100 C–200 C
Annealing the chemistry of temperature
material
1. Annealing –
Quenching medium → Furnace • Used for large
Types of Description Temperature castings
Annealing Range 2. Normalizing
Full • Ductility and • 50oC above • Temperature range : 30º-50ºC above the upper
Annealing toughness the upper critical temperature for hypo eutectoid and hyper
increases critical eutectoid steels
• For soften the temperature – • Quenching medium : Air
metal, refine the for hypo • To refine the grain structure of the steen to improve
grain structure eutectoid steel machinability, tensile strenght and structure of
• Adopted for • 50oC above weld.
steel casting and the lower 3. Hardening–
ingots critical • The object of hardening is to produce the
temperature – martensite.
for hyper • Temperature range : 30º-50ºC above the upper
eutectoid steel critical temperature for hypo eutectoid steels
Process • Stress relieving • Below or • 30º–50º C above the lower critical temperature
Annealing • Usually, cold close to the for hyper eutectoid steels.
worked steel has lower critical • Quenching medium–
high hardness and temperature
• Water-vapour blanket forms (HT ↓ 2) Non uniform
low ductility cooling.
making it difficult • Salt bath – Decreases the tendency of vapour
to work
blanket formation.
Spheroidise • Machinability • Close below • Oil bath – Uniform cooling
Annealing increases or close above
Types of Hardening process–
• Conversion of the lower
Austempering • Known as isothermal quenching. Other types of case hardening process–
• Temperature range → above Cyaniding • C and N are added to the
upper critical temperature about surface
875ºC • Steel is heated in a molten
• Final structure → Bainite cyanide bath maintained at
Martempering • Stepped quenching or interrupted 950ºC, followed by water or oil
quenching.
quenching.
Nitriding • Heating the steel in atmosphere
• Temperature range - above upper
of NH3 gas
critical temperature.
• quenching is not required
Remember–
Carbonitriding • When cyaniding process is
• Only medium carbon steels can be hardened. carried out in a gas atmosphere.
• Age hardening is related to hardening of alloys of • Natural gas (70-80)% + NH3
Al, Mg, and Ni. (20-30)%
4. Case Hardening– Flame • Localised heating with gas
• Process of increasing the hardness of only surface Hardening flames (acetylene, propane or
by the process of diffusion of carbon and nitrogen. natural gas)
• Quenching medium : Furnace • Complex shapes can be
processed (gears, tool bed)
Induction • Fastest method of case
hardening hardening
• Medium carbon steel can be
hardened by this technique
Decreasing order of hardness–
Nitriding > Cyaniding > Carburizing
Tempering
• Process of introducing toughness.
Carburizing
• High temperature tempering (500-650ºC) : Sorbite
Types of Description
• Medium temperature (350-500ºC) : Troostrite (in
Carburizing
spring and dies).
Pack • Components packed in a box with • Low temperature (on 250ºC) : Martensite is healed
Carburizing carburizing agent (e.g. Charcoal) at (in 250ºC) 250ºC and cooled slowly to
and an energiser (e.g. barium relevance internal speed.
carbonate) Time Temperature Transformation (T-T-T)
• Heated to 850ºC-950ºC for Diagram–
• T-T-T diagram is also referred as isothermal
diffusion of carbon in a furnace for
transformation diagram, S-curve, C-curve or Bain's
12 to 72 hours. curve.
• Good for one-off components.
Liquid • Heated in container filled with a
Carburizing molten salt (e.g. sodium carbonate)
• If only selected portions of the
components are to be carburized,
then remaining portions are
covered by copper plating
• Heated to 950ºC
Gas • Components are heated and
Carburizing Cooling Medium Structure
surrounded by a hydrocarbon gas Furnace Coarse pearlite
(such as methane, ethane, carbon Air fine pearlite (Sorbite)
monoxide etc) in the furnace Oil Very fine pearlite (Troostite)
• Partial carburizing not possible Water Martensite

Production Engineering
Metal Cutting
Parameters Orthogonal machining Oblique machining
(1) Relation between cutting edge & Perpendicular Inclined at an angle
direction of cutting velocity (V)
(2) Relation among cutting edge, Cutting edge > w/p width > depth of May or may not be
work piece width & depth of cut cut
(3) Cutting force direction X, Z X, Y, Z
(4) Flow of chip on rake face With chip velocity perpendicular to The chip flows on the tool face at an
the cutting edge angle less than 90o with the normal
on the cutting edge.
(5) Tool life Less More
(6) Surface finish Poor Good
(7) Power consumption More Less
(8) Involved wetting edges in One More than one
cutting
(9) Examples Shaping, Planning, Parting, Grooving, Turning, Drilling, Milling, Slitting.
Hacksawing, Broaching.
Single point cutting tool– Back rake angle (αb)–

• It affects the process of shear deformation.
• It guides the chip flow direction.
Side rake angle (αs)–
• It measure the slops of tool face from cutting edge.
End relief angle (γe) & Side relief angle (γs)–
• Avoid rubbing of tool flank with the machined
surface.
End cutting edge angle (Ce)–
• Prevent trailing end of cutting edge of tool from
rubbing.
Terms– • End cutting tools– Zero ECEA
1. Shank Main body of tool. Ex. : Parting off, Cut off & Necking tools.
2. Face Surface along which chip slides upward. ECEA↑ : Tool becomes weak.
Side cutting edge angle (Cs)–
3. Flank Surface which face the work piece.
Cs↑↑ –Tool work separating force↑
4. Nose Point where side cutting edge & end –Induces chatter
cutting edge intersect. Zero Cr – Tool work separating force↑
5. Heel Intersection of flank & base of tool. – Induces chatter.
Zero Cs – For machining of casting & forging. • Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference
Not affect cutting force & power. plane.
Nose radius– Clearance/Relief angle (γ)–
• Curvature of tool tip. • Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface
• R provides– Strength to nose. from finished surface.
Better surface finish. Shear angle (φ)–
R↑ : Cutting force & cutting power↑ • Angle b/w shear plane & job surface or cutting
But R↑↑↑– Induce chatter. velocity.
Lip angle/Wedge angle/Knife angle (ψ)– Cutting angle (C)–
• Angle b/w face & flank of tool. • Angle of inclination of rake surface from finished
• Depends on the α & γ surface.
• It determines strength of the cutting edge. C = γ+ψ
ψ↑– More strength of tool tip.
Allow machining of hard material.
Depth of cut↑
CS↓
Heat dissipation↑
Tool life↑
Back rake (αb) = 10o – 15o
Side rake (αs) = 5o – 15o
End relief (γe) = 6o – 10o
Side relief (γs) = 5o – 15o
End cutting edge (Ce) = 8o – 15o
Side cutting edge (Cs) = 15o – 30o ANSI/ASA ORS
Rake surface– αb– αs – γe – γs – Ce – Cs – R i–α – γs – γe – Ce – λ – R
Surface along which chip is sliding. Back rake angle (αb) Inclination angle (i)
Flank surface/Clearance surface–
Side rake angle (αs) Side rake (α)
• Other surface which is relieved to avoid rubbing
with the finished surface or machined surface. End relief angle (γe) Side relief (γs)
Shear plane– Side relief angle (γs) End relief (γe)
• Surface along which material is continuously End cutting edge angle (Ce) End cutting angle (Ce)
deformed, as the tool moves ahead.
Side cutting edge angle (Cs) Approach angle (λ)
Rake angle (α)–
Nose radius (R) Nose radius (mm)
Positive rake angle Negative rake angle Zero rake angle

Tool tip will be under shearing & Tool tip will be under pure Tool strength↑
bending. compression.
Takes the chip away from machined Directs the chip on the machined Avoid digging of tool into work
surface. surface. piece.
Application :
CI & brass
Thread cutting
Form tool
Cutting edge of tool is sharp. Cutting edge of tool is blunt.
→ Cutting force ↓ → Cutting force ↑
→ Power required for machining ↓ → Power required for machining↑
Tool life ↓ because due to less area Due to more area at tool tip, heat
at tool tip → dissipation ↑
Heat dissipation ↓

Application : Application :
Less rigid & less strong set up Strong & rigid setup
Continuous machining Interrupted machining
Machining at low speed Machining at high speed
No impact load During heavy impact loads
Machining of soft & ductile Machining of brittle material &
material high strength alley
Chip of motion mechanics–
V V V
= S = C
cos ( φ − α ) cos α sin φ
Merchant force circle diag.–

t = Uncut chip thickness
tc = Cut chip thickness
V = Cutting velocity
vc = Chip velocity
ψ = Lip angle
γ = Relief angle
φ = Shear angle
α = Rake angle
ℓc = Length of cut chip thickness If α = 0
ℓ = Length of uncut chip thickness F = Ft , N = Fc
If α = 0 & µ = 1
t ℓ c vc F = N = Fc = Ft
Chip thickness ratio (r) = = =
tc ℓ V Limitation– Only valid for orthogonal cutting.
sin φ π α β
r= Merchant theory– φ = + −
cos ( φ − α ) 4 2 2
r cos α Force relation–

tan φ = F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α
1 − r sin α
N = Fc cos α − Ft sin α
wt Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ
Area of shear plane ( As ) =
sin φ Fs = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
Fs sin φ Lee & shafter– Stabler
Shear stress ( τ ) =
wt π π α
φ= +α −β φ= + −β
Shear strain ( γ ) = cot φ + tan ( φ − α ) 4 4 2
Modified merchant theory given by mohr's–
Vs 2φ + β − α = cot −1 ( k )
Shear strain rate =
Thickness of primary shear zone ( t s ) k = merchant machinability constant

Turning operation– V = πDN mm/min.
Conversion formula– Power consumed during cutting = Fc.V ⇒ Watt
Turning 3D → Orthogonal (2D) Frictional power = F.Vc
Power Fc
Sp. energy consumption = =
MRR 1000fd
Surface roughness
Ideal surface (zero nose radius)
Peak to valley roughness
f
(h) =
tan SCEA + cot ECEA
↓
Side cutting edge angle
h
Centre line average value (Ra) =
4
Practical surface (Nose radius = R)
f2
MRR ⇒ A c V = btV = fdV m3 / s h=
8R
Types of chips
Continuous chip Discontinuous chip Continuous chip with built up edge
1. Work material Ductile Brittle Ductile
2. Rake angle Positive & high Negative or small Small
3. Cutting edge Sharp Dull
4. Cutting velocity High Low Medium to low
5. Feed Low Large Medium
6. Friction Low High
7. Cutting fluid Efficient Absent or poor Absent or poor
Note : Chip breakers are Example : Grey CI, Brass, Example : Milling & broaching
used to break the Bronze.
continuous chip into short
segments.
Heat distribution in metal cutting–

Primary deformation zone Secondary deformation zone Tertiary deformation zone
1. Affected area Around shear plane. At chip tool interface. At work tool interface.
2. Reason Plastic deformation by shearing Plastic deformation by Friction between chip & tool
in the shear zone. shearing & friction on the on tool flank.
cutting face.
3. Heat generated 80–85% 15–20% 1–3%
4. Remark Also known as shear zone. Also known as friction Heat is generated due to
zone. rubbing of tool flank work
surface.
Maximum heat is generated As the chip slides upward Also occurs due to built
due to plastic deformation along the face of the tool up edge formations.
of metal & carried away by friction occurs, this
chip which ↑ temperature of generates the heat between
chip. moving chip & rake face of
tool.
Tool wear– (a) Flank wear

(b) Crater wear
(c) Chipping of cutting edge
Flank wear Crater wear

1. Defected place of • Flank fore or Relief face of tool. Rake face of tool.
tool • Nose part of tool.
2. Reasons • Abrasion Temperature (Tool material diffuse into
the chip material & tool temperature is
maximum at some distance from the
tool tip)
3. Wear mechanism • By hard particular & inclusions in the Diffusion
work piece.
• By fragments of BUE ploughing against
clearance face of the tool.
• Sharing of micro welds b/w tool & jab.
4. Effect Speed ↓ Flank wear ↑ Speed ↑↑ : Crater wear predominates
MRR ↑ Flank wear ↑ MRR ↑ : Crater wear ↑
5. Remark • Flank wear directly affect component Crater wear is more common when
dimensions produced & usually the most • Work material–Ductile (e.g.-steel)
common determinant of tool life. • Tool material–Brittle
(e.g.–Tungsten carbides)
Wear mechanism– Adhesion wear Because of plastic deformation &

Abrasion wear If one of the surfaces contain very friction, high temperature involved
hard particles then these particles
in cutting process causes welding
during the process of sliding may
action on a tool surface by work
dislodge material from other
surface. material.

Diffusion wear Caused by displacement of atom in Cutting speed = 30–50 m/min
the lattice of atomic crystals. Remark :
Chemical & Chemical wear–Chemical reaction Suitable for high speed & low
Electrolyte b/w tool & w/p malarial in stiffness machine tool.
wear presence of cutting fluid which 3. Cast alloy Non ferrous cast alloy
cause removal or erosion of Trade name Co = 40–55%, Cr = 30–35%, W =
material from surface. satellite 10–20%, C – (2–4)%
Electrolyte wear–Result of With tending temp = 9000C
galvanic action like corrosion b/w Cutting speed = 50 m/min
tool & w/p. Produced by casting & specially
Oxidation At high temperature oxidation of used for form tool.
wear carbide tool will result decrease in Properties lies in between HSS
its strength which create wear at & carbides but not tough as
the tip or at cutting edge. HSS.
Taylor's tool life equation VT n = C 4. Cemented Carbides of W, Ti, Ta in the
carbide/ form of powder with binder of
V = Cutting speed (m/min)
T = Time (min) cermets Co at a high pressure &
temperature.
n = Exponent depends on tool material
C = Constant based on tool material & work With standing temp = 900–
material & coolant 10000C
n → 0.08 to 0.2 → HSS tool. Cutting speed = 150–200 m/min
0.2 to 0.4 → Carbide tool. Produced by powder
0.5 to 0.7 → Ceramic tool. metallurgy.
0.1 to 0.15 → Cast iron Suitable for machining CI &
Cutting fluid– Non ferrous metals.
Material Cutting fluid 5. Ceramics/ Al2O3 with oxides of Mg, Ni,
Sintered oxides Cr, Zr & carbides of Si, Ti.
1. CI Machined dry
With standing temp = 13000C
Dry & compressed air
Cutting speed = 200–600 m/min
2. Brass, Bronze, Motel metal Machined dry
Negative rake angle used.
Soluble oil
Can't machine : Al & Ti (due
3. Aluminum Kerosene oil, mineral oil, to strong affinity as the results
soluble oil of chemical reactions)
4. Stainless steel Sulphar based mineral oil 6. Diamond Allotrope of carbon.
5. Alloy steel Soluble oil With standing temp = 2000–
6. Wrought iron Sulphar based mineral oil 30000C
Cutting materials– Cutting speed = 1000 m/min.
1. Carbon steel With standing temperature– 200– Can't machine : Steel (due to
2500C allotropic transformation into
Cutting speed = 10 m/min graphite on interaction with Fe
Remark : at 7300C)
Use for low speed cutting 7. Cubic boron Synthesized from hexagonal
operations. nitride (CBN) boron nitride in the form of
Hot hardness : Low layers.
Wear resistance : Poor With standing temp = 15000C
2. HSS 18 – 4 – 1 CS = 600–700 m/min
18% = Tungsten, 4% = Chromium, Next to diamond in hardness
1% = Vanadium but artificial.
With standing temperature = Used for machining of stainless
6500C steel.

Lathe Specification of lathe–
Different part of lathe 1. Height of centers above the top of the bed.
(1) Lathe bed– 2. The swing or the maximum diameter of the
• Is made of chilled CI (damping property) workpiece that can be rotated over the ways of
• In this whole three unit is positioned. the bed.
(a) Head stock 3. The maximum length of the work that can be
(b) Carriage accommodated between the lathe centers.
(c) Tailstock 4. The maximum diameter of the work that can be
Types of lathe bed– rotated over the lathe spindle.
(a) Flat typed lathe bed Lathe operations–
(b) Inverted V type lathe bed Plain turning Operation of removing excess
(c) Combination of both (Flat & V type) amount of material from the surface
(2) Head stock– of the cylindrical work piece.
• It is at left end of the bed. Step turning Operation of producing steps of
• It comprises work holding devices, spindle, gear different diameters in the work
box. piece.
• Power supply is provided only in head stock. Taper Operation of producing an external
(3) Spindle– turning conical surface on a work piece.
Undercutting It is an operation of reducing the dia
or Grooving of work piece over a very narrow
surface.
Threading Operation of cutting helical grooves
on the external cylindrical surface of
work piece.
Knurling Operation of embossing a diamond
shape pattern on work piece.
• Hollow cylindrical shaft having external threads &
Chamfering Operation of beveling an extreme
having internal taper (Morse taper) end of work piece.
• Spindle is supported by thrust bearing in head stock. Essential operation after thread
(4) Tailstock– cutting.
• Just opposite to head stock at right end of lathe. Boring Operation of enlarging of a hole
Purposes– To hold long work piece at other already made in a work piece.
end. (By attaching dead centre) Taper turning methods
To hold the tool for performing By using form tool–In this case use a tool whose
some processes like (Drilling, shape of cutting edge is of desired taper.
tapping, reaming) by attaching tool.
Tailstock does not rotate.
But tails tock itself can move to &
fro motion on lathe bed lays.
Carriage– ℓ = Length of tapered surface
• Located between head stock & tailstock. L = Length of work piece
• It is fitted on bed ways of lathe & can slide along the 2α = Taper angle
guide ways. α = Half taper angle
Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest
• Consists mainly five part.
(a) Apron
(b) Saddle
(c) Cross slide
Swivel
(d) Compound rest–Swivel 
Top slide D−d
tan α =
(e) Tool post 2ℓ

Tail stock set over method or Tail stock off set Cutting speed for counter boring
method should be greater than that of drilling
x operation.
sin α =
L Spot facing It is an operation of smoothing &
Tail stock off set distance x = L sin α squaring the surface around a hole.
α = half taper angle Counter Operation of making cone shape
As half taper angle is very small sinking enlargement of the end of a hole.
D−d Lapping Lapping is a finishing process, which is
sin α ≈ tan α =
2ℓ carried out using loose abrasives.
D−d Trepanning It is an operation of producing a hole
x= ×L by removing metal along the
2ℓ
circumference of hollow cutting tool.
x = Tailstock off set.
Different types of lathe– Various types of drilling machine
1. Speed lathe or wood lathe. (a) Portable drilling machine
2. Engine lathe. (b) Sensitive drilling machine
3. Tool room lathe. (c) Radial drilling machine
4.Capstan & turret lathe. (d) Gang drilling machine
5. Special purpose lathe. (e) Multispindle drilling machine
6. Fully automatic lathe. (f) Deep hole drilling machine
Tool offset error– • Cutting speed or peripheral speed–
1. Tool offset above 2. Tool offset below V = πDN m/min
D = dia of drill bit
↑ α eff = α actual + θ  ↓ α eff = α actual − θ 
  N = Rotational speed of drill
↓ γ eff = γ actual − θ  ↑ γ eff = γ actual + θ  Feed– mm/rev
Chip flow ↑↑ Rubbing action at the end if feed is mm/min
flank ↓↓ Feed velocity = feed × rpm
Note– • Machining time or drilling time
In boring operation the tool is placed above the distance of tool travel L
tm = =
centre line ⇒ α ↓↓, Ceff ↑↑ feed × rpm fN
and below the centre line ⇒ α ↑↑, Ceff ↓↓
• Material removal rate = mm3/min
Hole making operations
π 2
Drilling It is a process of producing a MRR = d ×f × N
cylindrical holes by rotating fluted 4
cutting tool. (1) Point angle–
Both full length hole & through hole It usual value is 1180 & varies from metal to metal.
can be produced. Point angle = 900 for bakelite & fibrous plastic.
Boring It is an operation of enlarging a hole = 1180 for mild steel & brass
that has already been drilled. = 1350 for stainless steel
Point angle < 1180 = for softer materials.
Reaming It is an operation of slightly enlarging a
Point angle > 1180 = for harder alloy steel.
machined hole to proper size with a
(2) Lip (clearance) angle–
smooth finish.
Angle varies from 120 to 150.
Tapping It is an operation of producing internal
Angle formed by the flank and a plane at right angle
threads in a hole.
to the drill axis.
Hole drilled for tapping should be (3) Chisel edge angle–
smaller than tap size by twice the depth Angle usually varies from 1200–1350
of thread.
(4) Helix angle or Rake angle–
Counter Operation of enlarging one end of an Its usually value is 300
boring existing hole concentric with the Low helix angle for brass
original hole with square bottom. High helix angle for aluminum

• Grinding– Resinoid or • Abrasive grain + synthetic resin
Synthetic • Good for high speed grinding
bond (B) • Use for rough grinding
Rubber • Abrasive grain + Rubber + Sulphur
bond (R) • For high speed operation
• Elastic bond
(1) Abrasive
• More elastic so soft on w/p surface
Natural abrasive Artificial abrasive
• Regulating wheel in centreless
(a) Sand stone or solid (a) Silicon carbide (SiC)– grinding is mode up of rubber bond.
quartz Trade name =
Shellac • Good surface finish
carborandum
bond (E) • Abrasive grain + shellac
used with non ferrous
components • Suitable for heavy duty operation.
(b) Emery (Al2O3 + iron (b) Aluminum oxide Metal bond • Abrasive grain + metal
oxide) (Al2O3)– (M) • Used in manufacturing of diamond
Prepared by ore bauxite & CBN
(white crystalline form) Grinding wheel wear–
Trade name = Alundum (1) Attributions grain wear–
(c) Corundum (Al2O3 + (c) Cubic boron nitride • Cutting edge of grain becomes dull & round which
ironed) (CBN)– reduces the removal of material.
Cubic crystal structure • Similar to flank wear of cutting tool.
very hard but less than (2) Grain fracture–
diamond. (3) Bond fracture–
(d) Diamond CBN & Diamond are
known as super abrasive
Hardness–
Diamond > CBN > SiC >
Al2O3 > Quartz.
(e) Garnet
Grain size–
8 − 24 ⇒ Coarser grain  Suitable for soft & ductile materials Loading of grinding wheel–

30 − 60 ⇒ Medium grain  Rough surface finish When chips will not find enough space to flow out
80 − 180 Fine grain  Smooth surface finish with grinding wheel then chips will get clogged with in
⇒ 
220 − 600 Very fine grain  Suitable for hard & ductile materials the interspaces b/w grain.
Grade or strength of bond–
A to H = Soft grade → for harder materials.
I to P = Medium grade
Q to Z = Harder grade → for soft materials
Structure– Open structure– 8–16 Reason behind loading–
Dense structure– 0–7 • Grinding soft material with dense structure.
Bonds– • If rpm of grinding wheel is low.
Virtified • Abrasive grains + Clay + Water • If cutting fluid is not appropriate.
bond (V) • Also known as ceramics bond Effect of loading on G.W.–
• Not affected by acid or alkaline • Misalignment of wheel.
solution. • Inaccuracy.
Silicate • Abrasive grain + Silicate of soda • Difficult to remove more material.
bond (S) • Low heat generation • Reduce surface finish.
• Water proof bond • Cutting force increase.

Dressing Truing Centreless grinding–
Process of sharpening Process of aligning the • Process of grinding the diameter of a work piece not
mounted on centers or otherwise hold.
the grinding wheel if periphery of grinding
• It may be internal or external.
its edges get dull with wheel so that it run
• It this w/p is placed on the work rest blade between
working. concentric about its
the grinding wheel & regulating wheat.
axis of rotation. • Both wheel rotates in opposite direction of
Sharpening is done by This is done by workpiece direction.
breakdown the diamond strikes. • Regulating wheel = surface speed = 15–60 m/min
abrasive so that new • Grinding wheel rotates at a surface speed of = 1500–
sharp cutting edges 2000 m/min.
will expose. • Actual feed = πDN sinα
Main objective– Volume of material removed
• Grinding ratio =
Dislodging the wheel. Volume of wheel wear
Clean the wheel External centerless Internal centerless
Breakdown of grain grinding grinding
Grinding operations
Cylindrical • It may be internal or external.
grinding • Work or surface speed = 20–30
m/min.
• Grinding wheel speed = 1500–2000
m/min.
Surface • It is used to produce flat surface in Milling
grinding a horizontal position. • Specification of milling–
Face • It is used to produce flat surface in • Length of work table & its width.
grinding vertical position. • Maximum longitudinal cross & vertical motion.
Form • It is used to grind gear teeth, • Number of spindle speed & feed.
grinding threads, splined, shafts & holes. • Power of drilling motor.
• Net weight of machine.
Plunge • It is used to grind external diameter • Standard taper hole & size of spindle.
grinding of work piece equal to or shorter in
length than the width of the wheel
face by feeding the revolving wheel
into the work.
Snag • It is used to remove considerable
grinding amount of metal without regard to
accuracy of finished surface.

Up milling Down milling
Cutter rotates against Cutter rotates along the
the direction of feed. feed direction on work
piece.
ℓ + ℓ0 + ℓa + X
tm =
Conventional milling. Climb milling. fm
Chip thickness = Chip thickness – Where, ℓ a = Approach length, ℓ 0 = Over travel
minimum to maximum maximum to minimum. X = Compulsory approach
More heat is distributed Less heat is distributed f m = f t .Z.N
to W/P which may to work piece. D
Slot milling, D = W So, X =
cause change in 2
mechanical properties.
More chance of tool Less chances of tool
wear because both are wear.
Jig Fixture
moving against each
A device which holds & A device which holds &
other. locates a W/P & guides locates a W/P during an
& controls one or more inspection for
Milling operations cutting tool. manufacturing
It is an operation of producing flat Ex. : Drilling, Reaming & operation.
Plane milling
Tapping. Ex. : Milling grinding
or horizontal surface parallel to the It is used for lights It is used for heavier
axis of cutter. operation. operation.
Operation of producing flat surface Types of jig–
Face milling
(a) Template jig (b) Plate jig
at right angles to the axis of rotation (c) Table jig (d) Sandwich jig
of the cutter. (e) Angle plate jig (f) Box jig
(g) Channel jig (h) Leaf jig
Angular or Operation of producing flat surface
(i) Indexing jig (j) Turn ion jig
bevel milling at an angle to the axis of the cutter. (k) Multi station jig
Side milling Producing vertical flat surface on Type of fixtures–
(a) Plate fixtures (b) Angle plate fixtures
the side face of job using a side (c) Vice jaw fixtures (d) Indexing fixture
milling cutter. (e) Profile fixtures
Unconventional machining process
End milling Operation of producing flat surface
Method Mechanism Source Process
either horizontal, vertical or at an
of
angle by using an end milling cutter. machining
Straddle In which a pair of side milling cutter Mechanism Erosion Fluid + WJM,
milling is used for machining two vertical particle AJM,
motion USM
surface of a w/p simultaneously.
Electrochemical Ion Electric ECM
displacement current
Face milling (Vertical) Chemical Corrosion Corrosive Chemical
agent machining
Symmetric Asymmetric
Thermal Fusion & Electric spark EDM
vaporizations High speed EBM
electrons LBM
Powerful Plasma
radiation are
1 1 2
High machining
X= D − D2 − W 2  X=
2 
D − D 2 − ( W + 2Y ) 
 temperature
2  
ionized gas
Metal removal rate– e ( MRR )Vol.
PAM > ECM > EDM > USM > EBM > LBM 3. Sp. MRR (s) = =
↓ ↓ Fρ I
(Maximum) (Minimum) 4. f = electrode feed rate (mm/s or cm/s)
Electro discharge machining– f = Sp.MRR × J ( current density )
• High voltage & low current method.
• Work piece – Anode J=
I
f=
e
×
V
Tool – Cathode (Graphite + Cu or Tungsten + Cu) A Fρ ρs L
• Tool & W/P both must be a conductive nature. Ultrasonic machining–
• Dielectric fluid– Kerosene • Mechanical method.
• Metal is removed due to erosion caused by rapidly • Metal is removed by using abrasive slurry b/w tool
occurring discharge b/w tool & work. & work.
Favorable condition– • Used to machining of glass, ceramic, refractory.
• Thermal conductivity– Q ∝ K • Used in dental application.
• Work piece ⇒ KW↓, MRR↑ • High tool wear rate.
• Tool ⇒ KT↑, Tool wear↓ • 20 KHz - 30 KHz
• Specific heat capacity Q = mC∆T • Graphite tool is used
• Tool – C is high (tool wear is low) • Size of abrasive
• W/p– C is low (MRR is high)
Application–
• Blind complex cavities.
• Hard material dies.
Electrochemical machining–
• This process followers low of electrolysis (that is
faraday's low)
• According to this low, mass of metal removed is
directly proportional to amount of charge flow
within the electrolyte. Abrasive jet machining–
Mαq • Nozzle dia = 0.18–8 mm
M α It • Nozzle tip distance ↑ MRR ↑
M = ZIt
I = Current (Amp)
t = Time (sec)
Z = Electrochemical equivalent.
e ( gram equivalent )
Z= • Abrasives = sic = 30%
F ( Faradey 's constant )
Gas = 70%
(Faraday's constant – 96500 coulomb/mole) • Used for glass, germanium quartz.
• Tool & w/p both must be conductive in nature. Application–
• Excellent surface finish. • Slot or parting off operation.
• MRR is very high. EBM (Electron beam machining)
• No tool wear. • This process is carried out in vacuum.
• Gap b/w tool & work. • MRR is low & not used for larges w/p.
Use– Steam turbine blade. • Used for machining injector nozzle in diesel engine.
Summary– Laser beam machining (LBM)
eI At.wt. • More flexible the EBM.
1. MRR (gm/s) = , e=
F Valency • MRR is least.
eI gm • Used to machine jig-jag courtier.
2. MRR (volume) = (cm3/sec), ρ=
Fρ cm3 • Used to drill micro holes.
Plasma arc machining– Type of allowances
• Poor accuracy. 1. Shrinkage allowance for important materials
• MRR is highs. Material Allowance
• Used for profile cutting of monal metal & stainless
Bismuth Negligible
steel.
Cast iron 10 mm/metre length
Aluminium alloy 12-15 mm/m length
Bronze, Brass, Cu 15 mm/m length
Pure Al 17 mm/m length
Grey cast iron Negative allowance
Plain carbon steel 20 mm/m length
Zinc lead 25 mm/metre length
Liquid shrinkage (Ist stage) > Solid shrinkage (IIIrd
stage) > Phase transformation shrinkage (IInd
stage)
2. Draft or taper allowance
Casting
Main components of Casting–
1. Pattern
2. Moulding sand
3. Tools & equipments
Casting terms–
Internal surface require more taper compared to

external surfaces.
3. Machining allowance
• For external dimension
Pattern size = cast size + 2 MA
• For internal dimension
Pattern size = cast size – 2 MA
4. Shaking or Rapping allowance
Pattern allowances
It is negative allowance
1. Shrinkage allowance
Pattern size = cast size – shaking allowance
5. Distortion or camber allowance– To overcome
contraction this allowance is provided on the pattern
opposite to the direction of the distortion.
Mould sand
Composition of moulding sand
Silica sand 70-75%
Clay 10-20%
Tp 1st stage Always contraction Water 3-6%
Tp–Tm Liquid Additive 1-6%
Shrinkage Additive used in moulding sand
Tm 2nd stage Compensated → Riser • Saw dust/wood flour – Improve green strength &
collapsibility.
Tm–Tf Mostly Exception– Grey CI
contraction expand so in grey cast iron • Linseed oil, Molasses – Strength & hardness
phase change no need of riser. • Coal dust, sea coal, silica flour – Surface finish &
resistance to metal penetration.
Tf 3rd stage
• Liquid & solid shrinkage is maximum for AL
T f– T o Solid (6.5% required more volume of riser).
shrinkage • Total shrinkage is maximum for steel
• Solid shrinkage is maximum for lead & zinc.

Properties of moulding sand
Refractoriness Ability to withstand high temperature of the liquid metal without fusion.
Permeability Ability of moulding sand to allow the gasses to escape.
Factor affecting permeability
(a) size of grain– course grain – 40-50µ 400-600µ
(b) moisture content in the moulding sand (2-8%)
(c) shape of grain
(d) compactness & density
(e) Bonding content
Flowability Ability of moulding sand to flow into each & every corners of mould box due to
ramming force.
Hardness To minimize the erosion and to withstand force applied by liquid metal.
Collapsibility Ability of to collapse during solid contraction of cost object, to prevent it by
developing any resistance force against thermal contraction.
Strength (a) Green strength– having moisture.
(b) Dry strength– After evaporation of moisture/No moisture present.
(c) Hot strength– Required to hold the shape of the mould cavity after all the
moisture is eliminated.
Moulding sand 3. Sand slinger– It is used for uniform packing of sand

Green • Moist sand in the mould.
4. Diaphragm moulding machine– Used to uniform
sand • 18-30% clay + 5-8% moisture rest silica
ramming and hardness of the sand in the flask.
sand
5. Stripping plate machine– Used for draw the
• Fine, soft, light & porous
pattern from the mould.
• Only for small size Casting of ferrous &
Gating design
non-ferrous metals.
(1) Gate
Dry • If moisture from green sand is removed
sand • More compact & strong
• Suitable for large Casting.
Loam • 50% sand grains + 50% clay
sand • Used for loam moulding of large grey -
iron Casting, drums, large bell.
Facing • Small amount of carbonaceous material
sand sprinkled inner surface of mould cavity.
• Comes in contact with molten metal.
Backing • Sand used to back up the facing sand Top gate Bottom gate
sand and not used to the pattern. 2A m 
tf = h t − h t − h m 
Parting • Consist of dried silica sand + sea sand A g 2g 
sand or burnt sand. A sand employed on the If ht = hm
face of the patterns before moulding.
[ t f ]bottom = [ 2t f ]top
Moulding machine–
1. Jolt machine– Machine rams the sand harder at the
pattern face with decreasing hardness towards the
back of the mould. Vm
tf =
2. Squeezing machine– This machine rams the sand A g Vg
harder at the back of the mould and softer on the
pattern face. Vg = 2gh t

Choke area – Area of min. cross-section in gating
design.
Non-pressurized Pressurized
• Gating ratio Gating ratio
Sprue : Runner : Ingate Sprue : Runner : Ingate
1 : 4 : 4 2 : 2 : 1
3. Riser
Choked area = A(sprue) Choked area = A(gate)
Optimum condition–
• Velocity of molten • Velocity of molten h=d V/A = d/6
Side Riser
metal is low metal high
Top Riser h = d/2 V/A = d/6
• Chances of turbulence • Chances of
& splashing is low turbulence &
Method of riser design
splashing is more.
(a) Volume of riser ≥ 3 time %age of shrinkage of
• High chance of air- • Suitable for ferrous
volume of casting
aspiration effect materials
( t s )riser ≥ ( t s )casting ⇒ 
V V
• Suitable for non-ferrous • No chances of air (b)  ≥ 
metals aspiration effect.  A r  A c
Useful metalin the mould Vc
Solidification time– Chvorinov's relation, C asting yield = =
Total volume of the metal Vc + Vg
n
 V  which enters into the mould cavity
Solidification time (ts) = K   n = 1.5-2.5, n ≃ 2
 SA  Vc = volume of casting
Vg = volume of gating element
Where, K = solidification factor
If C.Y. < 1 (gating element is used)
Always (ts)riser > (ts)casting C.Y. = 1 (gating element is not used)
EXPENDABLE MOULD (special Casting techniques)

Name of the process Pattern material Moulding material Application Special features
Shell moulding Al, C.I. Dry silica, phenol • Cylinder blocks Metallic pattern is used
formaldehyde • Rocker arm, piston
rings, thin Casting
Investment Casting Wax Silica flour, ethyl • Gas turbine blades Very complex and high melting point
(or) lost wax process silicate, ceramic • Dentures objects
• Gold ornaments
• Jet engine parts
Full moulding Plastics Silica sand with resin • Fitting tools Pattern will evaporate while pouring the
(cavityless) polystyrene binders • Motor Casting metal
or Evaporative • Foam, PVC
pattern Casting • Thermocouple
CO2 moulding Wood (or) metal Silica sand + sodium To prepare very large • CO2 gas supply to increase mould
silicate binder size mould hardness
Na2SiO3 (2-8%) + CO2→SiO2 (Silica gel) + Na2 CO3
(B) Permanent Mould

Name of the Mechanism Application Special features
process
Hot chamber die External plunger pressure • Lead & tin solders Low melting point (Lead, tin, zinc) component
Casting • Pump valves only produced
• Nuclear shielding components
Cold chamber External plunger pressure • Carburetors, crankcase valve High melting point non-ferrous materials Al, Cu,
die Casting bodies Brass etc.
• Fuel injection pump parts
Slush Casting Gravity force • Toys, decorative items, thin Object with thin section and made up of low M.P.
Casting, hollow thin Casting, materials like lead, tin, zinc Al.
lamp shades etc.

Squeeze casting Gravity force & metal • Brake shoe Combination of Casting & forging.
solidified under pressure • Bushes
Continuous Gravity force • Long length billets • Casting + forming combination
casting • Blooms • Production rate is high
• Slabs
• Rods
Blow moulding Glass or plastic placed in • Plastic bottles
the die and air is blown • Bulb
into the die
Casting Related terms Casting defects–

Riddle It is used for cleaning the molding sand Type of defect Defect Remedies
Slick Repairing & finishing the mould
Gas defects Blow holes, pin Increase the
Lifter Used for smoothing & cleaning out
depression holes, scar, permeability
Swab Moistening the edges of sand before blister etc. of the sand,
removing the pattern. provide vent
Gate Actual entry point through which molten holes.
metal entries the mould. Moulding Drop & dirt, cuts • Perform
Pouring A small funnel shaped cavity at the top material defects and washes, uniform
basin of the mould into which molten metal is scab, rat tail ramming
poured. • Design the
Runner The passage way in the parting plane gating
through which metal flow. element
Sprue Regulate the flow before it reaches the properly
mould cavity controls the flow of the
metal into the mould. Gating design Shrinkage Design the
Riser It feeds the molten metal to the Casting cavities riser properly
in order to compensate for the shrinkage. Metallurgical Hot tears & Provide
Core For making hollow cavities in castings. defect cracks uniform
Core It forms a seat to support the cores. cooling
prints Other defects Mould shift & Provide
Chills Placed in the mould to increase the cold shift dowel pins,
cooling rate of casting to provide core prints &
uniform cooling rate. chaplets
• Chills are metal of high thermal
conductivity. Pouring material Misrun, cold Provide
defects shuts sufficient
Chaplets To support cores inside the mould
cavity. fluidity and
Padding Padding is extra metal of casting pouring
(material) to provide uniform cooling. temperature

Welding
Weld pool It is amount of metal which is melted
by heat of welding.
Weld Bead It is amount of metal which is added to
the w/p in single pass.
Deposition Amount of metal which is added into
rate the w/p per unit time (kg/hr).
AP Toe Junction between w/p & weld face.
Dilution =
AP + AR Root Point of deepest penetration in a fillet.
AP → Area of penetration Throat Shortest distance between root & weld
AR → Area of reinforcement face.
Comparison of different electrode polarity– Flux coating materials

Direct current straight Direct current reverse Function Flux coating materials
polarity (DCSP) polarity (DCRP) De-oxidizers Graphite, Alumina, Ferro-silicon
• Electrode → (–ve) • Electrode – (+ve)
and ferromanganese
1/3rd of heat 2/3rd of heat
Slag formation Iron oxide, silicon oxide, silica
• Work piece →(+ve) • Work piece– (–ve)
compounds flour, calcium fluorides (CaF2)
2/3rd of heat 1/3rd of heat
• Depth of penetration • Depth of penetration is Arc-Stabilizers Sodium oxides (Na2O) Calcium
more less oxide (CaO)
• Deposition rate is less • Deposition rate is Alloying Chromium, Ni, Cobalt
more
elements
• Used for joining of • Used for joining of
Gas forming Cellulose, Calcium carbonate
more thickness and less thickness and low
high M.P. material M.P. materials. compounds (CaCO3)

Gas welding technique– 3. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Leftward or fore-hand Right-ward or back • Heat generation is due to plasma arc between work
welding hand welding piece & tungsten electrode, (20,000oC) around.
• Inert gas used for shielding.
• Non-consumable tungsten electrode & ceramic
nozzle is used.
• High depth of penetration & welding speed is high.
Welding torch moving
Welding torch is moving Application–
from left to right
from right to left • High thickness & high M.P. material, titanium, Ni,
Inner-cone → melting the Inner cone → melting cobalt & stainless steel in aerospace, gas turbine
base material the base material blade.
Outer flame → preheating Outer flame → 4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) (Automatic
the base material Reheating the already technique)
welded portion
• Thickness, t = 10 – 50 mm (in a single pass)
By reducing the By annealing reliving I = 200 – 2000 A, V = 5 m/min.
temperature difference due the stresses & crack
Deposition rate = 20 kg/hr.
to slow rate of cooling, formation can be
coarse grain structure can minimized • Arc is generated between consumable electrode &
be produced work piece
The plate > 6 mm Economical for plate • Solid granular flux (CaO, CaF2) is supplied.
thickness are not over t > 6 mm • Arc is under flux, minimum heat loss & max. focus
economical to weld with thickness. on w/p.
this method • DCRP with high current is used.
Shielded gas arc welding Application– Pressure vessels, LPG cylinder, ship
1. TIG, GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) building.
• DCEN (Straight polarity) used for all except Al & 5. Thermite welding–
Mg.
• Heat generation is due to thermal reaction of
• DCEP (reverse polarity) known as cathode cleaning
chemical mixture (H2 gas is acting as shielding gas)
• AC source is used for Mg & Al
• Arc is produced between non-consumable tungsten 3FeO4 + 8 Al  → 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + ∆h
electrode & work piece. Fe3O4 : Al 
→ 3 : 1 (by mass)
• t < 5 mm (No filler used)
Application–
t > 5 mm (filler need)
• Used in repair work of railway rails.
Application– Al, Mg and its alloys in aerospace and
automobile industries. • Joining of high thickness of plates.
2. MIG (GMAW) Gas metal inert gas welding • Joining of broken castings.
(Semi automatic) 6. Atomic hydrogen welding–
• At low current – Droplet transfer ⇒ only gravity • Heat is generated due to reunion of H2 atoms into H2
force molecules. Two non-consumable tungsten electrode
• At high current – Spray transfer ⇒ gravity + is used.
magnetic force
H2 
→ H + H – ∆h1
• No flux is used & welding speed is more.
• Wire in form of consumables electrode is used. H + H 
→ H2 + ∆h2
• Inert gas atmosphere is provided (He, Ar, CO2) • H2 gas act as shielding gas.
Application– Used for welding of stainless steels Al, Application– Tool steel, die steel, repair work of cutting
Mg, Cu & Ni alloy. tools & die.

Resistance welding–
Welding Working principle Application Special features
technique
Spot welding • Heat is generated due to Lap joining of sheet • No flux
resistance metals in automobile & • No filler material
• Nugget cylindrical shape refrigerator bodies • No leak proof joints are formed
h = height of nugget
d=6 t
I – (10,000 - 50,0000 A)
V – (5-10 V)
t = 0.01-0.5s
Seam welding Two sheets are provided Fuel tank, radiator bodies, • Electrodes are in the form of
(continuous between two rollers or exhaust pipes used in rollers or wheels
welding) wheels automobile • Leak proof joint.
heat is generated due to
resistance
Projection No. of projection by • Wire mess It is a multi spot welding
welding embossing technique • Joining of screw & nuts
of sheets
Flash butt By supplying high rate of • Joining of rods, pipes Joining of mild steel shank to
welding current a sudden flash will end to end high speed drill
be produced at the contact
of two work piece
Application of different flames 3

2CO + H2 + O 2 
→ 2CO2 + H2O + ∆h2
Metal Flame 2
M.S. Neutral 5
C2H2 + O 2 
→ 2CO2 + H2O + ∆h
High carbon steel Carburizing 2
Gray cast iron Neutral
Alloy steel Neutral
Aluminium alloy Neutral
Brass Oxidizing
Cu, Bronze Oxidizing
Ni-Alloy Carburizing
Lead Neutral
Gas welding (Chemical reaction welding)
Note– 1 vol. of C2H2  → 2.5 vol. of O2
Oxy-Acetylene gas welding
1 vol. of O2 is taken from cylinder
C2H2 + O2 
→ 2CO + H2 + ∆h1 1.5 vol. of O2 taken from atmosphere
Types of flame
Flame type Specific features Application
Neutral flame • Inner cone – 3100 C
o
M.S., cast iron, low carbon
 O  steel, Al, Cu
• C2H2 = O2  2 = 1
 C2 H 2 
• Hissy & little smokey

Oxidizing flame • Inner case – 3300oC Oxygen free Cu alloy brass,
 O  bronze & zinc base
• C2H2 < O2  2 = 1.5 materials.
 C2 H 2 
• Roaring (No smoke & noisy)
Reducing or carburizing flame • Inner cone – 2900oC • Medium carbon steel

 O  • Hard surfacing material
• C2H2 > O2  2 = 0.9 :1 such as satellite
 C2 H 2 
• Ni
• No any noise (smoky)
Solid state welding

Welding technique Working principle Application
Explosive welding • Cladding a plate or slab with
dissimilar metals
• Joining of titanium to steel
Steel to aluminium etc.
Joint is produced due to plastic deformation

Ultrasonic welding • Heating the material upto 0.5 TM and by • Used in fabrication of sim cards
applying external pressure • Fabrication of diodes in
• Frequency– 20 KHz to 75 KHz electronic industries.
• Expensive technique used for thin material only
• Heat affected zone is negligible
• Thickness < 1-2 mm foils
Friction welding • Heating the material upto red hot condition then Joining of drill bits valve to pipe &
applying axial pressure shank axle stub
N ⇒ 4000-6000 rpm
P ⇒ 40-400 MPa
• Heat is generated due to friction
Forge welding • Exactly similar to black smith forging operation Village level agricultural
• Work piece heated upto recrystallization application
temperature then hammered to get required
joint.
Diffusion welding • Both heat & pressure simultaneously applied at • Fabrication of composite
slow rate laminate
• Grain diffusion will take place • Joining of similar & dis-similar
• Accuracy & strength is very high material like metal to ceramics
• To minimize oxide formation inert gases are
provided or vacuum is made

Welding defects
Defect Cause Remedies
Gas porosity Atmospheric gases are trapped in • Provide sufficient amount of flux
the joint • Protect the liquid metal by providing inert gas.
Slag inclusion In-sufficient heat input improper • Provide sufficient amount of heat
position of the electrode • Position the electrode properly
Weld spatter Excess amount of heat input arc Provide sufficient amount of heat, reduce the arc blow.
blow
Lack of fusion Lack of heat input, filler material Provide sufficient heat, select optimum welding speed.
& penetration is not fused properly with base
metal
Weld cracks Non uniform cooling, filler metal Provide uniform cooling, use preheating & post heating
composition is not uniform
Weld decay In case of stainless steel due to Provide uniform cooling.
fast rate of cooling chromium in
the joint react with carbon and
form chromium carbide and cavity
is formed
Solid/liquid state welding
Brazing Soldering Braze welding
(Due to capillary action) Filler material enter into the • (Due to capillary action) (Due to gravity) filler
work piece filler material enter into w/p material enter into w/p
450oC < filler material < work piece melting point • Filler metal M.P. < 450oC When edge preparation
temperature is possible
Cu + Zn  Filler Filler ⇒ bronze (Cu +

Filler material alloy of Cu + Silver  Spelter lead + tin (solder) Tin)
Cu + Al 
• Flux borax & boric acid • Flux ⇒ ZnCl2 & NH4Cl or Joining cutting tool tip
• To produce leak proof joint HCl to shank
• Used in electrical circuit
design
Electron beam welding Laser beam welding

• Electron beam is focused by using Laser beam is focused using optical lens
magnetic lens
• No flux, no filler required Micro welding
• Vacuum necessary Multilayered material with different (K) thermal conductivity can
be joined
• Depth of penetration, welding speed No vacuum needed
high
• HAZ is less Weld dissimilar metal
• In aerospace, nuclear power plant Joining of Al, Cu, high carbon steel in electronic industry.
Joining of titanium, Ni, Cu

Metrology
Metrology is defined as science of measurement eg.–
with precision and accuracy. • Shrink fit, heavy
drive fit & light
drive fit, force fit.
Transition fit • Tolerance zone
always overlap
• Tight fit & push fit,
wringing fit, press
fit
Allowance
Terminology • Minimum clearance or maximum interference.
Basic size Size of a part to which all limits of
variation i.e. tolerance are applied
Tolerance The difference between the upper
Hole basis and shaft basis system
limit & lower limit
Upper limit Basic size + Upper deviation
Lower limit Basic size – Lower deviation
Allowance An intentional difference between
the maximum limits of mating
part
Unilateral limit When both maximum & minimum • Lower deviation of hole • Upper deviation of shaft
limits are either above or below =0 =0
basic size. • The basic size of the • The basic size of the
hole is taken as the low shaft is taken as one of
eg.⇒
limit of size of the hole the limit of size for the
+0.18 −0.18 +0.18
i.e. max. metal
φ25+0.10 or φ25−0.10 or φ25−0.00 shaft i.e. max. metal
condition (MMC) of condition (MMC)
Bilateral limit Max. limit → above basic size the hole
Min. limit → below basic size Tolerance Designation (IS)
+0.010
• Tolerance on a shaft or a hole can be calculated by
eg. ⇒ φ90 0.025
using– T = k × i
FIT Where, T = tolerance (µm)
Fit is the relationship between hole & shaft before
assembly. i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D µm
Clearance fit • Tolerance zone of D = D1D 2

shaft & hole never (D1 & D2 are the nominal sizes marking the
meet beginning & the end of a range of sizes in mm)
• It may be slide fit,
easy sliding fit, Nomenclature
running fit & loose
run fit.
Interference fit • The tolerance zone
of the shaft is φ50 → Basic size
entirely above that H8 → Hole tolerance grade IT – 8
of the hole. f7 → Shaft tolerance grade IT – 7

Limit & fit comprises 18 grades of fundamental Taylor's principle
tolerances for both shaft & hole.
Limit Gauges
Plug gauge– Used to check holes or internal
dimension
Go plug gauge checks low limit of hole
No-Go plug gauge checks upper limit of hole.
Snap & Ring Gauge– Used to check the shaft or Linear measurements
external dimension 1. Vernier caliper
Go-snap gauge– Checks upper limit of shaft nV = ( n − 1) S
No-Go snap gauge– Checks lower limit of shaft.
Where, n = No. of division on the vernier scale
Fit Description Hole basis Shaft V = Length of one division on the vernier scale
basis S = Length of smallest main scale division.
S
Free H9/d9 D9/h9 Least count = ( S − V ) =
running n
Loose H11/c11 C11/h11 2. Dial indicator
running • Displacement sensor
Easy H8/f8 F8/h8 least count 0.01 mm to 0.001 mm
Clearance • Can be used as comparator
running
fits Application
Sliding H7/g6 G7/h6
• Centering workpiece to machine tool spindle
Close H8/f7 F8/h7
clearance • Checking dimension
• Offsetting lathe tail stocks
Location H7/h6 H6/h7
3. Comparators– It can not measure absolute
clearance
dimension but can compare two dimensions.
Location- H7/k6 K7/h6
slight
Transition
interference
fits
Location/ H7/n6 N7/h6
Transition Mechanical comparator
Location H7/p6 P7/h6 Sigma mechanical comparator
interference Eden-Rolt Reed type comparator
Interference
Medium H7/s6 S7/h6 Angular measurements
fits
drive fit 1. Bevel protractor–
Force fit H7/u6 U7/h6 It is the part of the machinist's combination square
2. Sine bar–
Gauge Measurements
Snap gauge External dimensions
Plug gauge Internal dimensions
Taper plug gauge Taper hole
Ring gauge External diameter
Gap gauge Gap & grooves
Radius or fillet gauge Gauging radius
Thread pitch gauge External thread
Filler gauge Clearance between two
mating parts

• Sine bar specified by centre distance between two Different type instruments and their working
roller. principle (W.P.)–
• It can not be used to measure angle more than 45 . o
Instruments W.P.
Thread measurement Vernier caliper Difference between main
Threads are normally specified by the major scale & vernier scale
diameter. Micrometer Nut-bolt
• Major diameter– Measured by micrometer Sine bar Trigonometry
• Pitch diameter– Measured by wire method (2 wire
method & 3 wire method), screw thread micrometer Measurement of roughness
• Pitch– Measured by screw pitch gauge, pitch Surface profile → Roughness + Waviness
measuring machine
• Thread form– Measured by optical projector.
3-Wire method
Best wire size
P α
d= sec  
2 2
Where, P → Pitch
α → Thread angle
Lay–
d → Wire size
Direction of a predominant surface pattern produced
For ISO metric method.
on the workpiece by the tool marks.
o
α = 60 d = 0.577P Type of lay Symbol Diagram
Different types of measuring instrument and Parallel =
their least count (L.C.)–
Instruments L.C. (in metric) Perpendicular ⊥
Outside micrometer 0.01 mm
Inside micrometer 0.01 mm Crossed X
Vernier micrometer 0.001 mm
Multidirectional M
Depth micrometer 0.01 mm
Screw thread micrometer 0.01 mm
Circular C
Digital micrometer 0.001 mm
Vernier caliper 0.02 mm
Radial R
Vernier depth gauge 0.02 mm
Vernier height gauge 0.02 mm
Representation of surface roughness–
Dial caliper 0.01 mm
Gear tooth caliper 0.02 mm
Digital height gauge 0.01 mm
Dial test indicator 0.01 mm
Sine bar 1' (one minute)
Vernier bevel protractor 5' (five minute)
Slip gauge or gauge block 0.001 mm
Angle gauge block 1" (one second)

Evaluation of surface roughness Optical flat • Optical grade quartz or glass
1. Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean structure
deviation denoted as Ra • Use monochromatic light to
2. Root mean square value (rms value) determine flatness of other
3. Max. peak to valley roughness (hmax) optical surface by
4. The average of the five peak & five valleys in the interference.
sample. Talysurf • Measures surface roughness
5. The average (or) leaving depth of the profile. • Based upon measuring the
Determination of mean line generated noise due to dry
friction of a metallic blade.
• M-system
Planimeter • Measures area of any plane
• E-system (Envelope system)
surface
• Arithmetic average
Optical square • Measures angle by reflection
Methods of measuring surface roughness– • A constant deviation prism
• Observation & touch having angle of deviation
• Stylus based equipment between the incident ray and
• Interferometry reflected ray
Tool Maker's • It is used to measure the
Symbol of material removal microscope worn out edges of cutting
Surface may be Material Material tools, screw pitches etc. In
produced by any removal removal principle, it has depth
method required prohibited measuring attachment, center
holding device.
Symbol Geometric Tolerance grade

characteristic
Miscellaneous of metrology
Flatness Form (No relation
Clinometer • Optical device for measuring
Straightness between features)
elevation angles above
horizontal Cylindricity
Autocolimeter • Optical instrument for non-
Cirularity
contact measurement of
Perpendicularity Orientation
small angles, straightness,
flatness, squareness, Parallelism
parallelism.
Angularity
Stylus Equipment • Uses a stylus that tracks Position Location
small changes in surface
height and a skid that Profile of a surface
follows large change in Profile of a line
surface height.
Total run out Run out
Profilometer • Used to measure a surface's
profile, in order to quantity Circular run out
its roughness. (1) Contact Concentricity Location (Derived
profilometer (2) Non contact median points)
profilometer. Symmetry

Industrial
Break Even Analysis • Used when,
(a) Low volume of production is
Production
required
(b) Similar jobs are manufactured
on similar machine
• Total cost → Fixed cost + Variable cost
(c) Machine are arranged on
functional basis
Product • Suitable for mass production
layout or Line • Layout is preferred for
layout or continuous production.
Synthetic • Lesser material handling
layout movement.
Break Even chart Fixed position • Also known as static product
layout layout
• Used for manufacturing ships,
aeroplanes, steam turbine etc.
Group layout • It is combination of the product
or Cellular and process layout.
layout • The main objective is to
minimize inter cell movement.
Inventory–
It is defined as stock in hand at a given point of
time.
It can be classified as–
F = Fixed cost, V = Variable cost
• Raw material (Material to produced)
Total sale = Total cost + profit
S=F+V+P • Semi-finished
s.x = F + ν.x + P • Work in progress
s → Sales price per unit • Finish goods

F+P
x= unit Classification of inventories
ν → Variable cost per unit s−ν
Direct Inventories Indirect inventories
Production inventory Transit or pipeline
At BEP, Profit = 0
inventories
F If F ↑ 
→ xBEP↑
x BEP = Work-in-process Buffer inventories
s−ν
ν ↑ 
→ xBEP ↑ inventory
s ↑ 
→ xBEP ↓ Finish goods inventory Decoupling inventories
Plant layout MRO (Maintenance, Seasonal inventories
Process • Also known as functional or repair & operating) Anticipation inventories
layout analytical layout. inventory

Purchase It is cost of purchase inventory • The re-order point is • Reviewed after a
cost (PC) PC = D × C fixed and as inventory fixed period of time
Where, D = Annual demand; level reaches that point and fresh order is
C = cost/unit (Rs/unit) a fresh order for a fix placed at that time.
quantity is placed at
Ordering Cost associated with, bringing
that point
or inventory item within production
system. Note– S-S system is combination of both.
Setup cost
Types of model
(OC) OC = No.of order × ( cost / order )
1. Deterministic model– In these models, demand &
Set up cost = No.of set up × ( cost / setup ) lead time are constant, so no need to carry safety
When the unit are produced within stock.
production system, then the cost 2. Probabilistic model– In these models, demand &
associated with bringing shutdown lead time are not constant, so these models are used
production system, again into play is to provide safety stock to prevent stock out.
called setup cost. Deterministic model
Holding Cost associated with storage and 1. Harris-Wilson model (EOQ model)
or keeping inventory item within or
Carrying production system. Infinite rate of replenishment model
cost (HC) Max inventory Level (Q)
HC = average inventory × cost of Q
holding per unit
Inventory level (unit)
Shortage The cost associated with not serving the

or customer or cost occur due to stock out. d d
stock out SC = Number of units short × Shortage
cost cost per unit Reorder level
Review system
Q-system P-system T LT LT
or or
• Q=T×d
Fixed order system Periodic review
• ROL = LT × d
or or
Re-order point system Fixed period system • Total annual cost
or = purchase cost + ordering cost + holding cost
Two-bin system
D
• Single order & single • Single order & • Annual ordering cost = .Co
Q
inventory multiple inventory

Q Q
• Annual holding cost = .C h • tp =
2 P
• Annual purchase cost = D × C • Max. inventory, Qm = tp (p – d)
D Order  p−d 
• No. of order (N) = Qm = Q  
Q Year  p 
DCo Ch Q
• TIC = +
Q 2
2DCo  p 
2DCo • Q* =  
• EOQ = Q* = Ch  p−d 
Ch
 p−d 
D D • TIC* = 2DCo Ch   <1
• Optimum no. of order = N* = =  p 
EOQ Q *
Note–
Where, P → ∞, then production model-becomes Wilson-
D = Annual demand of inventory item (units/year) Harris model.
Q = Quantity to be ordered at each order point It is always prefer when compare with EOQ model
(unit/order) because order size ↑ and inventory cost ↓.
d = Demand or consumption rate (unit/time) 4. Shortage or back order model or stock out model
C = Unit cost of inventory (Rs/unit) TIC = OC + HC + SC
Co = Cost of placing an order (Rs/order) Cb = Shortage cost per unit back ordered per year
Ch = Cost of holding one unit in inventory for (`/unit/year)
1 year (Rs/unit/year) S = No. of unit that back ordered
Optimum time interval between 2 order or Length of 2DCo  Cb + C h 
No.of working day in year EOQ = Q* =  
cycle time (T*) = Ch  Cb 
N*
• Minimum total yearly inventory cost–  Cb 
TIC* = 2DCo C h  
DCo C h Q *  Cb + Ch 
TIC* = + = 2DCo C h
Q* 2 Note–
2. Inventory with price break– • Due to shortage, ordering cost decreases along with
Discount are given on unit purchase price of inventory carrying cost.
inventory due to large quantity purchase. These • Shortages increases the cycle time & thus decreases
discount take the form of price break. the ordering cost.
Total cost • Shortages result decrease net stock in inventory thus
= purchase cost + ordering cost +holding cost reducing the holding cost.
3. Production or build-up model– Probabilistic model–
Model is suitable for manufacturing plant where • In this model demand is uncertain and decision is
based on single ordering, i.e. reordering is not
production & consumption is simultaneous.
permitted.
TIC = Set up cost + holding cost
• Applied for perishable item like vegetable, food.
Factor encouraging higher safety stock are–
• When demand rate and lead time variations are
more.
• If the stock out cost is high.
• If the inventory holding cost is less.
ROL = Average demand during lead time (ADDLT) +
Safety stock (SS)
ROL = LT × d + SS
Where, PERT–
ROL → Re-order limit It is used when the activity time are not known with
SS → Safety stock certainty.
EOQ Q* e.g.– In research &
Average stock = + SS = + SS development
2 2
to → Optimistic time
Selective inventory management technique are–
I. ABC (Always Better Control) tm → Most likely time
• Based on Pareto's law (80-20 law) tp → Pessimistic time
• In ABC analysis the item are classified in 3 main
categories on their usage value.
Usage % Item % t o + 4t m + t p
• Expected time (te) =
A 50-60% 10-20% 6
B 30-40% 30-40% 2
 tp − to 
C 10-20% 50-60% • Variance for the activity, σ2 =  
 6 
II. VED analysis– Inventory are classified on the basis
of importance of inventory for the production • tp − to
Standard Deviation (σ) =
system. 6
V – Vital • Probability of completing project within
E – Essential scheduled time–
D – Desirable
T − Te Te = Expected project completion time
CPM & PERT Z= s Ts = Expected project scheduled time
σ
Basic terms σ = Standard Deviation along critical
Activity Any individual path.
operation, which utilize Note–
time & resources for its • Expected time of activity (te) follow β-distribution
completion • Expected time project (Te) follow Normal
Dummy activity An activity which does distribution.
not consume any kind CPM (Critical Path Method)–
of resources or time but • In this activity times are known with certainty.
are used simple to
• The length of critical path determines the minimum
represent a connection
time in which the entire project can be completed.
between events
1. Forward pass computation– In this we compute
Event It represent start and
the time by which an event is expected to be
end of activity
completed at the earliest.
Common error in network–

1. Dangling–
When activity other 2. Backward pass computation– In this we compute
than the final the time by which an event is expected to be
activity does not completed by latest.
have successor
activity.
2. Looping (cycling)– Symbol Description

Drawing an endless Ei Earliest occurrence time of event i
loop in a network
Ej Earliest occurrence time of event j
Lj Latest allowable occurrence time of event j
• Redundancy–
tE ij Estimated completion time of activity (i–j)
Unnecessarily
inserting the dummy activity of a network logic. (EST)ij Earliest start time of activity (i, j) (Ei)

(EFT)ij Earliest finish time of activity (i, j)
[EST + tEij] (EST + activity duration)
(LST)ij Latest start time of activity (i, j) (Li)
(LFT)ij Latest finish time of activity (i, j)
[LFT – tE ij] (LFT – activity duration)
Float–
PERT CPM
Event oriented Activity oriented
Total float– Amount of time by which an activity can be
Probabilistic Approach Deterministic approach
delayed without delaying the project completion
date. 3 time estimation are Based on 1 time
made to complete an estimation to complete
TF = [LFT – EFT] = [LST – EST] activity an activity
= Lj – [Ei + tE ij] Slack concept is used Float concept is used
• Subcritical → (–ve) TF In research & In construction project
• Critical path → (0) TF development project
• Sub-critical → (+ve) TF Forecasting
Free float–
• Forecasting can be term as predication of future
It is that part of total float which can be used sells and demand.
without affecting the float of succeeding activity. • It is a prediction based upon past data and art of
Free float = Total float − Head event slack human judgment.
= E j −  E i + t ijE 
 
Independent float (IF)–
It is amount of time which can be used without
affecting either the head or tail event.
Independent float = Free float − Tain event slak
= E j −  Li + t ijE 
 
• For critical path– TF = FF = IF
Time series method–
• Total float ≥ Free float ≥ Independent float Past Forecasting is given by the average
• Slack– average or mean valve of actual demand
method data of the previous period
Moving It uses past data are calculates the
Average rolling average for the fixed period.
method e.g.– D1, D2, D3, D4
For 3rd period
Project crashing– To determine the optimum project
duration corresponding to minimum cost of the
project. • In this method, the equal
Crash cost- Normal cost weightage is assigned to the
Cost slope ( CS ) = previous data.
Normal time- Crash time
Weighted In this most recent data has highest
Note– In crashing project overhead cost ↓es & direct moving weightage where as oldest data has
cost ↑es average lowest weightage and the sum of all
(WMA) the weigh must be equal to 1. Mean square n
( D t − Ft )2
Method to give weightage– error (MSE) ∑ n
n ( n + 1) t =1
Σn [SUM] = Mean Absolute
2 D t − Ft
percentage n
× 100
Weightage given
to recent Dt
demand– error ∑
t =1
n
n n −1 n − 2 1
, , .......... Running sum n
Σn Σn Σn Σn
Exponential If n become very large,
forecast error ∑(D
t =1
t − Ft )
(RSFE)
smoothing It assigns weight to all to previous
Tracking n
method data and the pattern of weight
assigned are of exponential form–
signal (TS)
RSFE
∑(D − F )
t =1
i i
=
Ft = Ft −1 + α ( D t −1 − Ft −1 ) MAD MAD
Where, • In general– MSE > MAD > MAPE > BIAS > TS
2 Causal or Ecometric model– Try to establish
α = smoothing constant = relation between demand of a product and any
n +1
Ft–1 = previous forecast other variation on which demand is depended.
1. Correlation coefficient– It is an indication of the
Dt–1 = actual demand for previous
extent to which the knowledge of one variable is
period.
useful in prediction of other.
Ft = current forecast
2. Linear Regression– In this method we obtain the
• Error in forecast = e = (Dt – Ft) line of best fit assuming he relationship between
Responsiveness– two variables in a straight line. Y = a + bx
• Forecast have fluctuating or swinging pattern nΣxy − Σx.Σy Σy − bΣx
b= , a=
• Preferred for new product & for that no. of period nΣ x − ( Σ x )
2 2 n
is kept small
Stability– Special case– When the independent variable x is
linear and uniform in which (Σx = 0).
• Forecast pattern is flat, smooth
• Preferred for old product (existing) & for that no. Σx.y Σy
Σx = 0 b= 2
a=
of period is kept large Σx n
2 Value engineering–
• α=
n +1 "An organized study of functions to satisfy the
• Ft = Ft – 1 + α(error) user's need with quality product at lowest cost
through applied creativity".
Case–1 : If α = 0 (n → ∞) ⇒ Limit of stability
Performance ( Functions )
Ft = Ft −1 Same forecast continue forever Value =
Cost
Case-2 : If α = 1, n = 1 ⇒ Limit of responsiveness
Procedure of value engineering
Ft = D t −1 Last demand → Next forecast • Blast– Dismantling all the information about
0 ←  α  →1 product.
Stable Responsible
• Create– Searching of other alternative of
Forecast error producing product.
Mean absolute n
D t − Ft • Refine– Choosing the best alternative for the
deviation ∑
t =1
n
, σ = MSE customer's satisfaction.
(MAD) Quality Control
Mean forecast n
( D t − Ft ) Quality–
error (MFE) ∑
t =1
n "Quality is the ability of a product or service to
or BIAS consistently meet the customer's requirement"/
The cost of quality– σ x = standard mean
Appraisal cost Cost is based on finding and of sample mean
searching defective parts within σ = process
the production system. standard deviation
Prevention Cost of preventing defects from n = sample size
cost occurring.
e.g.– Quality information system P-chart C-chart
Internal Cost associating with the failure Σd
P= CL = C
failure cost observed during production. N
External Cost associated with the failure Fracion No.of defecive
=
failure cost discovered after delivery to defective Size of sample
customers.
UCL = C + 3 C
UCL = P + 3σP UCL = C − 3 C
LCL = P − 3σ P
S.D ( σ P ) =
(
P 1− P )
n
np Chart–
This is known as no. of defective chart and is made
for the cases where–
Sample size 'n' = constant
Sample Sample No. of d
p=
R-chart no. size (n) defective n
X -chart
(d)
Σx R1 + R 2 + .......R n
X= R= 1 n d1 d1
n n p1 =
n
n = No. of R = Range of variation
observation in each 2 n d2 d2
p2 =
sample n
Σx CL = R = σd 2 3 n d3 d3
X= p3 =
No.of samples n
.... .... ..... .....
CL = X UCL = D 4 R .... n dN dN
pN =
n
UCL = X + 3σ x LCL = D3 R
N CL = np
LCL = X − 3σ x
For n < 7 D3 = 0 ∑
i =1
Pi UCL = np + 3 np (1 − p )
P= ,
σ d2, d3, D4 & D3 all value N LCL = np − 3 np (1 − p )
σx =
n depend on sample size

Chart Type Distribution Represents
X -chart (Mean chart) Variable Normal Centering
R-chart (Range chart) Variable Normal Dispersion
P-chart Attribute Binomial Fraction defect
np-chart Attribute Binomial Fraction defect (Sample size
const)
C-chart Attribute Poisson No. of defects
Acceptance sampling– examination of existing establish a standard

Acceptance sampling helps in evaluating the way of doing job in time for a qualified
quality of large number of items in a batch or a lot order to develop easier worker.
based upon quality of small sample of item. and effective way of
doing same job
Steps of method study
Recording Technique–
• Chart • Diagrams • Photographic film
Process chart symbols–
Symbols Activity
Operating Characteristic Curve (OCC)–
Operation
Inspection
Transport
Delay
Storage
Chart
Operation This chart gives view of the
• Acceptance Quality Level (AQL)– Good quality Process Chart process & record only principle
level of the lot submitted by the producer for (Outline operation & inspection.
inspection. Process
• Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LPTD) or Chart)
Rejected Quality Level (RQL)– It indicates a bad Flow process It is a graphic representation of
quality lot submitted by the producer. chart the sequence of all process chart
• Producer's Risk (α)– Probability that a lot symbols.
containing the acceptance quality level will be
Two hand Study the motions of two hands
rejected.
process chart or limbs of worker and bring out
• Consumer's Risk (β)– Probability that a lot
the effectiveness.
containing the defectives exceeding the LPTD will
be accepted. Multiple This chart records the activity of
activity chart man and machine on a common
Work Study–
time scale.
Developing the preferred system and method (with
lowest cost) SIMO chart It is used to record the activities
Work study (Simultaneous of an operator hand movements,
motion chart) in terms of fundamental motion
Method study Work
therblings (18 in nos.), time
measurement
required to complete these
It is the system To measure the
therblings are recorded.
recording & critical effective time & to
Diagram Work factor It is a detailed system of
Flow diagram– system (WFS) method study and time study
A diagram gives pictorial view of layout of for analyzing the action &
workplace and movement of man or material. motions of workers.
Linear Programming
Linear programming–
It is a mathematical technique used for finding the
best use of limited resources of a concern in
String diagram– optimum manner is referred as linear
It is a scale diagram on which movement in a given programming.
area and over a given period of time is plotted by
means of a continuous thread. eg.– Max(z) = 6x' + 5y'} Objective function
Subject to
Photographic Films x '+ y ' ≤ 5 
Cycle graph–  Constraints
3x '+ 2y ' ≤ 12 
It is to record the path of motion of an operator by
attaching a small electric bulb to the finger. x, y ≥ 0 } Non-negativity restriction
Chronocycle graph–
It record the spots of the light will be spaced
according to the speed of movement.
Constraint–
There are limited resources within which we need
to optimize our objective function.
1. Graphical method–
Direct method
Observed time– It is well suited for two variable problems.
Using some measuring device like stop watch is Feasible Region–
called observed time. It is a common region where all constraints & non-
Normal time– negativity restrictions satisfied simultaneously.
Observed time × Performance rating factor (RF)
Standard time–
Solution
Normal time + Allowances in normal time. Feasible solution Infeasible solution
When (x,y) is taken Value of objective
Pre- In this technique time from the feasible function when point
determined established for basic human region & we put it in (x,y) doesn't lies in the
Motion Time motion are used to build up the
objective function, we feasible region.
Study (PMTS) time for a job.
get feasible solution.
Method Time The procedure, which analyses
Measurement any manual operation or Optimal solution–
(MTM) method into the basic motions It is maximum value of objective function or
required to perform it & assigns minimum value of objective function depending on
to each motion a PMTS, which
whether objective function is of maximization or
is determine by the nature of
motion under which it is made. minimization type respectively.

• Number of non-basic variables
= (No. of decision variables) – (number of constraint)
=n–m
Where,
m = No. of constraints,
n = No. of decision variables
Note– The leaving basic variable in simplex method
is the basic variable that has the smallest
coefficient in the key row.
Special case of simplex method
Infinite When a non basic variable in an
solution optimal solution has a zero value
for ∆j row.
Feasible Region Unbounded When all replacement ratio are
solution either infinite or negative.
Bounded feasible Unbounded feasible
region region Infeasible When in the final solution an
solution artificial variable is in the basis
Bounded feasible • Highest value of
region surrounded by then there is no feasible solution to
objective function goes
boundaries throughout upto infinite. the problem.
• Its simply means that Queueing theory
the common feasible
Queueing theory–
region is not bounded
The aim of queueing theory is economic balance
by limit or constraints
waiting the cost of providing service, and cost
associated with the wait required for that service.
• Utilisation factor or channel efficiency
λ
= (ρ) =
µ
It denote probability that a customer has to wait or
Binding and non-binding constraints– percentage time server is busy
When we put the value of optimal solution in the • λ = Arrival rate ⇒ Poisson's distribution
constraints and get LHS = RHS, constraint term as
1
binding otherwise non-binding constraints. • = Service rate ⇒ Exponential distribution.
λ
Note–
• Binding constraints are the part of optimal solution 1
• = Inter service rate ⇒ Poisson's distribution.
or µ
• Optimal solution is the part of intersection of all • Probability that the system idle or probability
the binding constraint. of zero customer in the system (P0 = 1 – ρ)
Redundant or degenerate constraint–
• Probability exactly 'n' customer in system
Constraint which does not become part of a
boundary making a feasible region is term as = (Pn = ρn.P0)
redundant constraint. • Average no. of customer in the system or
Special cases– ρ λ
Infinite or multiple optimal solution– length of system ⇒ LS = =
1− ρ µ − λ
If slope of a binding constraint (non-redundant) is
parallel to slope of objective function, then we will • Average No. of customer in the queue or
get multiple optimal solution. length of queue
2. Simplex method–
ρ2 λ
• Number of basic variables Lq = or Ls .ρ or Lq = −ρ
1− ρ µ−λ
= (Number of constraints) = m
• Waiting time in system (Ws) Assignment– Assignment problem is a special case
1 ρ of transportation–
= =
µ − λ (1 − ρ ) λ • Matrix must be a square matrix
• In every row & every column only one allocation
• Expected waiting time in queue (Wq)
is possible.
1 1 1
= Ws = Wq + Wq = − Note–
µ µ−λ µ
• Hungarian method is used for solving assignment
• Representation of queuing model ⇒ problems.
Kendall Lee Notation– • Assignment solution is always a degenerate
solution.
Difference between MRP & JIT
MRP JIT
• Material • Just in time
Transportation– requirement
To meet the demand and supply requirement in the planning
most optimum & effective method to minimize the
• Push system • Pull system
total transportation cost
m n
• Where product is • Where material is
Minz = ∑∑ c .x
i =1 j=1
ij ij
produced
advance to meet
in only produced when
there is demand
cij = Cost of transportation of one unit from ith the future demand
source to the jth destination • Keep safety stock • Eliminate S.S &
xij = Quantity to be transported to ith source to the along with keep very less
jth destination. inventory inventory
Feasible A set of non-negative individual MRP → 3 Input is →
solution allocation which also satisfy the 1. MPS (Master Production System)
given constrain. 2. Inventory Record File
Basic If the no. of non-negative allocation 3. Bill of Material
feasible is equal to m + n – 1, in m × n (Row
Structure or working loop of MRP–
solution × columns) transportation problem.
Non- A feasible solution of m × n
degenerate transportation problem is non-
basic degenerate if it contains (m + n – 1)
feasible occupied cells and each allocation is
solution an independent position otherwise
degenerate [If allocation is less than
(m + n – 1)]
Optimal If it minimizes the total
solution transportation cost.
Initial basic feasible solution is obtained from–
1. Least cost method or matrix minima method
2. North-west corner rule
3. Vogel's approximation method.
Note– Optimality test only can be performed when
the initial solution is non-degenerate.

Engineering Drawing
Sizes of drawing board–
• According to IS : 1944-1989, drawing board is
represented by 'D'.
• According to IS : 46-1988, drawing board is
represented by 'B'.
Standard size of drawing board according to IS :
Engg. Drawing–Language of an engineer by which 1944 -1989
he/she can represents his/her imagination on paper with To be Size (in mm) : Name
proper dimensioning and accuracy. Designation used (Length × Width ×
with Thickness)
Types of Engg. Drawing
sheet
1. Geometrical drawing • Plain geometrical D.
size
(plane - 2D)
D0 A0 1500×1000×25 Antiquarian
• Solid geometrical D.
(solid - 2D) D1 A1 1000×700×25 Double
2. Mechanical Engg. Drawing of machine parts Elephant
drawing
D2 A2 700×500×15 Imperial
3. Civil Engg. drawing Drawing of structure parts
D3 A3 500×350×15 Half
4. Electrical Engg. Drawing circuits, electrical
Imperial
drawing parts etc.
D4 A4 350×250×15 Quarter
Drawing instrument Imperial
Used to prepare drawing easily and accurately.
Mainly the following instruments are used in Mostly imperial size (D2) drawing board is used in
engineering drawing- engineering drawing.
1. Drawing Board 2. T-Square 2. T-Square
3.. Mini-Drafter (MD) 4. Protractor Made of hard-quality wood such as teak or
5. Pencil 6. Set square mahogany etc.
7. Scale 8. French curve Consists of two parts → (1) Stock (2) Blade
9. Drawing Sheet 10. Eraser (Rubber) Stock and blade joined together at right angle.
11. Divider 12. Compass Used for → Drawing horizontal and parallel lines.
13. Drawing board pins, 14. Clinograph
Clips or Cello tape
15. Pencil cutter and sand
paper
1. Drawing Board
Length of blade-
Designation Length of blade (mm)
T0 1500
Rectangular in shape and made of strips of well- T1 1000

seasoned soft wood. T2 700
One of the edges of the board is used as working
edge, on which the T-square is made to slide. T3 500

T-square is not used to draw inclined lines Remember–
9H → Very hard grade pencil (Clay content↑)
7B → Very soft grade pencil (Graphite content↑)
• Generally 18 graded pencils are used.
6. Set-Square
Triangular in shape & are made of celluloid or
plastic materials.
Used for drawing all straight lines except the
horizontal lines which are usually drawn with the
3. Mini-Drafter T-square.
The advantages of T-square, set-square, scale and Vertical lines can be drawn with the T-square and
the protractor are combined in mini-drafter. the set-square.
Mini-drafter can be used to draw horizontal They are – (i) 30o - 60o - 90o set square
vertical and inclined parallel lines on the sheet (ii) 45o - 45o - 90o set square
with saving of time.
4. Protractor
Made of wood, transparent celluloid or plastic
material. 7. Rule or Scale
They are circular (Circle master), semi-circular or Made of wood, steel, celluloid or plastic.
flat in shape. Edges of the scale are marked with division of
Used to measure angles and to draw angles with centimeters which are sub-divided into millimeters.
L.C. = 1o.
5. Pencil 8. French Curve

Lead of pencil is made of graphite or kaolin or
Used to drawing curve which can not be drawn
clay.
with compass (for irregular curve)
Grades of pencil-
Grade Uses
Hard grade (9H, 8H, Used to draw light and
7H, 6H, 5H, 4H) fine lines
Medium grade Used for lettering and 9. Drawing Sheet
(3H, 2H, H, HB, B) dimensioning Size of drawing sheet is represented by ratio of
Soft grade Used to draw thick and length and width of the sheet.
(2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, shiny lines Where, x → Length of sheet
x : y = 1: 2
7B) y → Width of sheet

Standard size of the drawing sheet according to
IS : 10811 : 1983
Designation Trimmed size Untrimmed
(in mm) size (in mm)
A0 841×1189 880×1230
A1 594×841 625×880
A2 420×594 450×625 13. Drawing clips or drawing pins
A3 297×420 330×450 They are used to fix the drawing sheet firmly in
A4 210×297 240×330 position to the drawing board.
A5 148×210 165×240
A2 size drawing sheet is mostly used by engineering
drawing students.
14. Clinograph
It is adjustable set-square
Made of wood or plastic
Used to draw parallel lines to the inclined lines.
Scale
The proportion by which we either reduce or
Area of A0 drawing sheet is 1 m2. increase the actual size of the object on drawing.
10. Rubber or Eraser
Made of rubber
Used to erase extra or wrong pencil work.
Classification–
(A) According to the size
(i) Enlarging • Used for drawing small or very
scale small object in enlarged size.
Ex.– Resisters, screws, bacteria's,
11. Divider
insects, small electrical parts etc.
Used to divide straight or curved lines into desired
• R.F. > 1
number of equal parts.
(ii) Full scale • Used for drawing that parts
which are drawn easily on the
sheet with their actual size.
Ex.– Spanner, pen, nut-bolt etc.
• R.F. = 1
(iii) Reducing • Used for drawing huge objects in
scale reduced size.
12. Compass Ex.– Buildings, bridges, boilers,
Used for drawing circles and arcs of circles of ships, aeroplanes etc.
required diameter. • R.F. < 1

(i) Representative Fraction (R.F.) units.
Length of object in drawing Ex. km – mile, km – minute etc.
= (In terms of length)
Actual length of object v. Scale of
chords
Area of object in drawing
R.F. = 2
Actual area of object
(In terms of area)
Volume of object in drawing
R.F. = 3 • It is used to measure or draw
Actual volume of object angles in absence of protractor.
(In terms of volume) Layout of drawing sheets–
• R.F. is unitless.
(ii) Length of scale = R.F. × Max. length to be measured
(B) According to type–
i. Plain scale
• It can measure two consecutive

division or unit.
Ex. m – dcm, dcm – cm, yard – (a) Margins or border lines–
feet Left side ⇒ 20 mm
• It is divided into two Other three side ⇒ 5 mm
subdivision, Ex. 5 m – 4dcm. (b) Title block
ii. Diagonal Location ⇒ Right side & lower most
scale Size = 185 mm × 65 mm
Information's used in title block–
1. Name of institute 2. Scale
• It can measure three 3. Projection symbol 4. Title of drawing
consecutive division or units. 5. Name of designer and 6. Name of invigilator
Ex. m – dcm – cm, yard – feet – date and date
inch.
7. Name of standard & 8. Name of approver &
• It is divided into three
date date of approving
subdivision
Ex. 10 m – 6 dcm – 3 cm. 9. Drawing no.
iii. Vernier Symbolic Representation
scale Conventional representation of materials–
• These scales, like diagonal Type Convention Material
scale, are used to read to a very Metals Steel, cast iron,
small unit with great accuracy. copper and its
• It consists in two parts– alloys, aluminium
Primary scale and its alloys etc.
Vernier scale Lead, zinc, tin,
• In forward V.S., n divisions on white-metal etc.
V.S. is equal to (n–1) division
on M.S. Glass Glass
• In backward V.S., n divisions
on V.S. is equal to (n + 1)
division on M.S. Packing Porcelain,
and stoneware, marble,
iv. Comparative
insulating state etc.
scale
materials Asbestos, fibre, felt,
• It is a plain scale having same synthetic resin,
R.F. but calibrated to read diff. products, paper,

cork, linoleum,
rubber, leather, wax,
insulating and
filling materials
Liquids Water, oil, petrol,
kerosene etc.
Wood Wood, plywood etc.
Concrete –
Conventional Representation of Breaks–

Object Convention
Rectangular Out lines • Lines drawn to represent
visible edges and surface
section
boundaries of objects.
Round • Also known as object lines
section or principal lines.
Pipe • Represented by
continuous thick lines.
Tubing
Dimension lines • Continuous thin lines,
used for giving
dimensions of drawing.
Wood • It is terminated at its outer
rectangular end with an arrow head
section touching the outline,
Rolled extension line or centre
section line.
Channel Extension or • Continuous thin lines,
projection lines used for dimensioning an
section
object.
Types of Lines, Lettering & Dimensioning • Extended by about 3 mm
beyond the dimension
Lines : As per B.I.S. S.P. :46-1988, various types of lines.
lines are demonstrated.
Construction lines • Thin continuous lines used
for constriction of objects
Section lines or • Thin continuous lines,
Hatching lines used for showing the
section evidently.
• They are uniformly spaced
thin lines (1 to 2 mm
spaced) and inclined at
45° to the main outline of
the section.
Leader or pointer • Continuous thin lines and
lines are drawn to connect a
note with the specific
feature in the drawing.
• The leader lines generally
drawn at angles not less
than 30° (usually 30°, 45°,
60°).

Short break lines • Continuous, thin and wavy 1. Gothic lettering– Lettering having all the alphabets
free hand lines drawn to or numerals of uniform thickness.
show the break of an
(i) Vertical Gothic • Single stroke vertical
object for a short length.
lettering Gothic lettering
• Also used to show
irregular boundaries
Long Break Lines • Thin ruled lines provided • Double stroke vertical
with short zig-zags at Gothic lettering
suitable intervals.
(in mm) • Drawn to show long
breaks
(ii) Italic or • Single stroke Italic Gothic
Hidden or Dotted • Closely and evenly spaced inclined Gothic lettering
lines dashes lines of equal lettering
lengths.
(Letters inclined
• They are medium thick • Double stroke Italic Gothic
at 75o to the
and are used to show the
horizontal) lettering
invisible or hidden parts of
the object on the drawing.
Centre lines • These are thin, long, chain
lines composed of 2. Roman lettering–
alternatively long and
The lettering in which all the letters are formed by
short dashes spaced at an
approx. 1 mm distance. thick and thin elements is called Roman lettering.
• Used to indicate the axis It may be vertical or inclined.
of cylindrical, conical and
spherical objects and also
show the centers of circles
and arcs. Single stroke letters are two types– (i) Vertical (ii)
• Also shows locus lines, Inclined
extreme positions of • The size of letters are described by its height. They
movable parts and pitch are classified by–
circles etc.
 h 
Cutting-plane lines • These are long, thin chain (i) Lettering 'A' ⇒  d = 
 14 
line with thick ends.
• Used to show the location  h 
(ii) Lettering 'B' ⇒  d = 
of cutting plane.  10 
Chain thick lines • Used to indicate special (Where, d = thickness of letters, h = height of letters)
treatment on the surface Remember– Symbols used in Engg. Drawing–
Chain thick double- • Used to show outlines of φ ⇒ Diameter of circle
dashed lines adjacent parts, alternative R ⇒ Radius of circle
and extreme positions of SR ⇒ Radius of sphere
movable parts, centroidal
lines and parts situated in □ ⇒ Square
front of the cutting plane. Sφ ⇒ Spheriodal diameter
Lettering R 40 ⇒ Method of writing radius dimension.
The art of writing letters & numbers. The ratio of length and thickness of head = 3 : 1
Mainly two types of lettering is used in Engg.
drawing–
1. Gothic lettering 2. Roman lettering

Dimensioning 5. Dimensioning by • This method is done when a
Types of dimensions coordinates number of holes of different
1. Size dimension sizes have to be
(Denoted by 'S') dimensioned.
2. Location
dimension
(Denoted by 'L')
System of dimensioning Conic sections

1. Aligned system • Dimension are aligned Curves, which are obtained when a double cone is
with the entity being intersected by a plane at different angles relative to
measured. the axis of the double cone.
• They are read from the • Mainly are three types of conic sections–
bottom or right hand
1. Ellipse 2. Parabola 3. Hyperbola
side of the drawing
sheet. (Circle, rectangular parabola etc. are special case of
• Dimensions are placed conic section.)
at the middle and on
top of the dimension
lines.
2. Uni-direction system • Dimensions are placed

in such a way that they
can be read from the
bottom edge of the
drawing sheet.
• Dimensions are Ellipse • Obtained by the intersection of a
inserted by breaking
the dimension lines at cutting plane, inclined to the axis of
the middle. the cone and cutting all the
generators.
• Angle of inclination of the cutting
plane with the axis of the cone > the
Arrangement and indication of dimensions angle of generator with the axis.
1. Chain • A series of adjacent Parabola • Obtained by the intersection of a
dimensioning dimensions are arranged in
one horizontal row. cutting plane, inclined to the axis of
• Used when tolerance the cone and parallel to one of the
accumulated on each of the generators.
chain dimensions does not Hyperbola • Obtained by the intersection of a
affect the functional cutting plane, inclined to the axis of
requirement of the part.
the cone at an angle < The inclination
2. Parallel • Dimensions are measured in
dimensioning angle of the generator with the axis.
the same direction from a
common surface or line. Circle • Obtained by the intersection of a
• All the dimensions from the cutting plane, parallel to the base of
same feature is called the cone.
parallel dimensioning.
Properties of conic section–
3. Combined • Both the chain and parallel
dimensioning dimensions are used in the Conic section Standard Eccentricity
same drawing. equation
Circle x2 + y2 = r2 e=0
Parabola y2 = 4ax e=1
4. Progressive • Adopted when dimension Ellipse x 2 y2 e<1
dimensioning has to be established from a + = 1
a 2 b2
particular datum.
Hyperbola x 2 y2 e>1
− = 1
a 2 b2

Method of construction of ellipse– Types of Description
1. Eccentricity method oblique
2. Concentric circle method projection
3. Arc of the circle method Cavalier • Projection lines make an angle of
4. Loop of thread method projection 45º with the plane of projection.
5. Oblong method/Rectangle method • In full size
6. Trammel method
7. Four centres approximate method
8. Parallelogram method
9. Circumscribing parallelogram method
Method of construction of parabola–
1. Eccentricity method Cabinet • Projection lines make an angle
2. Rectangle method projection with the projection plane, it
3. Tangent method becomes about ½ both the axes
4. Measured abscissa method by decreasing scale.
5. Parallelogram method
Projection and view
Principle of Projection-
If straight lines are drawn from various points on
the contour of an object to meet a plane, the object
is said to be projected on that plane. Cliongraphic • In cavalier and cabinet
projection projections, the main face of the
object is made parallel to the
projection plane. In some cases,
when the object is rotated at an
angle, the plane of projection is
called cliongrahic plane.
(b) Perspective projection-
Linear projection where three dimensional objects
are projected on a picture plane.
The points at which these lines meet the plane, is In this projection further away object from the
called the projection of the object. viewer, small it appears.
The lines from the object to the plane are called
projectors. Types of Perspective
Description
projection
Classification of Projection-
One point (Parallel)
Two point (Angular)
Three point (Oblique)

1. Pictorial Projection
Pictorial views show all three dimensions in one
view. (c) Axonometric projection-
2D illustration of a 3D object. Types of Description
Axonometric
Provides a realistic view of a 3D object. projection
Types of pictorial projection- Isometric All the three
(a) Oblique projection- projection faces of cube
One dimension of object is parallel to horizontal make equal
and other is vertical to the horizontal and the third is angles with the
plane.
at an angle of 30º or 45º to the horizontal.

Dimetric Two faces of Planes of orthographic projection-
projection cube make Two planes
equal angles with employed for
plane. purpose of
orthographic
projection are called
Trimetric All three faces principal planes (i.e.
projection of cube make H.P. and V.P.)
unequal angles They intersect each
with plane. other at right angles
(90º).
Vertical plane of
Remember– projection is usually
denoted by V.P.
In isometric projection of an object, the dimension Horizontal plane of projection is denoted by H.P.
of its length and width are at an angle of 30º to the
horizontal & dimensions of height are at 90º to the The line in which V.P. and H.P. intersect is called
Reference line and is denoted by XY.
horizontal.
Projection on the V.P. ⇒ Front view or elevation
The dimensions of projection in isometric projection
Projection on the H.P. ⇒ Top view or plan
are 18.4% less than the actual dimensions of object
Projection on the A.V.P. ⇒ Side view
2 Quadrants system of orthographic projection–
or Isometric scale = actual size = 0.815 actual
3
size.
In Isometric view,
Circle ⇒ Ellipse
Square ⇒ Rhombus
Rectangle ⇒ Parallelogram
Generally four methods of projection are used in
Engg. Drawing–
1. Orthographic projection 2. Isometric projection
3. Oblique projection 4. Perspective projection
2. Orthographic Projection First Quadrant Object is situated in front of V.P.
and above the H.P.
When the projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane, the projection is called Second Object is situated in behind the
Quadrant V.P. and above the H.P.
orthographic projection.
Third Quadrant Object is situated in behind the
V.P. and below the H.P.
Fourth Object is situated in front of V.P.
Quadrant and below the H.P.
Difference between first angle and third angle
projection–
First angle projection Third angle projection
In orthographic projection methods, an object is

represented by two or three view on an ● The object lies ● The plane of projection
perpendicular projection planes. between the observer lies between observer
and the plane of and object.
Each projection view represents two dimension of projection.
an object.
● The plane of ● The plane of projection
For the complete description of the three projection is assumed is assumed to be
dimensional object in this projection, at least two to be non- transparent.
or three views are required. transparent.
● H.P. and V.P. is ● H.P. and V.P. is located Application– Application– Animation,
located below and above and below the Architecture, computer visual simulation etc.
above the reference reference line aided design etc.
line (X-Y lines) respectively. Auxiliary plane
respectively.
Sometimes two views of object (front view & top
● Projection is drawn ● Projection is drawn view) are not sufficient to convey all information
apposite to the same side to the viewer regarding the object.
viewer side
In this condition the additional view, called
auxiliary view and projected on that plane known
as auxiliary plane.
Auxiliary view may also be used for determining–
(a) The true length of a line
(b) The point view of a line
(c) The edge view of a plane
(d) The true size and form of a plane
Front view → Above Front view → Below X-
X-Y line Y line
Types of auxiliary plane–
Top view → Below X- Top view → Above X-Y
1. Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
Y line line
2. Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P)
Right view → Above Right view → Below X-Y
X-Y line parallel to V.P. line parallel to V.P. and in
and in left of elevation. right of elevation.
Left view → Above X- Left view → Below X-Y
Y line parallel to V.P. line parallel to V.P. and in
and in right of left of elevation.
elevation.
This method of ● This method f A.V.P. is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to
projection is used in projection is used in the V.P.
India and Europe. U.S.A. A.I.P. is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to
Symbol of First angle and Third angle projection the H.P.
First angle Third angle Projection of side view of the object is drawn on
auxiliary plane.
Miter line
Used to construct Side View.
This line is drawn at 45o to the horizontal.
Difference between Perspective and Parallel
Projection (i.e. Orthographic Projection)–
Orthographic Perspective Projection
Projection
• Observer is situated at • Observer is situated at

infinite distance from finite distance from the
the object. object.
Projection of straight line
1. When line parallel to one or both the planes–
• Projection rays (or • Projection rays are
projectors) are intersect at view point. i. When a line parallel to Top view → A line
parallel. both planes (H.P. and of true length and
V.P.) parallel to XY-line.
• Projection has same • Objects appear smaller
size of original object. the farther away they Front view → A line
are. of true length and

parallel to XY-line. line of true\ length.
Side view → Point
iii. Line contained by Its front view and top

both plane (H.P. and view coincide with
V.P.) each other in XY
ii. When a line is parallel Top view → A line line.
to H.P. and inclined to of true length and
V.P.- inclined to XY-line
(ab = AB)
Front view → A line
smaller than true
length and parallel to 3. Line perpendicular to one of the plane
XY-line (a'b' < AB) i. Line perpendicular Top view → A point
to horizontal plane Front view → A line of
(H.P.) true length
perpendicular to XY-
line .
iii. When a line parallel to Top view → A line

V.P. and inclined to smaller than true
H.P. length and parallel to
XY-line (ab < AB)
Front view → A line ii. Line perpendicular Top view → A line of
of true length and to vertical plane true length
inclined to XY-line. (V.P.) perpendicular to XY
(a'b' = AB) line
Front view → A point
2. Line contained by one or both the planes–

4. Line inclined to both the planes (H.P. and V.P.)–
i. Line contained by Top view → A line of
horizontal plane (H.P.) true length (ab = AB) Top view → A line
smaller than true length
Front view → A line inclined to XY-line
in XY-line (a'b' < AB). Front view → A line
inclined to XY-line.
(Angles greater than the
true inclinations.)
ii. Line contained by Top view → A line

vertical plane (V.P.) smaller than true length
in XY-line.
Front view → A
Remember– When a line is parallel to a plane , its 1. Projection of • In this case, H.T. and
projection on that plane will show its true length plane perpendicular to V.T. are in a straight
and true inclination with the other plane. both the H.P. and V.P. line, perpendicular to
XY-line.
Trace of a line
Top view and front
When a line is inclined to a plane, it will meet that view → A line
plane, produced if necessary. perpendicular to XY-
The point in which the line or produced line meets line.
the plane is called its trace.
The point of intersection of the line with H.P. is
called horizontal trace (H.T.).
The point of intersection of the line with V.P. is
called vertical trace (V.T.) 2. Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane
and parallel to the other plane
i. Plane perpendicular • Its H.T. is parallel to
to the H.P. and parallel XY-line. It is has no
to the V.P. V.T.
Top view → A line
parallel to XY-line
Front view → A plane
of true shape size
v – V ⇒ V.T., h – H ⇒ H.T.
When a line is parallel to a plane it has no trace upon ii. Plane perpendicular • Its V.T. is parallel to
that plane to the V.P. and parallel XY-line. It has no H.T.
Projection of point
to the H.P. Top view → A plane of
true shape and size
parallel to XY-line
3. Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane

and inclined to the other plane–
i. Plane perpendicular • Its V.T. is
to H.P. and inclined to perpendicular to XY-line
V.P. and H.T, is inclined to
XY-line.
Top view→ A line
inclined to XY-line
Front view → A plane
smaller than true size of
plane.
Projection of a plane ii. Plane perpendicular • Its V.T. is inclined to

Plane- to V.P. and inclined to XY-line and H.T.
Plane have only two dimensions (i.e. length and H.P. perpendicular to XY-
breath). They do not have thickness. line.

Top view → A plane
smaller than true size of
plane
inclined to XY-line
Projection of Solid
A solid has three dimension (i.e.-length breadth
and thickness)
Types of solid–
(1) Polyhedra (2) Solids of revolution ii. When the axis of solid is perpendicular to V.P.
1. Polyhedra- A polyhederon is defined as a solid
beginning should be made with front view, top view
bonded by planes called faces.
should be projected from it.
Ex- Tetrahedron, Cube, Prism, Pyramid,
Octahedron, Dodecahedron Icosahedraon etc.
iii. When the axis is parallel to both the H.P and the
V.P., neither the top view nor the front view, will
show the actual shape of the base.
2. Solid of revolution- Cylinder , Cone , Sphere
Projection of solids
• When the axis of solid perpendicular to one
plane, it is parallel to the other– When the axis is parallel to both the H.P. and V.P.,
an auxiliary plane (side view) will show the actual
shape of the base.
Remember–
(i) The part of the object between the cutting plane and
the observer is assumed to be removed and the view
is then shown in section.
(ii) The surface produced by cutting the object by the
• Projection of a solid on the plane to which its section plane is called the section.
axis is perpendicular , will show the true shape (iii) It is indicated by thin section lines uniformly spaced
and size of its base. and inclined at 45o.
i. When the axis of solid is perpendicular to the H.P. (iv) The projection of the section along with the
the top view should be drawn first and front view remaining portion of the object is called a sectional
projected from it. view.

CAD-CAM, NC & CNC Machine
Definition of CAD : Memory
It is an integration of Computer Science techniques in 1. Primary Memory
Engineering design. Memory type Category Volatility
Random-Access Read-Write Volatile
Memory (RAM) Memory
Read-Only Memory Read-Only
(ROM) Memory
Programmable ROM
(PROM)
Erasable PROM Read-Mostly Non-
(EPROM) Memory Volatile
Electrically Erasable
PROM (EEPROM)
Flash Memory
2. Secondary Memory
CAD Technology = • It is also known as External memory/Storage
Design Techniques + Computer (Hardware + Software) memory/Auxiliary memory/Backup memory.
Configuration of hardware components in CAD : • It is used for storing data and instructions
permanently and are non volatile.
Example- Hard disc, Pen drive, CD, DVD
Sequence of Operation in CAD
2. Engineering analysis
3. Design review and evaluation
4. Automated drafting
Input device for CAD system:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Light pen
4. Joystick
5. Digitizer
6. Scanner
7. Graphics tablet
Display device (Used as output device) :
Cathode-Ray-Tube (CRT) • Modern CAD system is based on ICG (Interactive
Computer Graphics).
• Primary colours used in CRT screen are Red, Green Methods of solid modelling–
and Blue. 1. Constructive solid geometry (CSG)
• CRT monitor is used for physical interaction 2. Boundary representation or B-Rep
between computers and user. 3. Parametric (Analytical) solid modelling
Output device for CAD system 4. Pure primitive instancing
5. Generalized sweep
 Drum plotters Application of solid modelling–
• Pen plotter  1. Graphics
Flat − bed plotters 2. Design and analysis
3. Manufacturing
• Hard copy unit 4. Assembly
• Electrostatic plotters 5. Inspection and testing
• Boolean operations are a mixed way of combining
solids to form solid models.
Curves, surface and solids–
For obtaining a mathematical curve–
Curve fitting techniques are used–
1. Cubic spline curve
2. Parabolic blended curve
B-spline curve–
• With this method, complex geometric curves are
generated with continuity at joints when piecing
curve together.
• Main advantage of B spline curve is local control Integration of technical and business function in
over curve shape. CIM
Bezier curve
Difference between CAD and CAM
• The direction of curve at the joints can be defined
and changed simply by specifying the position of the CAD CAM
control point. Purpose Making 2D Using 3D models
• Bezier curve passes through first and last control technical drawing to design
point. and 3D models machining process
• Bezier curve shows axis independent and global Procedure Sketching with 2D Automatic and
control. primitives manual path
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) planning for
Computer aided manufacturing may be defined as machining path
any support that can be provided by computer in
Software Autodex, Edge CAM,
manufacturing a given product. AutoCAD, Solid- NXCAM,
Computers may play a direct role or indirect role in work, Solid edge, MasterCAM
manufacturing a given product. CATIA
1. The direct role refers to computerised operation and
Advantage Much easier, more Automatization of
control of a manufacturing process.
accurate and faster machining process
2. The indirect role of computer in manufacturing drafting
refers to :
Computer aided process planning.
Computer aided NC part programming.
Computer aided material handling and storage.
Step involved in CAM operation–
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Computer integrated manufacturing is an extension
of CAD/CAM.
CIM aims an integration of :
(a) Manufacturing tools like CAD/CAM, Flexible
manufacturing systems, group technology, just in
time concept, inventory control etc.
(b) Other functional areas of organisation including
marketing, purchase order control, personal
management etc.
Designing Software used in creation of solid 2. Line command
model 3. Multiline command
Software License OS 4. Polyline command
name 5. Polygon command
Auto CAD Commercial Software Windows, 6. Rectangle command
Mac 7. SP line command
CATIA Commercial Software Windows 8. Ellipse command
Pro/Engineer Commercial Software Windows Modify Commands in AutoCAD–
Solid works Commercial Software Windows Command Function
Auto CAD 1. Erase Used for correction in drawings.
Auto - Auto desk Command
C - Computer 2. Copy Used to copy the object.
A - Aided or assisted Command
D - Design or drafting 3. Mirror • Symmetrical objects are made
Standard graphics file format for exchange of Command by using mirror command.
CAD data– • Only half part of object is
File format Established by created and then they are mirrored
IGES National Bureau of to find complete drawing.
(Initial Graphic Exchange Standards (NBS), USA • Reflection is mirror image of
Specifications) object.
STEP International Standard 4. Offset Used to create parallel lines
(Standard for Exchange of Organisation (ISO) Command concentric circle and parallel
Product Model Data) curves.
DXE Auto CAD
(Drawing Exchange)
AutoCAD saves users drawings as DWG file. 5. Array • Used to create coppies of
Draw commands in Auto CAD– Command objects arranged in a pattern.
1. Circle Command- • It make multiple copies of an
Circle can be created by specifying various object in rectangular or circular
combination of centre, radius, diameter, points on pattern.
circumference and tangent.
6. Move Drawing of object can be shifted
(I) 2 Points (2P)
Command up, down, left or right position
(II) 3 Points (3P)
with respect to original position.
(III) Tan Tan Tan (Three tangent) (TTT)
(IV) Tan Tan Radius (Two tangent and one 7. Rotate Rotate command provides facility
Radius) (TTR) Command of movement on a circular path to
the drawing.
8. Scale Size of drawing can be adjusted
Command with the help of Scale Command.
9. Trim Used to remove a small portion of
Command line.
10. Break Used to break the line or
Command geometry in two parts.
11. Fillet For converting sharp edges into
Command circular edge.
12. Chamfered Used for reducing the sharpness
Command of the edge.
13. Stretch Used to increase the length of any
Command object or line.
14. Extend Used to complete the geometry by
Command increasing the length of any line.

Symbol of modify command in AutoCAD 2. Rotation
Symbol Command
Rotate
___ Trim
/----
__ Extend
----/
Mirror
 cos θ − sin θ 
Rotation matrix {R} = 
 sin θ cos θ 
Scale
3. Scaling-
Stretch
Move
S x 0 
Copy Scaling matrix {S} =  
 0 Sy 
• If scaling factor Sx & Sy > 1 then size of object
increases.
Join • If scaling factor Sx & Sy < 1 then size of object
Chamfer decreases.
• For uniform scaling Sx = Sy
Fillet 4. Reflection or mirror
Graphic Functions
It incorporates a variety of graphic functions to help
the user to generate and modify drawing and images.
Output primitives
The entities used to create drawing are referred to as
output primitives, Line point, arc, circle, surface. Reflection matrix about 1 0 
To generate output primitives the algorithms are– x-axis [Mx ] =  
0 –1
Line generating algorithms–
1. Bresenham's line drawing algorithm. Reflection matrix about  –1 0 
2. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm. origin [Mo ] =  
 0 –1
3. Algorithm for line drawing using slope method.
Circle generating algorithms– Reflection matrix about  –1 0 
1. Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm y-axis  M y  =  0 1 
 
2. Midpoint circle drawing algorithm
Reflection matrix about 0 1 
Two dimensional Geometric Transformation  M yx  = 
y=x 
1. Translation 1 0 
Reflection matrix about  0 –1
y = –x  M y– x  =  
 –1 0 
3D Geometric Transformation
Translation 1 0 0 t 
x
0 1 0 t 
 y
= Translation matrix
tx  0 0 1 t z 
Translation matrix {T} =    
ty  0 0 0 1 

Rotation 1 0 0 0 V. SPLIT (Standard processing language internally
0 cos θ – sin θ 0  translated)
 x x  VI. PROMPT
0 sin θx cos θx 0  2. Program tape
 
0 0 0 1 The part program is entered on the program tape.
= Rotation matrix (about x- axis) The program is entered on the tape in the form of
Scaling punch holes.
Sx 0 0 0
0 Sy 0 0 
3. Machine control unit
 = Scaling matrix The part program tape is read by the tap reader.
0 0 Sz 0 The controller takes input from the tape reader.
 
0 0 0 1 4. Machine Tool-
Mirror or It is operated by the controller of the machine
1 0 0 0 
Reflection 0 1 0 0 control unit.
  Machine M / C Tool
0 0 1 0 Program → Control Unit → Processing
  (instruction) ( MCU ) Equipment
0 0 0 1 
= Reflection matrix about x-y plane • Application-
NC Machine- Metal cutting, Automatic drafting, spot welding,
It is a numeric control machine in which numbers, press working, inspection
letters and symbols are used as input to control the Advantage of NC machine over conventional systems
operation.
• Flexibility with accuracy
• NC machine tool is operated by a series of coded
instruction. • Repeatability
• Reduced scrap
• High production rates
• Good quality of product
• Less skilled operator
Numerical control contouring simplifies the
manufacturing process and the type of
Functions of NC Machine Tools- positioning is continuous path positioning
1. Starting and stopping of the machine tool spindle In order to accomplish the machining process,
2. Controlling the spindle speed the cutting tool and workpiece must be moved
3. Positioning the tool at the desired location & guiding relative to each other. In NC, there are three
it basic types of motion control system–
4. Controlling the feed rate 1. Point to point– In PTP, the objective of the m/c
5. Changing the tool control system is to move the cutting tool to a
Component of NC machine tool system- predefined location.
1. Part program- It is a set of step by step instruction 2. Straight cut
to the machine tool for carrying out the operation. 3. Contouring
There are two method for part programming Computer Numeric Control (CNC) Machine-
(i) Manual part programming In CNC machine, program are designed or prepared
(ii) Computer aided part programming first, then it is fed to the CNC machine.
• NC Part programming languages- According to program, the CNC machine controls
I. APT (Automatically programmed tools) the motion and speed of the machine tools like
Only capital letters are used in APT language (lathe, mills, shaper etc.).
APT part program consist four types statements. • Feed drive in CNC milling machine are provided by
(i) Geometry servo motor.
(ii) Motion
• Feed motion in CNC drilling machine are provided
(iii) Post processor
by stepper motor.
(iv) Compilation control
• An interpolator provide two functions in CNC
Modem version of APT can be used for both
machine–
positioning and continuous-path programming.
II. ADAPT (Adaptation of APT) (i) It calculates individual axis velocity.
III. EXAPT (Extended subset of APT) (ii) Drive the tool along the programmed path at the
IV. UNIAPT given feed rate.

• In a CNC machine tool, encoder is used to sense and 2. Closed loop type CNC machine-
control table position.
• Main component of CNC machine
1. Input devices-
Input devices are used to input the part program in
the CNC machine.
Commonly used input device in CNC are :
(a) Punch tape reader
(b) Magnetic tape reader
2. Machine control unit (MCU)
It performs all the controlling action. • Classification of CNC machine based on
machining center
3. Machine Tool- A CNC machine tool always has a Horizontal CNC machine
slide table & a spindle to control the position and Vertical CNC machine
speed. Universal CNC machine
4. Driving system- It consist of amplifier circuits • Classification of CNC machine based on
drive, motor ball, lead screw. Application
CNC Lathe
5. Feedback system-
CNC Milling/Drilling
It contains position & speed transducers that CNC Grinding
continuously monitor the position & speed of the CNC Gear Cutting
cutting located at any instant. CNC Special purpose M/C
• Application of CNC machine
Automotive industry
Metal removal industries
Electrical discharge machine industries
Advantage of CNC
1. High flexibility
2. Reduced scrap rate
3. Improved quality
4. Low maintenance required
5. They are versatile
6. Reliable
7. No possibility of human error
8. Safe to operate
9. Machining is accurate
10. Uniformity in designs.
Important G codes
Code Function of code
G 00 Rapid movement
Classification of CNC machine-
G 01 Linear Interpolation
1. Open loop type CNC machine
G 02 Circular Interpolation (CW)
G 03 Circular interpolation (ACW)
G 04 Dwell
G 05 Spindle stop
G 17 XY plane designation
G 18 ZX plane designation
G 19 YZ plane designation
G 20 Clockwise circular interpolation for long
dimensions
G 21 Input values specified in millimeters
G 28 Automatic return to reference point
G 32 Code for constant lead threading on CNC
lath machine
G 33 Thread cutting Computer Fundamental
G 40 Cutter compensation cancel Any computer system consists of three main units.
G 41 Cutter radius compensation left offset
G 42 Cutter radius compensation right offset
G 43 Tool length compensation (plus) CPU consists of three basic components–
G 44 Tool length compensation (minus)
G 49 Tool length compensation cancel
G 80 Cancel canned cycles
G 81 Drilling cycle
G 90 Absolute positioning
G 91 Incremental positioning
G 92 Absolute present, change the datum position
Important M codes •
The computer is integrated device which contain
Code Function of code CPU central processing unit as the nerve/brain of the
M 00 Program stop system.
M 01 Optional stop • The capacity of the storage unit to store data is
M 02 End of program expressed in terms of bits–
M 03 Spindle CW A bit is the unit of binary No. (0, 1)
M 04 Spindle CCW 1 byte = 8 bits
M 05 Spindle stop 1 Kilobyte = 1024 bytes
M 06 Tool change 1 Megabyte = 1024 kilobytes
M 07 Tap oil on 1 Gigabyte = 1024 Megabyte
M 08 Coolant on Cursor control devices–
M 10 Clamp on • Absolute touchpad
M 11 Clamp off • Thumbwheels
Direct Numeric Control (DNC) • Mouse
Direct numeric control is a system that uses a • Trackball
• Light pen
central computer to control several machines at the
same time or in real time. • Displacement joystick
The tape reader is omitted in DNC. • Force joystick
The part program is transmitted machine tool BIOS–
directly from the computer memory. Computer program that is typically stored in
EPROM and used by the CPU to perform start-up
procedures when the computer is turned on.
Some important computer related full forms
Abbreviation Full form
OMR Optical Mark Reading and
Recognition
OCR Optical Character Recognition
MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
BIOS Basic Input Output System
• Components of DNC URL Uniform Resource Locator
Central computer USB Universal Serial Bus
Bulk memory for storing programs VIRUS Vital Information Resource Under
Communication network Siege
CNC machines CRT Cathode Ray Tube
• Advantage of DNC Internet Protocol
IP
1. Greater computational capability and flexibility
2. Elimination of punched tapes and tape readers HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
3. Convenient editing and diagnostic features LAN Local Area Network
4. Convenient storage of NC part programs in WAN Wide Area Network
computer files MAN Metropolitan Area Network
5. Reporting of shop performance.
Robotics & Mechatronics
Robot is a structure of kinematic chain consists of Subsystem of robots
Links and Joints.
(1)
Robot Anatomy–
Like : Rigid component or bar.
Joints : Provide relative movement between the paired
(2)
links.
Wrist have three motion–

(R) Roll → Rotation along longitudinal axis
(P) Pitch → Up down movement
(Y) Yaw → Left right motion
Input Link → Near to base

Output Link → Near to end effector tool.
Total DOF →
Types of joints
Arm + Wrist
Linear joint ↓ ↓
(L joint) atleast 3DOF + atleast 1DOF ≥ 4 DOF
(3) End effector–
Orthogonal joint End effector are the devices attached to the robot's
(U joint) wrist to perform a specific task–
End effectors are two types–
Grippers – Used to hold either workpiece (or) tools
Tools– The tools used as end effectors by robot to
perform processing operations.
Rotational joint Robot classification
(R joint) Cartesian 3 Prismatic
co-ordinate 3 Sliding movement
Twisting joint (T joint) Robots [xyz]
(Linear robot)
LOO/3P
Revolving joint
• Most accurate
(V-joint) robot
Linear orthogonal orthogonal

(LOO)

Spherical Two rotational and one Linear programme generate an output
co-ordinate movement command for the actuator.
Robots 3. Actuator Generate physical action
(Polor robot) • Used to move the joints of robots
2 Revolute
1 prismatic
(φ, θ, radius)
Twisting rotational linear (TRL) Number of actuator =Number of joints = Number of
TRL
D.O.F. = Number of link – 1
Articulated
Robot kinematics–
arm
Robot kinematics refers to the analytical study of a
Work volume
robot manipulator.
similar to human
• In Robotics we deal two types of kinematics they
arm
are–
Cylindrical Two linear and one rotational 1. Direct forward kinematics–
Robot movements Given information – The value of the joint variables.
2 prismatic Required information – The position and orientation
1 revolute of the end effector
→ TLO 2. Inverse kinematics–
→ (rad, z, φ) Given information– The position and orientation of
the end effector
Twisting linear orthogonal (TLO) Required information– The value of the joint
SCARA variable.
Selective Industrial Robot–
compliance • Minimum number of degree of freedom that a robot
assembly needs to have in order to locate its end effectors at
VRO Revolving rotary orthogonal an arbitary point with an arbitrary orientation in
arrangement (VRO) space = 6 DOF
4 D.O.F. Application–
Material handling spray paint and other operation,
Automatic Machine– assembly operation, inspection.
1. Sensor Measure or sense a variable and send • Articulated joint robot the number of degrees of
signal to controller freedom associated with arm and body motion
(i) External sensor– Intract with = 4 DOF
outside environment (Proximity ROBOT DOF
and range sensor) Planar 3
(ii) Internal sensor– To sense Puma industrial 6
internal movement (Position, T3 6
velocity and acceleration of SCARA 4
robot joint (or) end effectors) TRL : T Type 4
2. Controller Take data as input, based upon its

Mechatronics
Transducer–
Device that converts a signal from one form of
energy to another form.
Specification of sensors
Range It indicates the limit between which the input can vary. It tells about the input limit of a
sensor.
eg. – Thermocouple [25–2250]
Span Difference between the maximum and minimum value of input
eg.– Thermocouple (25–2250)
Error Difference between the result of the measurement and true value.
Result of measurement – Target value
(Actual value) (True value)
Accuracy Closeness of the agreement between the result of the measurement and the actual value of the
measured.
Precision It is the ability of an instrument to reproduce the same output value
Stability Stability is the ability of sensor device to give the same output when used to measure a
constant input continuously over a period of time.
e.g. → weighing machine
Sensitivity The ratio of output to input change.
Repeatability Ability of a sensor to produce same output for a repeated application of same input value
( max. value − min.value ) ×100

Repeatability =
Full range
Resolution Smallest detectable incremental change in input parameter which can be noticed in the output
signal
1
Resolution ∝
Sensitivity
Change in input
i.e. Resolution =
Change in output
Response time • It describe the speed of change in output on a step-wise change of the measured input
Dead time • Time duration from the application of an input untill the output begins to respond (or)
change.
Dead band (or) • Range of input value for which there is no output
dead space

Non linearity • Indicate the max. deviation of the actual measured curve of a sensor from the ideal
curve.
• Deviation of input is observed at fixed output.
• Depend upon– Environmental factors, including temperature humidity, vibration.
Measured curve (Non linear)

(Drawn by calibration)
Fixed Ideal
output curve
Maximum
error in output
Input
Hysteresis • Error of sensor
• Defined as the maximum difference in output at any measurement value, while not
changing the input
Sensors classification Velocity & Techogenerators, Incremental

[A] Based on principle of operation – motion sensor encoder
Magnetic Hall effect sensors Force sensor Strain gauge, load cell
Resistive Wheat stone bridge, Temperature Thermistors, Thermocouples
strain gauges sensor
Piezoelectric Piezoelectric, 1. Displacement and position sensor –
piezoelectric,
Potentiometer • Measuring for both–
accelerometer
a) Linear displacement
Inductive LVDT
b) Angular displacement
Optical Photo detectors
• Used to convert
[B] Based on output signal–
Analog Wheat stone bridge,
strain gauges
Digital optical encoders, limit Strain gauge
switches
[C] Based on Application –
Displacement, Strain gauge, hall effect
proximity, sensors, optical encoders. ( ∆R / R 0 )
Gauge Factor ( G f ) =
position sensors ( ∆L / L0 )

2. Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors– Resolver • Resolver is the most feedback
Piezoelectric Used for the quantification of devices for motion control
sensor pressure, acceleration and dynamic system.
force like high speed compression • Used to measure degree of
or tension rotation (angular displacement)
Tachogenerator Works on the principle of variable Application– Servo motors, factory
reluctance. automation.
Piezoelectric material & its operation– An encoder is a device that provides
Optical
• When piezoelectric material is subjected to pressure/ a digital output, as a result of a
Encoder
force (mechanical input) then electrical change will linear (or) angular displacement.
be accumulated on the surface of material.
• The developed charge will convert to voltage.
Piezoelectric (Made of piezoelectric crystals)

accelerometer
Actuators Actuators produce physical change

such as linear and angular
Application– Vibration of aeroplan
displacement.
& rocket, high speed used to
Type of actuators
measure wave generated in blasting
1. Mechanical 2. Pneumatic 3.
& explosion
Hydraulic 4. Electrical
Hall-effect If a current (I) carrying conductor of
sensor thickness (t) is placed inside a
magnetic field of (B), then voltage
Stepper motor–
will be developed across the crystal.
Stepper motor is a electrical actuator which
I.B
Hall voltage ( VH ) = K H converts pulsed electrical energy into stepwise
t
shaft rotation.
Where, KH = Hall coefficient
Step angle size–
Application– Used to measure
Full step angle = θS – θR
position, displacement, proximity
θS − θR
sensor. Half step angle =
2
Inductosyn It is a basic analog sensor, for high
o
360o 360
precision measurement of position. θS = θR =
No.of poles of stator No.of poles of rotor
'θ'S → Stator pitch (The angular distance between

two successive poles of the stator)
'θ'R → rotor pitch (The angular distance between
two successive teeth of the rotor)

Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine
• When fluid is at rest - Shear force = 0 du
= velocity gradient
• Normal force ≠ 0 dy
⇓ dθ
• Negative normal force i.e. compressive force ⇒ Rate of shear strain or shear deformation.
dt
• Mohr's circle - Point
Dynamic Viscosity (µ)–
Note- Liquids are generally treated as incompressible τ
fluid but in case of water hammer, the liquid becomes µ=
du / dy
compressible.
Note- µHg > µH2O
• Gases are generally treated as compressible fluid that in
case of those application where (Ma ≤ 0.3) gas behaves µ H2O > µPetrol > µair
as incompressible fluid. Unit of Viscosity-
SI – N-s/m2 or Pa–s
Properties of Fluid
CGS – dyne–s/cm2
Properties Formula Unit Dimension M.K.S– kgf–s/m2
Density or m 1
Mass ρ= kg/m3 ML−3 1 poise = N–s/m2
Density V 10
Specific 1 Centipoise = 10-2 Poise
W mg N/m3 or
Weight or w= = = ρg
V V kg ML−2 T −2 Temperature Cause Dynamic
Weight
Density wwater = 9.81 × 1000 m 2s 2 Viscosity
Density or wt. density of substance For liquid T↑ Cohesion µ↓
SLiquid =
Density or wt. density of std.substance ↓
Specific Wt. density of liquid Dimension For gases T↑ Molecular µ↑
Unitless
Gravity = S×1000×9.81 N/m3 less
momentum
Density of liquid
exchange
= S×1000 kg/m3
↑
Specific V 1
v= = m3/kg M −1L3 Kinematic Viscosity–
Volume m ρ
Dynamic Viscosity µ
Bulk K= −dp dp υ= =
Modulus dV / V
=
dρ / ρ
N/m2 ML−1T −2 Mass Density ρ
Compressi 1 Unit- SI – m2/sec
β= M −1LT 2
bility K m2/N CGS – cm2/sec or stoke
F 1 stoke = 10-4 m2/sec or 1 cm2/sec
σ=
l
SI - 1 m2/sec = 104 stoke
Surface • At Critical Point N/m Note- υair > υwater
Tension σliquid = 0 CGS - MT −2
For liquid- surface tension ↓(decrease) with ↑
• σ H 2O / air = 0.0736 dyne/cm
(increase) in temperature.
N/m Excess Pressure-
SI - Pressure inside drop 4σ
Vapour Force  F N/m2 p=
 pv =  ML−1T −2 (solid like sphere) d
Pressure Area  A CGS -
dyne/cm2
Pressure inside bubble, 8σ
Newton’s Law of Viscosity– p=
(soap bubble) d
For (1 − D ) flow
du dθ Pressure inside liquid jet 2σ
τ=µ =µ  du dθ  p=
dy dt ∵  = σ = Surface tension d

 dy dt  d = diameter of bubble

Capillarity- Non-Newtonian Fluid–
Capillary rise Capillary fall A. Time Independent-
• It takes place in case • It takes place in case (i) Dilatant  du 
n
of wetting fluid of non wetting fluid (Shear τ = µ  n >1

thickening  dy 
• Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion
fluid)  du   dθ 
Ex- H2O and glass Ex- Hg & glass µ↑  ↑  ↑
 
dy  dt 
Capillary is due to both cohesion and adhesion.
eg.– Slurry, Printing ink, dye, starch,
Rise or depression of liquid in capillary tube
molasses, Aqueous suspension.
4σ cos θ Quick sand, Sugar Solution, butter
h=
ρgd (ii) Bingham It behaves like Newtonian fluid but
Plastic after application of certain amount
θ = 00 for pure water and glass tube of shear stress.
θ = 1280 - 138º for mercury and glass tube
 du 
τ = τº + µ   n = 1
1  dy 
h∝
d
τ º = Yield shear stress or threshold
d↑ h↓ shear stress
d ≤ 6 mm = capillary tube e.g.– Water suspension of clay, fly
6 mm < d <15 mm ⇒ Piezometric tube ash, Creams, Toothpaste, Drilling
Muds
d ≥ 15mm ⇒ Pipe
(iii) Pseudo  du 
n
Wetting fluid Non wetting fluid τ = µ  n <1
Plastic
• Adhesion> Cohesion • Cohesion > Adhesion (Shear  dy 
• Contact angle (θ) ⇒ • θ > 90º [abtuse] thinning  du   dθ 
µ↓ ↑  ↑
θ < 90º [Acute] • Mercury and glass fluid)  
dy  dt 
• Water and glass e.g.– Paper pulp, Clay, Polymer
Types of Fluid– solutions, milk, blood, syrup
B. Time Dependent
Ideal Fluid Incompressible
(i) n
Non viscous  du 
Thixotropic τ = τº +µ  + f ( time) [decreasing function]
Perfectly rigid i.e. β =0 , K= ∞  dy 
Surface tension σ ≈ 0
e.g.–Lipstick, Printer inks, Enamels
Real Fluid It possess viscosity and Paint, Jelly
Compressibility (ii) n
 du 
Ideal plastic In this shear stress is more than yield value Rheopectic τ = τº + µ  + f ( time) [ Increasing function]
 dy 
Fluid du dθ
and shear stress (τ) ∝ or e.g.– Gypsum pastes and Bentonite
dy dt slurry
Newtonian In this type of fluid, shear stress is
Fluid directly proportional to rate of shear
strain or
Newtonian fluid does not change with
viscosity or with the rate of deformation
or shear strain.
Ex. Water, Kerosene, Petrol, Benzene,
Ethanol, Alcohol, Mercury.
Non- In this shear stress is not proportional to
Newtonian the rate of shear strain. This fluid does
Fluid not obey Newton's law of viscosity.

Unit of Pressure– Hydrostatic Law-
1Pa = 1N/m2 The rate of increase of pressure in vertical
1bar = 105 Pa = 100 KPa = 0.1 MPa direction is equal to weight density of the fluid
1atm = 101325Pa at that point.
kgf dP [vertically downward direction it is

1 = 9.81×104N/m2 =γ
cm 2 dz taken as positive]
1Psi = 6894.76 Pa
dP [vertically upward direction it is taken
1 Torr = 133.3 Pa =1 mm Hg = −γ
dz as negative]
Conversion of one liquid column to another liquid

column -
• ρ1 h1 = ρ2 h2
• S1 h1 = S2 h2
 p p
Pressure Head-  h = or 
 ρg w 
In vertically accelerated vessel

Pabs = Patm + Pgauge 1.  a
Pvaccum = Patm – P'abs = ρgh 1 + 
 g
Pascal's Law–
Pressure at a point in a fluid system is equally
distributed in all direction. It applied to fluid at rest. 2.  a
= ρgh 1 − 
px = py = pz  g
It will be valid in all those cases in which the shear

stress is zero and the only force present is normal
force. 3. < PB < PC
Cases for Pascal's law-
1. Moving fluid- (Ideal fluid) - µ = 0

dµ
τ =µ = 0 ⇒ pascal's law
dy
4.  a
2. Static fluid - (Real fluid) - = ρgh 1 − 
 g
 dµ   dµ 
  = 0 ⇒ τ = µ   = 0 = Pascal's law Pg = 0
 dy   dy 
3. Moving fluid (Real) – Fluid is moving with PA= 0
constant acceleration ⇒ τ = 0 PB = 0
4. Rotating fluid ⇒ Fluid is moving with a constant
PC = 0
velocity
Micro manometer
Pressure measurement devices Curved FH = ρg ∫ h.dA sin θ

Piezometer • It measure only + ve gauge Surface
pressure
Fv = ρg ∫ h.dA cos θ
• It measures moderate gauge
pressure of liquid only
• It can not measure very FR = FH2 + Fv2
high pressure & the = wAx
pressure of gases.
Note- Location of center of pressure does not depend on
Inverted U tube • It is used for very low the density of fluid but the value of hydrostatic force
manometer pressure difference
depends on density of fluid.
measurement
Hydrostatic force of curved surfaces-
• Hg cann't be used as
manometric fluid [ FH = ρgAx ]
• Sm < S A - Projected Area
Micromanometer • For very high pressure x - Vertical distance of center of gravity of body
difference from free surface.
U tube • For very high pressure Resultant Force 'F' = (FH ) 2 + (Fv ) 2
differential difference Sm > S
manometer Fv– Weight of liquid block above curved surface.
Total pressure and center of pressure for Geometric properties of some important shapes-
submerged plane at different surface position- Plane Surface Center of Depth of
Surface Total Pressure Center of Gravity center of
Position Pressure (hcp) (C.G.) pressure
Horizontal F = ρgAX hcp = X (C.P.)
Position
Rectangle d 2d
= wAX x= h=
2 3
Vertical F = ρgAX IG
Position h cp = X +
AX
= wAX
Inclined F = ρgAX IG
Position h cp = X + Sin 2 θ
AX
= wAX

Triangle 2h 3h Metacentric height,
x= h=
3 4 G.M. = B.M. – B.G.
Imin
= − B.G.
Vimmersed
Imin = M.O.I.
Metacentric Height for various ships-
Types of ship Metacentric height
Inverted Triangle h h Merchant ship < 1.0 m
x= h=
3 2 sailing ship < 1.50 m
Battle ship < 2.0 m
River boat < 3.50 m
Passenger ship 0.3 to 1.5 m
G.MCargo ship > G.MPassenger ship,
So cargo ship is less comfortable.
Circle d 5d
x= h= Time period of Oscillation–
2 8
k2
T = 2π
G.M × g
k = Least Radius of gyration
Metacentric height for rolling condition will be less
than Metacentric height for pitching condition.
Trapezium  a + 2b  h  a + 3b  h
x= h= Floating body rotation axis in different condition–
 a + b  3  a + 2b  2
Half circle 4r 2D 3πr 3πD

or or
3π 3π 16 32
• Rolling is the most dangerous.

Archimedes's Principle- Types of Fluid Flow–
When a body is immersed wholly or partially in a Steady Flow Fluid property like density, pressure,
liquid, it is lifted up by a force equal to the weight velocity does not change with time.
of liquid displaced by the body. ∂v ∂p ∂ρ
= 0, = 0, =0
FB = Weight of liquid displaced by the body ∂t ∂t ∂t
FB = ρf × Vfd × g Unsteady Flow Fluid property changes with time
∂v ∂p ∂ρ
Equilibrium condition for Submerged and floating ≠ 0, ≠ 0, ≠0
body– ∂t ∂t ∂t
Equilibrium Submerged Floating body Uniform Flow At a given time, fluid property does
condition body not change with respect to the space.
Stable B is above G M is above G  ∂v 
  =0
Unstable B is below G M is below G  ∂s  t = Constant
Neutral B and G coincide M and G • Pipe should be uniform cross
coincide section

Non-Uniform At a given time, velocity changes with
Flow respect to space- In general viscous flow are rotational
 ∂v  law
  ≠0
 ∂s  t = Constant Irrotational Fluid particle does not rotate about its
own axis in both circular as well as
• Non uniform - converging
straight line motion.
diverging
Local or It is the rate of increase of velocity
Laminar Flow Fluid particles move along well- Temporal with respect to the time at a given
defined path or stream line and all the
stream lines are straight and parallel. Acceleration point in a flow field
Adjacent layer does not cross each ∂u ∂v ∂w
, or Local acceleration
other. ∂t ∂t ∂t
It is also known as stream line Convective It is the rate of change of velocity due
flow or viscous flow.
Acceleration to the change of position of fluid in a
• It generally occurs at low velocity fluid flow.
Turbulent Fluid particle moves in a zig-zag or in Note- Steady flow + Irrotational flow = Potential flow.
Flow random order.
• Flow is compressible or incompressible flow:-
It generally occurs at high velocity
Velocity of fluid
Compressible Density of fluid changes from point to Mach number =
Velocity of Sound
Flow point or density is not constant in
fluid flow i.e. ρ ≠ constant. • Incompressible flow ⇒ MN < 0.3 {Water}
Incompressible Density remains constant i.e. ρ = • Compressible flow ⇒
Flow constant. 0.3 < MN < 1 ⇒ Subsonic flow
Rotational During flow along streamline, fluid
MN = 1 ⇒ Sonic flow
Flow particles rotate about their own axis in
both the circular as well as straight 1 < MN < 6 ⇒ Supersonic flow
line motion.
MN > 6 ⇒ Hypersonic flow
ω ≠ 0 ω = Angular velocity of fluid
particle Reynold number for pipe & open channel flow–
• For rotation tangential force are ρVd
required in a fluid particle RN =
µ
• These tangential force are viscous
force i.e. rotation of fluid is Where,
because of viscosity means viscous ρ = density
force V = Average velocity
µAV µ = Dynamic viscosity
F=
y d = Characteristics length
Nature of flow according to Reynolds number for pipe and open channel flow–
Nature of flow Reynolds No, RN = ρVD/µ b/w parallel plates

Pipe Flow Open channel
flow
Laminar flow RN < 2000 RN < 500 RN < 1000
Transitional flow 2000 < RN < 4000 500 < RN < 1000 1000 < RN < 2000
Turbulent flow RN > 4000 RN > 1000 RN > 2000
Lower critical flow point RN = 2000 RN = 500 RN = 1000
Higher critical flow point RN = 4000 RN = 1000 RN = 2000

Type of flow line ⇒ 1
Angular Deformation = [ ∆θ1 + ∆θ2 ]
Stream line • It is an imaginary or curved line in 2
space such that a tangent drawn to it 1  ∂v ∂u 
Shear Strain Rate = +
at any point gives the direction of 2  ∂x ∂y 
velocity
Rotation–
• Two streamline can never intersect
each other.
ˆi ˆj kˆ 1  ∂v ∂u 
ωz =  − 
• For, steady flow = Shape of stream 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2  ∂x ∂y 
( ω) =
line does not change 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z 1  ∂w ∂v 
• As there is no flow possible across • ωx =  − 
u v w 2  ∂y ∂z 
the streamline the discharge will
1  ∂u ∂w 
remain constant between any two ωy =  − 
streamline 2  ∂z ∂x 
Path line • Path traced by a single fluid → Vorticity is twice the rotation '2ω'.
particle at different instant of time Circulation (Γ) = vorticity × area
Streak line • The locus of different fluid For a irrotational flow
particles passing through a fixed
ω=Ω=Γ=0
point
• Continuity equation - Acceleration of fluid–
dρ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ ( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + ( ρω) = 0
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
For steady & Incompressible flow
∂ρ
steady flow, =0
∂t Type of Local or Convective Total or
Incompressible flow– ρ = const Flow Temporal or Advective Max.
∂u ∂v ∂w Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z Steady +
Uniform 0 0 0
1D flow,
Flow
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 [Compressible flow]
Unsteady +
A1V1 = A2 V2 [Incompressible flow]
Uniform 0 Local
Note-
Flow
If continuity equation is not satisfied then flow is
Unsteady +
not possible
Non- Local +
Velocity Potential Function–
Uniform Convective
 −∂φ −∂φ −∂φ 
• u = ∂x • v = ∂y • w = ∂z  Flow
  Steady and
Stream Function– Non-Uni- 0 Convective
 +∂ψ +∂ψ  form Flow
• ∂x = v • ∂y = −u 
  Equation of motion–
1. Newton's Equation of Motion
Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Fx = F g + Fp + F v + Ft + Fc
Potential Function– 2. Reynold's Equation of Motion
 ∂φ ∂ψ   ∂φ −∂ψ  Fx = F g + Fp + F v + Ft
 ∂x = ∂y   ∂y = ∂x 
    3. Navier-Stokes Equation
Equipotential line & constant stream function lines Fx = F g + Fp + F v
are orthogonal to each other. 4. Euler's Equation of Motion
m1.m 2 = −1 Fx = F g + Fp

Important Dimensionless Number: p V2
Stagnation Head = +
Number Definition Equation ρg 2g
Reynolds Inertia force Fi ρVL Bernoulli's equation for real fluid
=
Number Viscous force Fv µ p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L hL = Head loss
Mach Inertia force Fi V V ρg 2g ρg 2g
= =
Number Elastic force Fe C K/ρ ⇒ Head loss doesn't depend on direction flow &
orientation of pipe
Froude Inertia force Fi V
= Siphon:-
Number Gravity force Fg Lg Siphon is a pipe which is used to connect two
reservoirs which are at different levels intervened by
Weber Inertia force Fi V
= a mountain etc
Number Surface tension Fs σ / ρL or
Euler's Siphon is that portion of the pipe which lies above
Inertia force Fi V
Number = hydraulic gradient line (HGL)
Pressure force Fp P/ρ Instruments & Their Measuring Parameter-
Cauchy Inertia force V2 Instrument Measuring parameter
Number Elastic force C2 Venturimeter Discharge or flow rate of pipe
Euler's Equation – Orificemeter Discharge or flow rate of pipe
It shows conservation of momentum Flow nozzle Discharge or flow rate of pipe
 dp  Elbow meter/ Discharge in vertical segment or
 ∫ ρ + ∫ gdz + ∫ vdv = Constant  Bend meter flow rate of pipe
 
Nozzle meter Discharge or flow rate
Assumption - steady flow
Non viscous flow Pitot tube Velocity of fluid flow
Fluid takes place along a stream line. Prandtl tube Velocity of fluid flow
(Boundary layer
Bernoulli's Equation– It shows the conservation
theory)
of mechanical energy.
Current meter Velocity in open channel
Assumption ⇒ Steady flow
Weirs Discharge in open channel
• Non viscous fluid
Rotameter Flow rate or discharge in vertical
• Incompressible flow
segment of pipe
• Flow along a stream line
Hot-wire For measuring the gas or air
• irrotational fluid Anemometer velocity
P V2  Energy  Anemometer Velocity with high accuracy
+ + gz = constant  
ρ 2  Mass  Pyrometer High temperature measurement
ρV 2  Energy  Hydrometer Specific gravity
P+ + γz = constant 
2  volume  Hygrometer Humidity
P V2  Energy  Notch discharge in open channel
+ + z = constant  
ρg 2g  Weight  orifice Discharge in tank
Where, Mouthpiece Discharge in tank
p Some viscosity measurement devices
= Pressure head
ρg Capillary tube Based on Haigen poiseulli's law
viscometer
v2
= Velocity head. Falling sphere Based on stroke's law
2g
viscometer
z = Potential head.
Rotating Based on Newton's law of
p
Piezometric Head = +z cylinder viscosity
ρg viscometer

Venturimeter– P1/ρg – stagnation head P2/ρg – Static head
 a1a 2  • Vact = Cv × Vthe
Q actual = C d × 2gh 
 a12 − a 22  Cv = 0.98
 
Cd = Co-efficient of venturimeter 0.97 - 0.99 Important point-
S  Liquid heavier then Type of flow meter Cost Accuracy Head loss
h = x  h − 1 flowing liquid in pipe Venturimeter High High Low
 So 
For Liquid lighter than Orifice meter Low Low High
 S 
h = x 1 − l  flowing liquid in pipe) Flow Nozzle Medium Medium Medium
 S0 
Where, Orifice-
Sh = Specific gravity of heavier liquid. Hydraulic Co-efficient–
So = Specific gravity of liquid flowing in pipe Co-efficient of velocity, Cv
Sl = Specific gravity of lighter liquid. Actual velocity of jet at vena-contracta Vact
Important Points- = =
Theoretical velocity Vth
1 3
• Throat diameter (d) =  to  pipe diameter (D) Cv = 0.98 for sharp edged orifices
3 4 Co-efficient of Contraction, Cc
• Angle of convergence = 15 – 20º Area of jet at vena-contracta (a c )
• Angle of divergence = 5 – 7º and it should be not Cc = =
Area of orifice (a)
greater than 7º to avoid flow separation
Co-efficient of Discharge, Cd
• It is used for measuring rate of flow in both
Actual Discharge Q Qact
compressible and incompressible fluids. Cd = = act =
• It gives same reading at any position. Theoretical Discharge Qth a 2gh
Orificemeter or orifice plate- Cd = Cv × Cc
 C a a 2gh  a0 = Area of orifice
Q = d 0 1 
 a1 − a 0 
2 2 Cd = 0.65 – 0.70 Value of Hydraulic Co-efficient-

Coefficient of velocity 0.95-0.99 ≃ 0.98
• Flow nozzle is essentially an orifice meter in which
jet contraction is eliminated by smooth entrance ( Cv )
boundary and thus result in much smaller losses than Coefficient of 0.61-0.69 ≃ 0.64
orifice meter. contraction, Cc
Cd = 0.93 to 0.98. Coefficient of Discharge 0.61-0.64 ≃ 0.62
Pitot Tube– Cd
Based on principle of conversion of kinetic head into Coefficient of - ≃ 0.063
pressure head. Resistance, Cr
 p − p2 
 Vth = 2gh  , Vth = 2g  1 
 
 ρg 
Laminar flow through pipe- Laminar flow through plate-
1. Shear stress distribution- 1. Shear stress distribution-

 ∂p  r ∂p  t 
τ = −  at, r = 0, τ = 0, r = R, τ = max τ = −  − y  at y = 0, τ = τmax
 ∂x  2 ∂x  2 

2. Velocity distribution- 2. Velocity distribution-
1  ∂p   r2  1  ∂p 
u = −   R 2 1 − 2  u=−   ( ty − y )
2
4µ  ∂x   R  2µ  ∂x 
1  ∂p  2 u max
u max = −  R u avg = 1  ∂p  2 3
4µ  ∂x  2 u max = −  t u max = u avg
8µ  ∂x  2
r' = 0.707R (Average velocity = Local velocity)
3. Discharge- 3. Discharge-
π  ∂p  4 1  ∂p  3
Q= − D D = Diameter of pipe Q= − t
128µ  ∂x  12µ  ∂x 
4. Head Loss- 4. Head Loss-
32µu avg .L 12µu avg .L
hf = (Hagen-Poiseulle formula) hf =
ρgD 2 ρgt 2
2
fLu avg  64 
= f = 
2gD  Re 
• Kinetic Energy correction factor- Note-
64
Actual K.E. f= (For Laminar flow, Re < 2000)
α= Re
K.E. Calculated from average velocity
0.3164
f= (For Turbulent flow 4000 < Re < 105)
1 R e1/ 4
AV 2 ∫
α= u 2 .dA
16
f '= (For Laminar Flow)
Re
• Momentum Correction factor-
0.079
Actual linear momentum/sec. f'= (For Turbulent flow
β= R 1/e 4
Linear momentum/sec. calculated from Vavg.
(b) Chezy's Formula-
Mean Velocity,
1
AV 3 ∫
β= u 3 .dA  8g 
V = C mi C = 
 f 
Flow Condition α β
Where,
Laminar flow in pipe 2 1.33 Area
m=
Wetted Perimeter
Laminar flow b/w 1.543 1.2
h
parallel plates i = tanθ = f = Slope of HGL
L
Turbulent flow in pipe 4/3 or 1.33 1.2 Relation between chezy's constant and friction factor
8g
Flow through Pipe f= 2
C
Loss of Energy in Pipes-
B. Minor Losses–
A. Major Losses (mainly due to friction)–
It is due to-
(a) Darcy - Weisbach Formula–
1. Sudden Enlargement of Pipe-
f LV 2 f LQ 2
hf = =
( V1 − V2 )
2 2 2
2gD 12d 5 V12  A1  V22  A 2 
h EL = = 1 −  =  − 1
2g 2g  A 2  2g  A1 
4f ' LV 2
and h f = (Fanning equation)
2gD 2. Sudden Contraction-
Where, f = Darcy friction factor 2 If CC = 0.62
V2  1 
f ' = Co-efficient of friction hc = 2  − 1 0.375 V22
2g  Cc  hc =
f = 4f ' 2g
3. Inlet Loss- ω2 r 2
(depth of parabola) h =
0.5V 2 2g
hi =
2g π 2 4
Total pressure (P) = ρω r
4
4. Exit Loss- h = height of paraboloid
V2 r = radius of cylinder
h ex =
2g
1 2
5. Due to pipe Bend and pipe Fitting- Volume of paraboloid = πr h
2
V2 1
hb / F = k = of volume of circumscribing cylinder.
2g 2
Free Vortex Flow–
k = Bend coefficient, r = Pipe radius
 v = c  c = constant v∝
1
k = f (r, R, θ), R = Bend radius  r  r
hb/F ↑ r↓ R↓ θ↑, θ = Bend angle
Forced Vortex Flow Free Vortex Flow
k depends upon
For this some external There is no external
1. Angle of bend 2. Pipe dia force/torque required to torque required to
3. Type of pipe fitting rotate fluid mass. rotate fluid mass.
4. Radius of curvature of bend. Total momentum Total momentum is
Water Hammer- equation is not constant, conserved, so
Case of Water hammer Pressure head so Bernoulli's equation is Bernoulli's equation
not applicable. is applicable.
2L p L.V
Gradual closure of valve t > = Ex. Ex.
C w gt 1. Flow of water through the 1. Flow through kitchen
Sudden closure of valve in rigid runner of a turbine. sink.
p VC V k
2L = = 2. Flow of Liquid passing 2. Liquid flow through a
pipe t< w g g ρ through impeller of hole at the bottom of
C
centrifugal pumps. container.
Sudden closure of valve in p V
= 3. Rotation of Water in a 3. A whirlpool in a
elastic pipe w 1 D  washing machine. river.
t = time of closing valve in sec. ρg 2  + 
 K xE  v 2 r 2 ω2 R 2 ω2 4. Flow fields due to
x = thickness of pipe z=
= = tornado.
2g 2g 2g
• Power transmission through pipe 5. Liquid flow around a
z = height of parabolid
Pth = ω Q H circular bend in a
formed)
pipe.
Pact = ω Q (H - hL)
Flow of fluid in casing
η of power transmission of centrifugal pump
H − hL
η=
H
Maximum Efficiency for Transmission of Power-
H − hf
η=
H
(For max. Transmission power) Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.)-
H • For ideal fluid = HGL will be horizontal
H = 3hf or hf =
3 • When pipe is gradually diverging = HGL will slope
∴ η = 2/3 or 66.7% upward.
• HGL always lies below the EGL
Forced Vortex Flow–
r = Radius of fluid particle p
[ v = ω× r ] ω HGL = +z
= Angular velocity ρg
Total Energy Line (T.E.L)/ Energy Gradient If velocity of approach = Va
Line (EGL)  V2 
Then, H = H+Ha or  H + a 
• For an ideal fluid EGL remains horizontal  2g 
• For a real fluid EGL is always sloping 2

∴ Q = Cd .L 2g  (H + H a )3/ 2 − H 3/a 2 
downward 3
2. According to Francis Formula-
• If external energy is EGL suddenly rises
2
added with an agent Q= Cd 2g [ L − 0.1nH ] H 3/ 2
(Pump, compressor) 3
= 1.84 [L–0.1 nH).H3/2
• If energy is extracted EGL will suddenly drop
by some external Contraction value is taken 0.1H for each ends of
agent (turbine) Weir
According to Bazin's –
p V2
TEL = +z+ Q = mL 2g.H 3/ 2
ρg 2g
2 0.003
∴ T.E.L. always > H.G.L. m = Cd = 0.405 +
3 H
T.E.L. always drop in the direction of flow due to
3. Triangular Notch or Weir–
loss of head.
Notch - It is used to measure rate of flow through a small 8
Q= Cd 2g tan θ / 2.H 5/ 2
channel or a tank 15
Generally, made up of metallic plate If θ = 90° then tan θ/2 = 1
Classification ⇒ 8
(1) On the basis of sections Q= Cd 2gH 5 / 2
15
(a) Rectangular notch
or
(b) Triangular notch
(c) Trapezoidal notch Q = 1.417H 5/ 2
(If Cd = 0.62)
(d) Stepped notch • Disadvantage of triangular notch over rectangular
(2) On the basis of effects on the side of nappee notch → More losses Cd = 0.62
(a) Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch
• Advantage of triangular notch over rectangular
(b) Notch with end contraction. notch
Weir - It is used to measure rate of flow water in river or
→ Triangular notch is more accurate in case of low
streams.
discharge
Classification
(1) On the Basis of shape 4. Trapezoidal Notch or Weir-
(a) Rectangular weir Q = Q Rectangular + QTriangular
(b) Triangular weir θ
2  4
(c) Cipolletti or Trapezoidal weir Q = Cd 2g.H 3 / 2  L + .H tan 
3  5 2
(2) On the basis of shape of crest
Effect on Discharge due to error in the
(a) Sharp crested weir
measurement of head for–
(b) Broad crested weir
(c) Narrow crested weir (i) Rectangular Weir or Notch
(d) Ogee weir dQ 3 dH
= = 1.5%. Error
(3) On the basis of effect of sides- Q 2 H
(a) weir with end contraction (ii) Triangular Weir or Notch–
(b) weir without end contraction
dQ 5 dH
Discharge Over a Notch or Weir – = = 2.5%. Error
1. Rectangular Notch or Weir Q 2 H
2 For Cipolletti Weir or notch
Q = Cd .L 2g.H 3/ 2
3 Side slope = 1 : 4 (H:V)
L = Width of weir or θ/2 = 14°2'
Broad Crested Weir- Drag and lift force-
H 1
= 0.1 − 0.4 • Drag force, FD = Cd ρAV 2
L 2
or 2L > H 1
Narrow Crested Weir • Lift force, FL = C L ρAV 2
2
H
> 1.6 Drag force on sphere, FD = 3πµ.V.D
L
or 2L < H Where,
H = Height of Water above crest A = Projected area of body

L = Length of crest V = Relative wind velocity
Discharge Over a Broad Crested Weir/Ogee weir → Cd & CL = Coefficient of drag and lift
Used as spillway of dam Model laws and its application-
Q = 1.705.Cd .L.H 3/ 2
Models Applications
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) for mouthpiece- Reynolds model Submarines completely under
Types of Mouthpiece Cd law water
External Mouthpiece 0.855 Motion of air-planes
Internal mouthpiece Flow through venturimeter,
(i) Running full 0.707 orifice meter
(ii) Running free 0.50 Flow through small sized
Convergent or convergent 1.00 pipes.
divergent mouthpiece Mach model law Aerodynamic testing
Under water testing of
Laminar Sub-layer 11.6 υ torpedoes
δ=
thickness Vx Water-hammer problem.
υ = Kinematic viscosity Froude model law Open channels.
Vx = Friction velocity Free surface flow such as flow
Displacement thickness δ
 u over spillways, weirs, sluices.
δ* = ∫ 1 −  dy
0 U Flow of jet from an orifice or
Momentum thickness δ nozzle.
u u
θ=∫ 1 −  dy Flow of different density
0 U U
fluids one above the other.
Energy thickness δ 2
u u
δ** = ∫ 1 −  dy Weber model law Flow over weir for small
0
U U heads
Shape factor δ* Capillary flows
H=
θ Flow of very thin sheet of
Von-Karman's dθ τ liquid over a surface.
= o
Momentum Integral dx ρU 2 Euler's model law Turbulent flow in pipeline
Equation where viscous force and
τo = shear stress at surface
It is used for- surface tensile forces are
Laminar, Transition and entirely absent.
Turbulent boundary layer Where the phenomenon of
cavitations occurs.
δ > δ* > δ** > θ

Important Relations (Blasius Results) :
Characteristics Laminar Boundary layer Turbulent boundary layer
Boundary layer thickness (δx)
δx =
5x
Re x
( δ x ∝ x1/ 2 ) δx =
0.377x
(Re x )1/ 5
(δ x ∝ x 4 / 5 )
Local skin friction coefficient (Cfx) 0.664 0.059

Cfx = Cfx =
( Rex )
1/ 5
Re x
Average skin friction coefficient or drag 1.328 5 0.073

Cfa = Cfa = Cfx =
coefficient (Cfa or Cd) ( Rex )
1/ 5
Re x 4
Displacement thickness (δ) 1.72x 0.048x

δ= δ=
( Re x )
1/ 5
Re x
Momentum Thickness (θ) 0.669x 0.037x

θ= θ=
( Re x )
1/ 5
Re x
On the basis of Nikuradse's experiment the boundary layer is classified as-
k Smooth boundary layer V* K
< 0.25 <5
δ* υ
k Transition boundary layer V* K
0.25 < * < 6.0 5< < 70
δ υ
K Rough boundary layer V* K
> 6.0 Where, > 70
δ*
υ
V* = average shear velocity
υ = kinematic viscosity
K = Avg. roughness
For most Economical channel section-
Rectangular Channel Width of channel, b = 2d
Depth of flow, d = b/2
Hydraulic radius, (R) or Hydraulic mean depth m = d/2
Trapezoidal Section b + 2nd

Length of sloping side = Half the top width d 1 + n 2 =
2
m = R = d/2
θ = 600
A circle of radius (d) should be inscribed in trapezoidal section.
Semi circle touch the three sides of trapezoidal section (P, Q,R)
Triangular Channel d
m or R =
2 2
Side slop = 1 :1
θ = 45°
Circular Section For Max. discharge-

d
= 0.95
D

For Max. velocity-
d
= 0.81
D
 sin 2θ 
Area of flow, A = R2  θ − 
 2 
Type of flow Depth of flow Velocity of flow Froude Number

Subcritical/Tranquil y > yc v < vc Fr<1
streaming or Tangential flow
Critical flow (At this flow y = yc v = vc Fr = 1
specific energy in min)
Supercritical/Torrential/Rapid y < yc v > vc Fr > 1
or shooting flow yc = Critical, depth vc = Critical, Velocity
Classification of jump based on Froude number–
Froude number (Fr) Types of jump Water Surface
1-1.7 Undular/Unsteady Undulating
1.7-2.5 Weak Small Rollers form
2.5-4.5 Oscillating Water moving in random manner
4.5-9 steady Roller and jump action
>9 strong Very rough and choppy
Some Important formula for open channel-
Hydraulic mean Depth Area A
m= =
Wetted perimeter P
Manning's Formula 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V = m ×i
N
Chezy Formula V = C m×i
Specific Energy V2 Q2
E = y+ =y+ (y = depth of flow)
2g 2g.A 2
A = By + Sy 2 ( Trepezoidal section )
Critical Depth 1/ 3
 q2  Q
yc =   (q = Discharge per unit width of channel = )
 g  b
Critical velocity Vc = ( q.g )
1/ 3
= g × yc
Condition for Critical flow Q2 A3
= (T = top width)
g T
Energy loss due to Hydraulic jump
( y2 − y1 )
3
EL =
4y1 y2
2
2q
= y1.y 2 ( y1 + y 2 )
g
Laplace equation- ∂ 2φ ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2 φ
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Relation Between yc and E Force acting in moving fluid –
2 1. Inertia Force, Fi = ρAV2
(i) For Rectangular channel- yc = E
3 µVA
4 2. Viscous Force, FV =
(ii) For Triangular channel- yc = E L
5
3 3. Gravity Force, Fg = ρALg
(iii) For Parabolic channel- yc = E
4 4. Pressure Force, Fp = pA
Hydraulic Machinery
Impact of jet- FN = ρAV (V – u)
Work done by jet (W) = ρAVu (V – u)
Condition Fixed Plate Moving Plate
2u ( V − u )
Flat vertical FN = ρAV2 FN = Efficiency of work done on wheel = η =
V2
plate ρA (V–u)2
Jet velocity (V)
Inclined flat FN FN = When blade velocity (u) = , then η
2
plate = ρAV2 Sinθ ρA (V–u)2 Sinθ
will be maximum = ηmax = 50%
FX = FX =
ρAV2 Sin2θ ρA (V–u)2 Sin2θ • Force exerted on series of radial curved vanes
Fy = Fy =
ρAV 2 ρA ( V − u ) 2
sin 2θ sin 2θ
2 2
Curved plate FX = Fx =
a. Jet striking ρAV (1+Cos θ) ρA (V–u)2
2
(1 +
on a Fy = 0 cosθ)
symmetric.
stationary
curved plate
b. when jet FX
will strike = 2ρAV2 Cos θ
tangent to FY = 0
curved plate
Force exerted by a jet on a hinged plate-
• Force due to jet of water, normal to the plate
Fn = ρAV 2 sin ( 90º −θ )
Inlet Outlet
• For equilibrium of plate • Velocity of jet V1 V2
ρAV 2
• Angle of jet α β
sin θ =
W • Relative Velocity of jet Vr1 Vr2
Here,
• Velocity of whirl Vw1 Vw 2
• V = velocity of jet
(180 – θ) = Angle of deflection • Velocity of flow Vf1 Vf2
u = Plate velocity • Velocity of blade u1 u2
A = Area of jet
• Angle of blade θ φ
Plate mounted on periphery of wheels
Power developed by runner
ɺ ( Vw1 u1 ± Vw 2 u 2 ) kW
WD / Sec = m
β < 90º (+ve sign)

β > 90º (–ve sign)
WD Vw u1 ± Vw 2 u 2
= 1 meter.
Weight g

Turbine ηmechanical Shaft Power
Runner Power
Different terms of efficiency of hydro power system
ηoverall Shaft Power
= ηmechanical × ηhydraulic
Water Power
Speed Blade Velocity U
=
Ratio Jet Velocity 2gH
(φ or Ku)
Flow Ratio Flow Velocity Vf1
=
(Kf) Jet Velocity 2gH
Degree of Reaction
Change in pressure energy inside runner
Water Energy ρQgH DOR =
= mgh
ɺ = kW Changein total energyinside the runner
Power Second 1000
• For impulse turbine, DOR = 0
Runner Work done ɺ ( Vw1 u1 ± Vw 2 u 2 )
m cot α
Power = kW • For reaction turbine, DOR = 1 −
second 1000 2 ( cot α − cot θ )
Volumetric Volume of water actually • For pure reaction turbine ⇒ DOR = 1
efficiency striking the runner Overall efficiency variation with load for different
Volume of water supply to turbine-
the turbine • At full load-
Shaft 2πNT ηFrancis > ηKaplan = ηPropeller > ηpelton
kW
Power 60 × 1000 • At part load-
ηhydraulic Runner Power Vw1 u1 ± Vw 2 u 2 ηKaplan > ηPelton = ηFrancis > ηPr opeller
=
Water Power gH net
Turbine
Flow Type
Discharge
Efficiency
Runaway
Turbine
Specific
Overall
Speed
Speed
Speed
Ratio
Head
Type
(η0)
High
Single Jet 10 – 35 Low 85 –
head Tangential 0.43 –
Impulse Low (1.8 – 90% ≈
Pelton
(300 – flow 0.48

Multi Jet 35 – 60 1.9) N 86%
2000m)
Francis Reaction Medium 60–300 Mixed Flow Medium 0.6 to Medium 88%
head (Radial in & 0.9 (2–
(60 – axial out) 2.2N)
300)
Kaplan (adjustable
Low High
vanes) 300-
Reaction head (up Axial flow High 1.4 – 2 (2.5– 90%
Propeller (non 1000
to 60m) 3)N
adjustable vanes)

Pelton Turbine- Width ratio B1 width of bladeat inlet
=
• Based on Newton's second law of motion. D1 dia of blade at inlet
• Based on conversion of kinetic energy ⇒ 0.1 − 0.45
• Pressure throughout the turbine is atmospheric. Number of blades 16 – 24
Runner Power WD ( Vw1 + Vw 2 ) u Discharge Q = πD1B1Vf
= Meter
wt g Degree of reaction 0–1
Speed Ratio (φ or u Kaplan turbine
= 0.43 − 0.48
Ku) 2gH • Axial flow reaction turbine
Flow ratio (Kf) Vf • Runner power depends upon inlet condition only
2gH Runner power ɺ w1 u 1
mV
Discharge π
Jet Ratio dia of pelton wheel ( D ) Q= ( D 2 − D b 2 ) Vf1
4 0
dia of jet ( d )
Speed ratio 1.4 – 2
Number of Buckets D
+ 15 Flow ratio 0.7 (vf1 = vf2)
2d
Number of buckets 4–8
Discharge π 2
Q= d × C v 2gH
4 Width ratio 0.1 – 0.3
Maximum Number Degree of reaction 0.5 – 1
6
of jets
Peripheral velocity at πD 0 N
Minimum diameter u1 = u 2 =
0.6 × d inlet & outlet 60
of braking jet Propeller Turbine
Width of bucket 5d • It consists of axial flow runner with four to six
Depth of bucket 1.2 d blades of aero foil shape.
• Runner is generally kept horizontal ie shaft is
Degree of Reaction 0
vertical.
Hydraulic
ηhyd = 2
( V1 − u ) (1 + cos φ ) u • Full load efficiency is very good than part load
efficiency V12 efficiency.
For max efficiency Model relationships for turbine
Jet Velocity Specific speed N P  1 −1 −5 
Blade Velocity = NS =
2 5 M 2 L 4 T 2 
H4
Q
( ηvol ) = Unit speed
Nu =
N
Q + ∆Q
H
Francis Turbine-
Unit discharge Q
• Inward flow reaction turbine Qu =
H
• Runner power depends upon inlet condition only
Unit power P
Runner Power ρQVw1 u1 Pu = 3
H2
Hydraulic efficiency Vw1 u1
ηhyd = Discharge coefficient Q
gH CQ =
ND3
Speed ratio u1
= 0.6 − 0.9 Head coefficient H
2gH CH =
N 2 D2
Flow ratio Vf1 Power coefficient P
= 0.1 − 0.3 CP =
2gH N D5
3

Characteristic Curve (ii) For Francis turbine-
• Main characteristic curve OR variable speed curve
OR constant head curve.
• Operating curve - Constant speed curve
• Muschel curve - Constant efficiency curve
• Head remains constant in all the three above curves.
Main characteristics curve OR constant head curve
For pelton wheel
Operating characteristics curve or constant speed
For reaction turbine-

(i) For Kaplan turbine– Constant efficiency curves

Draft tube Water hammer
Function- Reason: Change in velocity generated by
(1) It makes the installation possible above the tail race (1) Valve operation
level without the loss of head.
(2) Power failure
(2) Water velocity at outlet is very high. By using draft
(3) Short or shut down of pumps
tube the velocity can be lowered. Loss of Kinetic
(4) Rapture of pipelines etc.
energy gets converted into the pressure energy.
(3) Draft tubes prevents the splashing of water coming Cases:
out of the runner. Gradual 2L P LV
t>T= =
(4) The angle of taper is less than 8º. Closure of c ρg gt
Efficiency of Draft tube valve t = actual time L = Length of pipe
Actual conversion of kinetic head intoPressure head of closure
ηd = V = Velocity of flow
Kinetic head at inlet of draft tube
T = Critical time t = time in second to
close the valve

 v12 v 22 
 −  − hf P
2g 2g 
ηd =  = Pressure head
 v12  ρg
 
 2g  Sudden valve P VC
=
Where closure ρg g
2L
V1 = Velocity of inlet t<T=
(a) Sudden c
V2 = Outlet velocity P = ρVC
valve
hf = Head loss in draft tube closure K
Efficien C=
Type Figure
with rigid ρ
cy pipe
C = Velocity pressure
wave
Conical draft tube η = 90% (b) Sudden P V
=
ρg
ρg 2  + 
valve closure 1 D
 k tE 
with elastic
pipe t = Thickness of pipe
Simple elbow tube η = 60% d = Dia of pipe
E = Young modulus
of pipe material
• Water hammer is developed in penstock.

Moody spreading
η = 85% • The magnitude of pressure rise depends upon:
tube
• Speed at which the valve is closed
• Velocity of flow
Elbow with
• Length of pipe
circular inlet & η = 75%
rectangular outlet • Elastic properties of pipe material as well as that of
the flowing fluid.
Pump
Centrifugal Pump Types of impeller:

• Mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic Impeller Uses
energy by centrifugal action.
Shrouded/closed/enclosed • For pumping chemicals,
• Works on the principle of forced vortex flow. impeller pure liquids.
• Working principle of centrifugal pump is just Semi closed/Non clag • For paper pulp, sugar
inverse of Francis turbine. impeller molasses & sewage
Main parts of centrifugal pump water.
(1) Impeller: Open impeller • For abrasive liquids,
slurry, sand water.
• Rotating part of a centrifugal pump
(2) Casing:
• It consists of a series of curved vanes (always Casing is designed in such a way that the kinetic
backward curved) energy of the water discharged at outlet of the
• It is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the impeller is converted into pressure energy before the
Shaft on an electric motor. water leaves casing & enters the delivery pipe.

Types of casing : Power of pump ρQgH m
P=
Volute casing • Spiral shape η0 × 1000
• A↑ V↓ P↑ Monometric Monometric head
• η of pump decreases slightly as a efficiency Head imported byimpeller
large amount of energy is lost due gH m
ηman =
to formation of eddies in this type Vw 2 V2
of casing
Mechanical efficiency
Vortex casing In this circular chamber is introduced
Impeller Power
between the casing & the impeller ηmech =
Shaft Power
• Because of circular chamber, the
loss of energy due to formation of Overall efficiency η0 = ηmech × ηman × ηvol
eddies is reduced to a considerable Specific speed N Q
NS =
extent. H 3/4
Casing with • Impeller is surrounded by series of Maximum suction Vs 2
h s = H atm − H v − − H fs
guide blades guide blade mounted on a ring. height (Maximum 2g
Different type of vanes suction height)
Forward Vane Small High High speed Net positive suction Hatm – HV – HS – Hfs
curved exit volume pressure high noise head
vanes angle > ratio low Heads of centrifugal pump
90º efficiency Suction head • It is vertical distance between level
Backward vane Large Low to High (hs) of sump & eye of an impeller.
curved exit volume high efficiency • Also know as suction height.
vanes angle < & Size pressure low noise Delivery It is the vertical distance between eye
90º ratio head (hd) of an impleller & the level at which
Radial Vane Medium Medium Good water is delivered.
curved exit volume to high efficiency Static head Hs = hs + hd
vanes angle = & size pressure Manometric Head against which the centrifugal
90º ratio pump has to work.
head
Specific speed of a pump Vw 2 U 2
(i) H m = − ( h Li + h Lc )
Pump Speed Specific Speed g
Radial flow Slow 10 – 30 h Li = lossesin impleller
Medium 30 – 35
h Lc = lossesin casing
High 50 – 80
Vw 2 U 2
Mixed flow 80 – 160 Hm = (If losses
g
Axial flow 160 – 450
are neglected)
Important Terms for Centrifugal Pump (ii) H m = ( h s + h d ) + ( h fs + h fd )
Work done by WVw 2 U 2
Vd 2
impeller on liquid g +
2g
Discharge Q = πDbVf
 V2   Vs 2 
Velocity in pump πDN (iii) H m =  h d + d −
  s
h + 
V= = 2gh  2g   2g 
60
Model Relationship for Pumps To avoid cavitation
Dimensional Dimensionless parameter σ > σc
Parameter
σc = Critical value of Thomas
H gH
CH = 2 2 CH = 2 2 cavitation factor
ND ωD
σc = 1.042 × 10–3 (ΝS)4/3
Q Q
CQ = CQ = Net positive • Net head required to make the
ND 3
ωD 3
suction head- liquid flow through suction
P P
CP = 3 5 CP = pipe from sump to impeller.
ND ρω3 D5
• NPSH is also used to check
N Q ω Q cavitation in pump.
NS = 3/4 NS = 3/4
H ( gH )
P2 Vs 2 Pv
Cavitation NPSH = + −
ρg 2g ρg
Effect of (i) Metallic surface are damaged
cavitation & cavities are formed on the P2
= Absolute pressure head at
surfaces Pg
(ii) Due to sudden collapse of the inlet
vapour bubble, considerable
Vs 2
noise & vibrations are = Kinetic energy head at inlet
produced. 2g
(iii) Due to cavitation, the metal of Pv
= Vapour pressure head at
the runner vanes & the draft ρg
tube is gradually eaten away,
inlet
which results in lowering the
η of turbine. NPSH = H atm − H v − H s − H fs
Method to • In any part of hydraulic system • For any pump installation- It should be known the
prevent pressure of liquid should not
value of NPSH required & NPSH available.
cavitation go below the PV of that liquid.
• The special coatings are NPSH Required Available NPSH
required (Al, Bronze) OR • It is value given by • When pump is installed
stainless steel which are pump manufacturer. the value of available
corrosion resistant.
• This value can be NPSH is calculated from
Cavitation in No caviation occurs in impulse
determined above equation.
turbine turbine due to no pressure
difference. experimentally & it • (NPSH) available >
Reaction turbine- varies with pump (NPSH) required to avoid
• At outlet of runner blade design, speed of the cavitation.
OR pump & capacity of
• Inlet of draft tube pump.
Thomas cavitation factor for
Performance characteristics of centrifugal pump-
turbine-
1. Main characteristics curve
H − H s ( H atm − H v ) − H s
σ= b =
H H
σc = 431 × 10–8 NS2
Cavitation in Occurs mainly at inlet of impeller
pump- or in suction pipe
H − H s − H fs
σ= b
H
( H − H v ) − Hs − H fs
= atm
H
2. It can handle a large • It can handles a small
quantity of liquid quantity of liquid only
with low pressure. with high pressure.
3. It can be used for • It can be used only for
lifting highly viscous lifting pure or less
fluids. viscous fluid.
4. It is used for large • It is meant for a smaller
discharge through discharge & high heads.
smaller heads
5. The cost of • The cost of a
2. Operating characteristics curve centrifugal pump is reciprocating pump is
less as compare to approximately four
reciprocating pump. times the cost of a
centrifugal pump.
6. It runs at high speed • It runs at low speed and
they can be coupled speed is limited due to
to an electric motor. consideration of
separation & cavitation.
3. Muschel curves OR Constant efficiency curves-
7. The operation of a The operation of a
centrifugal pump is reciprocating pump is
smooth & without complicated & with much
much noise. noise.
The maintenance
cost is low.
8. Efficiency is high Efficiency is low.
Reciprocating pump
4. Constant head & Constant discharge curves d = Diameter of cylinder.
A = Area of cross section of cylinder or piston
π
= d2
4
r = Radius of crank
L = Length of stroke
L=2r
Hs = Suction head
Multistage Centrifugal Pump Hd = delivery head
Series arrangement of Parallel arrangement of N = Speed or revolution of crank per min.
pumps pump Discharge of water per LAN 3
• It is used to produce the • It is used to discharge Q= m /sec (Single acting
second 60
heads higher than that of the large quantity of pump)
using single impeller fluid keeping the head 2LAN 3
keeping the discharge constant . Q= m /sec (Double
60
constant Qtotal = Q1 + Q2 +….Qn
acting pump)
Htotal = n × hm
Work done by ρgLAN
n = number of stages
reciprocating pump per
WD = ( h s + h d ) (Single
60
S.N. Centrifugal Pumps Reciprocating Pumps second acting pump)
1. The discharge is • The discharge is 2ρgLAN
continuous &
WD = ( h s + h d ) (D
fluctuating & pulsating. 60
smooth. ouble acting pump)

Power required to drive ρgLAN Capacity of the accumulator-
the pump P= ( h s + h d ) kW π 2
60 × 1000 d ×P×L
(Single acting pump) 4
2ρgLAN d = diameter of sliding ram
P= ( h s + h d ) kW L = Stroke or lift of the ram
60 × 1000
(Double acting pump) P = Pressure of liquid supplied by
pump.
Slip of a reciprocating pump
Hydraulic • A device which raises water
• due to losses
Ram without any external power for its
Qactual < Qtheoretical
operation.
• Slip = Qthe – Qact
• It works on the principle of water
Q th − Q act
• % Slip = ×100 hammer.
Q th
Hydraulic • It is used to increase the liquid
• % Slip = (1 – Cd) × 100
Intensifier pressure above that available from
Cd < 1
a pump.
% Slip always positive
• Located between the pump and the
⇒ Positive slip = Qthe > Qact
application (Crane etc.)
⇒ Negative slip = Qact > Qthe
Conditions of Negative Slip- Air lift pump To lift water from a deep well or sump
by utilizing the energy of compressed
• Due to high speed.
air.
• Due to short delivery pipe.
• Due to long suction pipe. Hydraulic • Works on Pascal's principle
press • Machine that uses a hydraulic
Air Vessel cylinder to generate a compressive
Functions of air vessel- force.
On the suction side On the delivery side • It uses the hydraulic equivalent of a
• Reduction of the • A constant rate of mechanical lever.
possibility of discharge can be ensured W
• MA =
separation of flow • Save power required to F
• The pump can runat drive the pump l A
high speed • For single acting pump % VR = =
L a
• The length of the of work save = 84.8%
MA
suction pipe below • For double acting pump % η=
VR
the air vessel can be work save = 39.2%
increased. Hydraulic • It consists a radial pump impeller on
coupling driving shaft A and a radial flow
Hydraulic Devices reaction turbine on driven shaft B.
Power output
Hydraulic • It is a device used for storing the η=
accumulator pressure energy of liquid. Power input
• It's action is just similar to storage NB
η=
battery & flywheel. NA
• The energy stored can be supplied
TA = TB
at any time when required either
suddenly or intermittently. η = 98%
• Capacity of accumulator is the Hydraulic • Torque transmitted at the driven
maximum amount of pressure
Torque shaft may be more or less than the
energy which it can store for the
converter torque available at the driving shaft.
various application.

Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is the energy transfer and its
causes and effects.
Microscopic Individual particle steady
thermodynamic or statistical
Macroscopic Avg. behaviors of molecules

thermodynamic is considered
Continuum • Matter considered as

continuous
Specific Extensive Properties
• In case of "rarefied gases
• Extensive properties per unit mass
theory" the concept of
continuum is not valid • It is an intensive property
eg.– Specific volume, sp. energy
Control mass • Analysis of system based State– It gives complete description of system.
on fixed amount of matter. Path– A succession of states passed through during a
Control volume • Volume surrounding an change of state.
open system on which Process– Process goes through a series of change in state.
study is focused
Process
System– Region in space where our study is focused. Reversible process– Most efficient (can be reversed
Surrounding– Everything external to the system is along same path restoring system and surrounding)
called surrounding. • A quasistatic process without friction is reversible
System Mass Energy Example process.
transfer transfer • All reversible processes are quasi static process but
all quasi - static process are not reversible.
Open Yes Yes Compressor,
Irreversible process– All actual process are
turbine irreversible process (Friction is the reason)
Close No Yes Piston cyl. • All irreversible process cannot be retained to their
arrangement original conditions.
gas in a eg.– Heat transfer through finite temperature
closed difference free expansion, mixing of fluids,
cylinder throttling process.
Isolated No No Universe, Ideal gas Equation

hot coffee in
perfectly
PV = mRT
insulated
P : Absolute pressure
thermos
T : Absolute temperature
Properties– R : Characteristic gas constant
• Every system has certain characteristics by its
PV = nRT
physical condition may be described.
eg.– V, T, P R : Universal gas constant
n : No. of moles
• Macroscopic in nature, point function & exact
differential. R = 8.314 kJ/kg mole K

Thermodynamic Equilibrium Temperature scales– The interrelationship between
• Thermal Equilibrium – Temperature same Fahrenheit and Celsius scale is given by (Used
before 1954)–
• Mechanical Equilibrium – Net force zero
tc − 0 t − 32
• Chemical Equilibrium – Chemical stability = f
100 − 0 212 − 32
Pure substance– If it is–
(a) Homogeneous in chemical composition
(b) Homogeneous in chemical aggregation (bonding)
Note– A pure substance can exist in a single phase or
more than one phase
Pure Substance
After 1954, based upon single reference pt.
(1) Gaseous mix. of O2 & N2 √
(2) Water + water vapor √  P 
T = 273.16  
 Ptp 
(3) Mustard oil + H2O ×  
(4) Liq. air + gaseous air × Ptp = property corresponding to triple pt. of water
Note– Though dry air is pure substance, moist air is not a (273.16 K)
pure substance, i.e. water can be seperated on P = property corresponding to temperature 'T'.
condensation. Conversion of temperature unit–
Gibb's phase rule o
C o F − 32 K − 273.15
= =
P+F = C+2 5 9 5
P → No. of phases Here, oC = Temperature in degree Celsius
o
F → D.O.F., C → Components F = Temperature in degree Fahrenheit
Zeroth law of thermodynamic K = Temperature in Kelvin
Kelvin scale
• T(K) = t(oC) + 273.15
th
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics is the basis of • 1 K =  1  of triple pt. of H2O
 273.16 
temperature measurement.  
Types of thermometer Triple point of water
Type of Principle Thermometric • It is the point where all the three phases coexist
thermometer property ( T.P.) = 273.16 K or 0.01 oC
H 2O
Constant volume Ideal gas eqn Pressure (P)
P = 4.587 mm of Hg or 0.611 kPa
gas thermometer
Constant Ideal gas eqn Volume (V) Properties Work & Heat
pressure gas • Point function or state • Path function
thermometer function
Electrical Wheat stone Resistance • Independent of past • Dependent on past
resistance bridge history history
thermometer • Exact differential • Inexact differential
Thermo couple See back effect E.M.F.
(voltage)
Energy and energy interactions
Various forms of energy
Mercury in glass Length
Macroscopic energy Microscopic energy
thermometer
• Kinetic energy • Sensible energy
Note–
(bulk motion)
• Ideal gas thermometer is independent of material of
• Potential energy • Latent energy
construction.
(bulk position) • Chemical energy
• Peltier effect– It is opposite of seeback effect and is
used for thermoelectric refrigeration. • Nuclear energy

Work transfer– Work is said to be done by the system if Sign convention–
sole effect on the things external to the system gets
reduced to raising of weight (the weight may not actually
be raised)
Calculation of work transfer for different processes

Non-flow work (close system work) Steady flow work (open system work)
2 2
W1− 2 = ∫
1
pdv W1− 2 = − ∫
1
vdp
Isochoric/ isometric process (dv = 0) Isochoric process (dv = 0)

2 2
W1− 2 = ∫
1
pdv = zero W1− 2 = 0 W1− 2 = − v ∫ 1
dp W1− 2 = v ( p1 − p 2 )
Isobaric/isopiestic process (dp = 0) Isobaric process (dp = o)

W1− 2 = p ( v 2 − v1 )
2
W1− 2 = − v ∫ dp = 0
1
W1− 2 = zero
Isothermal process (T = const.) Isothermal process

v2 p p1 v
W1−2 = Cℓn = Cℓn 1 W1−2 = Cℓn = Cℓn 2
v1 p2 p2 v1
C = p1v1 = p2v2 = mRT1 = mRT2 C = p1v1= p2v2 = mRT1 = mRT2
γ
Adiabatic process (pv = C) Adiabatic process (pvγ = C)
p1v1 − p 2 v 2 mR ( T1 − T2 )  p v − p2 v2 
W1− 2 = = W1− 2 = γ  1 1  = γWclosed
γ −1 γ −1  γ −1 
Polytropic process (pvn = C) Polytropic process (pvn = C)
p1v1 − p 2 v 2 mR ( T1 − T2 )  p v − p2 v2 
W1− 2 = = W1− 2 = n  1 1 = n Wclosed
n −1 n −1  n − 1 

Representation of all processes on p-v curve (pvk = C) For gases,
For const. pr → For const. vol. →
Q = mcp dt Q = mc v dt
cp
= γ ( adiabatic index )
cv
• cp includes internal energy and external work.

• cv includes only internal energy.
Monoatomic gas e.g. He γ = 1.67
Value of k Process Diatomic gas e.g. Air, O2 γ = 1.4
0 Isobaric
Triatomic gas e.g. CO2 γ = 1.33
1 Isothermal
First law of thermodynamics
1<n<γ Polytropic
∮∂Q = ∮∂W→ Joule's law
γ Adiabatic (or)
∞ Isochoric Quantitative law of conservation of energy
(Valid for both reversible & irreversible cycle).
Ideal gas equation for various processes
Consequences–
1. Constant volume p1 T1 1. Heat is a path function
=
process p 2 T2 2. Energy is a property
2. Constant pressure v1 T1 3. Energy of an isolated system is const.
= Internal energy– Energy possessed at molecular level.
process v 2 T2
After assumption
3. Isothermal process p1v1 = p2v2 ∂Q − ∂W = dE → ∂Q = du + ∂W
4. Adiabatic process γ−1
γ−1 Total energy (E) = KE + PE + U
T2  p 2  γ v 
=  = 1  (KE, PE → Macroscopic)
T1  p1   v2  (U → Microscopic)
5. Polytropic process n −1
n −1 Equation Holds Good for
T2  p 2  n v 
=  = 1  ∂Q = dE + ∂W Reversible, irreversible
T1  p1   v2 
(for a process) process, closed system,
open system
 dp   dp 
Note– For p-v diagram,   = γ  ∂Q = du + ∂W Reversible, irreversible,
 dv adiabatic  dv isothermal closed system
(for a process)
∴ slope of adiabatic curve > slope of isothermal ∂Q = du + pdv Reversible process,

closed system
in p-v curve in p-v curve.
dE = du For a closed, stationary
Heat– (KE, PE negligible) system
• Energy transfer by virtue of temperature difference. Expression of heat
• Area under the curve when projected on entropy axis Process Heat transfer
on T-S diagram gives reversible heat transfer. Constant vol. dQ = du = mc v dt
Constant pr. dQ = dH = mcp dt
Const. Temperature δQ = δW
(Isothermal)
vf p
Specific heat (C)– Amount of heat required to raise the Cℓn = Cℓn I
vI pf
temperature of a unit mass of the substance through one
Adiabatic process Q=0
degree.
Meyer's Equation • It violates Ist law of
For an ideal gas thermodynamics for a cycle.
Cp PMM-2 • Continuously absorb heat from
• Cp − C v = R • =γ single thermal reservoir and
Cv
would convert this heat
R γR completely to work. Such
• Cv = • Cp =
γ −1 γ −1 machine is called PMM-2
Note– ( ηPMM-2 = 100%)
• T ↑es → (Cp & Cv) both ↑es by same amount and γ • PMM-2 violates 2nd law of
↓es (Except for monoatomic gas) thermodynamic.
• For ideal gas U = f(T) PMM-3 • Continuous motion of a movable
• U is an extensive property, a point function & exact device in complete absence of
differential. friction is known as PMM-3.
Enthalpy– Internal energy of fluid along with flow work.
Open system analysis by first law
Enthalpy H = U + pv → Extensive property
Mass conservation–
Sp. enthalpy h = U + pv → Intensive property ɺ1 = m
m ɺ2
Heat transfer (pvn = C)– ρ1A1V1 = ρ2 A 2 V2
 γ−n 
δQ =   ( Polytropic work )
 γ −1  v v v
Polytropic specific heat, SFEE–
H1 + KE1 + PE1 + Q = H 2 + KE 2 + PE 2 + W
 γ−n 
c poly = c v  
 1− n  H1 +
1 2 1
mc1 + mgz1 + Q cv = H 2 + mc22 + mgz 2 + Wcv
2 2
Note– Cpoly is always negative implies that even though
heat is added to gas, its temperature ↓es because the For per unit mass–
work done by the gas exceeds the Qsupplied to the gas 1 2 1
and the additional work is done at the expense of the h1 + C1 + gz1 + q cv = h 2 + C12 + gz 2 + Wcv
2 2
internal energy.
Free expansion– Expansion of gas against vacuum is Here,
known as free expansion. H = Enthalpy, C = Velocity, Z = Height,
Whenever an ideal gas undergoes free expansion, Qcv = Heat given, Wcv = Work done,
then– m = Mass flow rate, h = Specific enthalpy
• Ui = U f Ti = Tf Hi = H f C12 gz C2 gz
h1 + + 1 + q cv = h 2 + 2 + 2 + Wcv kJ/kg
• δQ = 0 , δW = 0 2000 1000 2000 1000
SFEE can also be written as–
• Free expansion is highly irreversible process.
C12 C2
• In free expansion, though Ti = Tf ( u1 + P1v1 ) + + gz1 + q cv = ( u 2 + P2 v 2 ) + 2 + gz 2 + Wcv
2 2
This doesn't mean, it is isothermal process. Here
Application of S.F.E.E. in steady flow process
initially there is a decrease in temperature due to
expansion and finally, the temperature rises due to Device Definition & Energy equation
friction at walls. Nozzle A mechanical device of variable
PMM-1 • There can be no machine would passage used to increase K.E. at the
continuously supply mechanical expense of pressure energy.
work without consuming some C 22
other form of energy. h1 − h 2 = (or)
2
• Such a fictitious machine is called
PMM-1 C 2 = 2000 ( h1 − h 2 ) m / s

C 2 = 44.72 ∆h ( h1 , h 2 in kJ / kg ) or Conservation of  du  ɺ −m ɺ
energy  dt  = m
ɺ i hi + Q ɺ ehe − W
C 2 = 44.72 Cp ( T1 − T2 )  cv
A mechanical device of variable Here,

Diffuser
passage used to decrease velocity u = Total internal energy
Qɺ = Heat input in the control
C1 = 44.72 h 2 − h1
volume
Turbine Work producing (+); Energy W = Work done by control
transferred from working fluid to volume
rotor, expansion in working fluid If the working u = Cv.T
result in pressure drop. fluid is ideal gas h = CpT
WT = h1 − h 2 When insulated tank is initially
evacuated connected to a supply
Compressor • Work absorbing device (–), line.
or pump • Energy from rotor to working fluid T2 = γ.T1
Compressor– Deals with gaseous
phase of working fluid & increase Where,
both pressure & temperature T2 = Final temperature in ºC
Pump– Deals with liquid phase of T1 = Initial temperature in ºC
working fluid & used to increase the
pressure.
Second law of thermodynamics
WP / C = h 2 − h1 Qualitative law (Law of degradation of energy)
Boiler & • Both are heat exchanger & heat is – gives direction for a particular process through the
Evaporator absorbed by working fluid at concept of entropy.
constant pressure.
Q B / E = h 2 − h1
Condenser Heat rejection at constant pressure.

Qcond. = h1 − h 2
Comparison between SFEE & Bernoulli's Equation–

Bernoulli's equation is a special and limiting case of
SFEE while the Bernoulli's equation given as– o / p Wnet QS − Q R TL
η= = = η = 1−
i/p Qs QS TH
Note– The effect of decreasing TL is increase ηth of
carnot cycle is more than the effect of increasing TH
Throttling– Flow through a restricted passage.
by same amount.
h1 = h 2 Kelvin plank Clausius statement
• Highly irreversible process • It is impossible to • It is impossible to
• No heat transfer construct a device construct a device
which operate in a which operate in a
• Isenthalpic process ( h1 = h 2 ) cycle produces work cycle, transfer heat
eg.– Flow through partially opened valve, flow continuously while from low temperature
through an orifice, flow through a porous plug. interacting with only a reservoir to high
single thermal temperature reservoir
Unsteady flow process
reservoir. without consuming
Conservation of  dm  any other form of
mass mi − m e =   energy.
 dt cv

Law Related to
Zeroth law of the Temperature
thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics Internal energy
Second law of thermodynamics Entropy
Irreversibility– The factor that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibility.
Note– Kelvin-plank's statement and clausius statement
are parallel statements of 2nd law of thermodynamics. Internal irreversibility External Irreversibility
• If 2 reversible engine operation between thermal • Caused by internal • Caused by external
reservoir at T1, T2, T3 (T1 > T2 > T3) then dissipative effect. gradient like–
i.e. friction, turbulence Heat transfer due to
temperature gradient.
Causes of irreversibility–
• Friction
• Free expansion
• Mixing of two fluids
• Viscous forces
• Inelastic deformation of solids.
Concept of work absorbing devices–
Heat pump Refrigerator Note– All phase change process are internally
reversible
• Boiling of water → Always reversible
• Isothermal heat addition and heat rejection ⇒
reversible.
Entropy
Clausius inequality–
∂Q
( COP )R =
QL ∫ T
≤0
QH QH − QL
( COP )HP = ∂Q For irreversible cycle
QH − QL
( COP )max =
TL ∫ T
<0
TH TH − TL ∂Q For reversible cycle

( COP )max =
∫ =0
TH − TL T
∂Q The cycle is impossible
( COP )HP = 1 + ( COP )R ∫ >0
T
Cornot theorem– Entropy– It is a property, depend only on end points
1. For engines operating between same temperature hence–
limits, none has efficiency greater than reversible
cycle efficiency. ( ∆S)Re v = ( ∆S)irrev
2. For a cycle operating between same temperature
∂Q
limit– ηrev > ηirr ( ds )UNI > 0 ; ds ≥ Valid for rev. & irrev.
T
Corollary of carnot's theorem process both
• ηrev cycle is independent of working fluid.  ∂Q 
If ds =   ⇒ Reversible
• For various reversible engines, working between  T 
same temperature limits, the efficiency remains
 ∂Q 
same. ds >   ⇒ Irreversible
• ηrev cycle depend only on temperature limits.  T 

( ds )UNI ≥ 0 Available energy
Available energy (AE)– Max. possible work that can be
( ds ) + ( ds ) ≥0 obtained from a certain heat input in a cyclic heat
 sys. surround 
engine.
ds = ( ds ) IIR + ( ds )EIR ....(1)
∂Q Q1 = AE + UAE
ds = Sgen + .....(2)
T
IIR ⇒ Internal Irreversibility  T 
EIR ⇒ External Irreversibility Wmax = AE = Q1 1 − 0 
 T1 
Case I – If the value of entropy change due to internal
irreversibility is 0. then–
From equation (2)– Unavailable energy (UAE)–
∂Q Heat rejected UAE = T0 ( S2 − S1 )
If (ds)IIR = 0 ; Sgen = 0 → ds =
T
ds < 0 ; S↓
ds > 0 ; S↑
ds = 0 ; S = C Isentropic
So, entropy change of a system in a rev. process may In a cyclic heat engine
increase, decrease or remains const. Available energy = Wmax
Case II – If the system is irreversible, then– AE = Qin − T0 ( S2 − S1 )
• Loss of available energy in a cycle–

T −T 
T0 Q1  1 2 
 T1.T2 
• Availability– Maximum useful work that is
obtainable in a process in which, the system comes
into equilibrium with surrounding.
Availability = φ1 − φ2
From equation (1) –
(i) If system is adiabatic ; ds = Sgen • Availability of a closed system = φ1 − φ2
(ii) Irreversible + Non adiabatic φ = U + P0 V − T0S
If increase in internal irreversibility is compensated
by decrease in external interaction then– • Tds Equation– (Combined 1st and 2nd law)
TdS = du + pdv valid for reversible and
ds = 0
irreversible, closed system.
S = C Isentropic
TdS = dh – vdp
Note– A reversible adiabatic is ALWAYS isentropic. • Slope of const. vol. lines on T-S diagram–
An isentropic process NEED NOT BE rev. adiabatic.
 dT  T
 dS  = C
 V v
• Slope of const. pressure line on T-S diagram–
 dT  T
 dS  = C
 V p

∵ Cp > Cv For water at For water at triple point
Slope of const. vol. > Slope of const. pressure critical point
• Entropy change for an ideal gas– pc = 221.2 bar T = 0.01 oC = 273.16 K
S2 – S1 tc = 374.15 oC P = 0.611 kPa = 4.587 mm Hg
T  V 
C v ℓn  2  + Rℓn  2  vc = 0.00317 m3/kg
 T1   V1 
• Transformation of solid to vapour directly – Sublimation
S2 – S1 T  P 
Cp ℓn  2  − Rℓn  2  • Transformation of vapour to solid directly–Ablimation
 T1   P1  • Triple point is a line on – P-V diagram
S2 – S1 V  P  • Triple point is a point on – P-T diagram
C p ℓn  2  + C v ℓn  2 
 V1   P1  • At a pressure below the triple point line, the
substance cannot exist in the liquid phase.
• Entropy change for a finite body –
T2
(S2 − S1 ) = mCℓn
T1
• Entropy change during phase change–
dQ mL
ds = =
T T
Max. useful work–
If vol. of the system changes from V1 to V2 then–
Wu = Wact − P0 ( V2 − V1 )
Wu = actual work – work done on the atmosphere • Water expands upon freezing while volume of other
substance decreases upon freezing.
( MUW )CS = ( U1 − U 2 ) − T0 (S1 − S2 ) + P0 ( V1 − V2 )
Note– At triple point– Internal energy (U) = 0
Availability of open system– ψ1 – ψ2 Entropy (S) = 0, h > 0
Availability function– ψ1 = h – T0S Throttling calorimeter–
W( max.useful ) = ( h1 − h 2 ) − T0 ( S1 − S2 ) • It is used to measure dryness fraction of pure
substance.
Irreversibility (I)–
• Throttling is an irreversible and adiabatic but not
I = Wmax − Wactual = T0 ( ∆S) UNI
isentropic. h1 = h 2
Gibb's function– G = H − TS (for open system)
Helmholtz function–
F = U − TS (for closed system)
• Second law efficiency–
Wact W W Q1
ηII = = act = act =
Wmax AE Q1 Wmax
Properties of gases & gas mixture
ηI
ηII = Ideal gas equation
ηcarnot
PV = nRT PV = mRT
Properties of pure substance
• A gas or a pure substance Mass ( m )
2 DOF Number of moles ( n ) =
Molecular weight (M)
• A liquid and vapour in equilibrium 1 DOF
state (saturated state) Where,
• A liquid, vapour & solid in 0 DOF R = Universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kg K
equilibrium (triple point) R = characteristics gas const.
Value of 'γ' for different gases– dp hg − hf
Clapeyron's equation = =
Gases Value of γ (
dT T Vg − Vf )
Monoatomic 5/3 Joule-Thomson co-efficient
∂T 
Diatomic 7/5
( H ) =  
 ∂P h
Polyatomic 4/3
• For ideal gas, µ = 0
Air 1.41
• In steam table, reference point is triple point of

u = 0
water &  Considered
S = 0
Mollier chart
• Plot between h & S
• Its slope gives temperature
 dh 
 dS  = T
 p
• A gas is treated as ideal gas; when–

Intermolecular forces are negligible; i.e. under low
pressure, high temperature and low density
condition.
• Vander walls equation for real gas–
Thermodynamic relations
Maxwell's equations–
 ∂T   −∂P   ∂T   ∂V 
 ∂V  =  ∂S   ∂P  =  ∂S  •
 S  V  S  P Compressibility chart– It represent the deviation of
a real gas from the behaviour of ideal gas.
 ∂P   ∂S   ∂V   −∂S 
 ∂T  =  ∂V   ∂T  =  ∂P  PV
 V  T  P  T Compressibility factor ( Z) =
RT
 ∂P  Z = 1 for ideal
1st Tds equation Tds = C v dT + T   dv
 ∂T  v
 ∂V 
2nd Tds equation Tds = CpdT – T   dp
 ∂T  p
1  ∂V 
Coefficient of volume expansibility (β) =
V  ∂T  p
1  ∂V 
Isothermal compressibility (K) = −
V  ∂P T

Thermal Power Plant
Steam formation properties & processes Fusion curve has –ve slope (on P-T diagram)
(∵ MP ↓ when P↑)
Key Points- 1. Any fluid which decreases it's MP
when P↓ has –ve slope of fusion curve.
2. For any other fluid when P ↑, MP ↑ then slope of
fusion curve will be +ve
3. Vaporisation curve has +ve slope.
Specific heat Latent heat (∵ B.P. ↑ when P↑)
Unit– kcal/kgoC or Unit– kcal/kg or kJ/ kg 4. Sublimation curve has +ve slope
kJ/kg-K (∵ S.P. ↑ when P↑)
Specific heat Latent heat Q = m × L,
S→L : Solid to liquid (⇒ Melting or fusion)
(∆Q) = mC∆t ∆Q
L= L→S : Liquid to solid (⇒ Freezing or solidification)
∆Q m
C= L→G : Liquid to gas (⇒ Vaporisation)
( ∆t )
m.
G→L : Gas to liquid (⇒ Condensation)
Specific heat for water, Lf = 80 kcal/kg = 335 kJ/kg
S→G : Solid to gas (⇒ Sublimation)
Cw = 4.18 J/gm. Lv = 540 cal/gm = 540
G→S : Gas to solid (Ablimation or deposition)
K = 4.18 kJ/kgoK kcal/kg = 2257 kJ/kg
(S+L+G) – Triple point of water–
 C  Where,
Cice = (Cp)steam =  w  L = latent heat of fusion I. Dryness fraction (x)–
 2  f
Lv = latent heat of ms
x=
vaporization ms + m w
Pressure and Temperature regarding water
ms = mass of steam, mw = mass of water
State Temperature Pressure
Key point– When 'x' is represented in percentage, it is
Critical point 373ºC or 646 K 221 bar or 22100 called quality of steam.
or 703.4ºF kPa or 3205.339
Psi • Determination of Dryness fraction - by calorimeter
Triple point 0.01ºC or 0.006 bar
273.16K or = 0.611 kPa
32.018ºF = 611 Pa
Key points-
• When ice is heated, its specific volume first
decreases, and then increases.
• At 1 atm pressure and temperature 4ºC ⇒ density of
water is maximum or specific volume of water is
minimum.
P-T Diagram for water
II. Degree of super heat (DOSH)– DOSH = t sup − t s
III. Degree of under cool– DOUC = t s − t c
Conclusions–
Lines–
0-1 – Fusion curve
0-2 – Vaporisation curve
0-3 – Sublimation curve
Key points- Mollier diagram
(1) Pressure basis steam table is frequently used in
steam engineering in power plant.
(2) Temperature basis steam table is frequently used
in Refrigeration & air conditioning.
Steam Properties-
(1) Entropy (S) (2) Enthalpy (H) Specific • Vapour/gas/ideal gas–
Vapour : t < tc (tc = critical temperature)
volume (v)
Gas : t > tc
• "Randomness of • Also called total • Volume Ideal gas : t > 2tc
molecules of the heat of steam. covered by unit Vapour Dome on different diagram-
system. mass of the
substance.
• Related to heat • Depends on the (Reciprocal of
(not temperature) temperature for the density of
ideal gas. the substance)
• Unit ⇒ kJ/K • Unit ⇒ kJ Unit ⇒ m3/kg
•Unit of specific Unit of specific vg = vf + vfg
entropy enthalpy (h) ⇒
(s) ⇒ kJ/kg-K kJ/kg v wet = v f + xv pg
Sg = Sf + Sfg h wet = h f + xh fg v
vsup =
g
× Tsus
h g = h f + h fg Ts
Tsup
S = Sg + Cp L n
Ts h sup = h g + C p ( t sup − t s )
Steam cycles
Thermodynamics cycles
Mollier diagram– Power (+) [+W] Power (–) or
• Mollier diagram is a 2D diagram (Known as h-s Refrigeration (–W)
diagram) Gas Vapour Gas Vapour
 ∂h  Carnot Carnot Reversed Vapour
• base of mollier diagram T =  
 ∂s P Carnot compressi
• Mollier diagram is between specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) on
Sterling Rankine Bellcoleman Vapour
& specific entropy (kJ/kg ok)
or Reverse absorption
• On mollier diagram, various lines are– Joule
(1) Constant dryness fraction lines, x = 1 to 0.66 Ericsson Modified
(2) Two isobaric (P = c) lines are diverge from each Rankine
other when we move from left to right. Otto Reheat
(3) Slope of isothermal lines is constant in wet zone, Diesel Regenerative
slope decreases in superheated zone and finally Dual Binary
becomes zero (⇒ lines are horizontal) Vapour
(4) Vertical lines of this diagram represent reversible Joule or
process and horizontal lines represent lines of Brayton
Atkinson
constant energy.
Lenoir
Lamount boiler Cornish boiler
Carnot cycle Rankine cycle Velox boiler Scotch marine boiler
TL Wnet w T − w P Loffler boiler
ηc = 1 − ( for gas ) ηR = =
Yarrow boiler
TH QA QA
Some important specifications of various types of
TL
ηc = 1 − ( for vapour ) boilers-
TH 1. Cochran boiler : Vertical- Natural draught- Single
pass - Portable
2. Locomotive boiler : Horizontal- Artificial draught
(produced by steam Jet)- Single pass- Movable
boiler. (steam produced at high and fluctuated rate)
(Spring type safety valve are used)
(3) Lancashire boiler : Horizontal- Natural draught-
2-tube- Multi pass boiler
(d = 2/5D) d = dia. of fire tube
D = dia. of shell
(4) Cornish Boiler : Horizontal- Natural draught- 1-
Conclusion– Thermal power plant tube- Multi pass boiler
(ηT)C > (ηT)R cycle is based on the  3 
but (rw)C < (rw)R Rankine cycle. d = D
 5 
Methods to improve Rankine cycle efficiency (ηR)– (5) Babcock & Wilcox Boiler : Has straight inclined
1. By increasing boiler pressure (Ph) water tube (inclination of W.T. = 15º)- Natural
2. By increasing super heat temperature (tsup) circulation- Natural draught- Multi pass-Low to
3. By decreasing condenser pressure (PL) Medium pressure.
Method Supply Supply Exit (6) Stirling boiler : Medium pressure- Water tube
pressure or temperature pressure (bent)- Natural circulation
boiler or super or Has more than one drum.
pressure or heat condenser (7) Velox boiler : High pressure-Water tube- Forced
high temperature pressure circulation.
pressure t or tsup or back Super charged fuel boiler
(Ph or P2 or pressure (8) La-Mount Boiler : High pressure- Forced
Pboiler) or low circulation- Artificial draught boiler (It has bent
pressure tubes)
(PL or Pi (9) Benson Boiler : Forced circulation- Stationary-
or Multi pass- Artificial draught
Pcondenser Pressure ≥ Critical pressure
M-1 ↑ Constant Constant Once through (drum less) boiler
M-2 Constant ↑ Constant Flow direction of boiler water-
M-3 Constant Constant ↓ F.W.H./Pump→ Economiser → Drum → (Down
Method of improving steam turbine efficiency- comer → Riser → Drum) → Super heater → H.P.
Turbine → Reheater → L.P. Turbine
1. Reheating of steam ⇒ WT↑, ηT↑, x↑
Flow direction of exhaust flue gas-
So, chance of corrosion of blade↓.
2. Regenerative feed heating : It is done by feed Furnace → Tube → Super heater → Reheater
water heater (FWH). ηT↑, QA↓ →Economiser → Induce draught fan → Chimeny
(Process is called ⇒ bleeding) Mountings, accessories and auxiliaries–
Mountings Accessories Auxiliaries
3. Binary vapour plants :
(Used for safety (Used to (Used in
Working medium ⇒ mercury and water. of boiler) increase the addition to
Boiler Classification– efficiency of mountings
Water Tube Boiler (High Fire Tube Boiler (Low boiler) and
pressure Boiler) pressure Boiler) accessories)
Babcock & Wilcox boiler Cochran boiler 1. Safety valve = 2 Air- Pulveriser
Stirling boiler Lancashire boiler preheater
Benson boiler (drum less) Locomotive boiler 2. Water level Water Burners
(Once through boiler) indicator = 2 preheater

3. Pressure gauge = Super heater Dust Where,
1 collectors H = Height of chimney above fire grate in metres
4. Fusible plug = 1 Feed water Precipitators m = mass of air actually used in kg/kg of fuel
equipment T1 = Absolute temperature of air outside the
5. Blow of cock = 1 Steam trap Ash chimney
handling T2 = Temperature of flue gas inside the chimney
equipment • draught pressure for max discharge
6. Feed check valve Draught 176.5H
P= mm of water
=1 equipment T1
7. Steam stop valve •
η of chimney draught = <1%
& junction valve Key points-
=1 Orsat gas analyzer⇒ It measures volume or mole
8. Man/mud/inspect fraction of CO2, CO and O2 in the dry flue gases. It
ion hole contains three fluids–
Key points- (1) KOH ⇒ Absorbs CO2
Fusible plug is used for the protection of the boiler (2) Pyrogallol solution = Absorbs O2
against damage due to overheating for low water level (3) CuCl2 ⇒ Absorbs CO.
(fitted on fire box crown). Gun metal is used for this Various types of governing and their uses-
plug. Governed by :
1. Simple steam
Condenser is not a boiler accessory. It is a power engine (1) Throttle governing
plant accessory. (2) Cut -off governing
Use of boiler-
2. Various steam Governed by:
(1) In power generation ⇒ Mostly high pressure & turbines (1) Throttle governing
water tube boilers are used (Ex.- T.P.P. to produce (2) Nozzle control governing
electricity) (3) Bypass governing
(2) In process industry ⇒ Mostly low pressure and 3. Gas Engine Governed by : Hit and miss
fire tube boilers are used (Ex.- Manufacturing of governing
textile, sugar plant, chemicals, fertilizer,
pharmaceuticals etc.) 4. Diesel Engine Governed by : Qualitative
governing
(3) Heating purpose in homes and various industries
of applications. 5. Petrol Engine Governed by : Quantitative
governing
Various terms related to steam boiler/cycle-
Boiler Draught-
ηRankine Wnet WT – WT
Difference of pressure across grate between fresh air =
and heat combustion gases ∵ (∆P = P1 – P1) QA QR
(Draught↑ ⇒ Combustion η↑) Work ratio (WR) WT – WP
WT
(In Rankine cycle, WR ≃ 1)
Back work ratio WP
WT
Heat ratio (H.R.) Q1 1
= kJ / kWs
WT – WP η
Steam rate (S.R.) or 1
Specific steam kg / kWs
Wnet
consumption
(S.R.↓ = Plant size ↓)
Equivalent m s × ( h 2 – h1 )
• Balanced draught = ID + FD evaporation (me)
2257
• Draught pressure,
Circulation ratio (CR) = 1 (for critical boiler)
 1 m +1
P = 353H  −  mm of water (CR) > 1 (for sub critical boiler)
 T1 m.Ts  In order to avoid overheating, 6 ≤ CR < 25

Efficiency of steam power plant- • Governing equations of nozzle–
Boiler m s ( h 2 – h1 ) Conservation of mass ɺ = ρAC
m
efficiency,
m f × C.V. Conservation of energy
ηB C2 = 44.7 ∆h
Mechanical Brake output Conservation of n
Pc P2  2  n–1
efficiency m s ( h1 – h 2 ) momentum = = 
( ηmech ) P1 P1  n + 1 
Generator Elecrical output at generator terminal Nozzle/Diffuser identification-
efficiency Brake output of the turbine For Nozzle For Diffuser
ηG
ηoverall ηboiler × ηcycle × ηturbine × ηgenerator
dA
A
(
= M2 −1 )
dC
C
dA
A
=–
dP [ 2 ]
ρV 2
M –1
Other terms related to steam engines-
Where,
Indicated I.P. × 60
C = Velocity, A = Area
thermal ms × ( h – h f )
efficiency
Brake B.P. × 60
thermal ms ( h – h f )
efficiency
ηoverall B.P. × 60
m f × C.V.
Relative Thermal efficiency
efficiency Rankine efficiency
Diagram Area of actual indicator diagram
factor (k) Area of theoretical indicator diagram
For Nozzle−
or
Exit steam
Actual mean effective pressure C 2 = 44.7 × ∆h m / s
k= velocity (C2)
Theoretical mean effective pressure Critical n
'k' depends on ⇒ Condition of steam, initial pressure Pc P2  2  n −1
= =
pressure of steam, back pressure, speed of the ratio P1 P1  n + 1 
engine, type of the engine, type of valve etc. Where,
Average value of k ⇒ 0.65 to 0.9 P1 = Steam pressure of entering
Steam Nozzle P2 = Pressure at throat
(Choked flow condition i.e.
Maximum mass flow rate)
Critical T2 2
temperature =
T1 n + 1
ratio
Process 1.035 + 0.1x
index (n) (x= dryness friction)
Mach number (M)– Nozzle Actual heat drop ∆h ' h1 − h 2 '
efficiency = =
Actual velocity Ideal heat drop ∆h h1 − h 2
M= ( η N)
Sonic velocity Coefficient
Actual velocity C'2 44.7 ∆h '
S.N. Mach Types of flow Nozzle of velocity = =
(Cv) Ideal velocity C2 44.7 ∆h
number
1. M<1 Subsonic flow Convergent Reheat factor Cumulative heat drop
nozzle Isentropic heat drop
2. M=1 Sonic flow Throat (Its value varies from 1.02 to 1.06)
3. M>1 Super sonic flow Divergent Internal Total useful heat drops
nozzle efficiency Isentropic heat drop
4. 1>M>1 Subsonic to super Convergent Rankine Total isentropic heat drops
sonic flow divergent efficiency heat supplied
nozzle
Key points- Optimum velocity cos α
Nozzle efficiency = (Coefficient of velocity)2 ratio (Copt) 2z
i.e. C v = ηN Where,
α = Nozzle angle
Friction loss in nozzle–
z = Number of stage
• 10-15%
Maximum efficiency cos 2 α
• Effect- (ηmax)
Enthalpy drop ↓ Specific volume ↑
• Reaction turbine–
Exit velocity ↓ mass flow rate ↓ Optimum velocity (Cb) cos α
Entropy ↑ dryness fraction ↑ Maximum efficiency 2 cos 2 α
• Values for critical pressure ratio– (ηmax)
1 + cos 2 α
Dry saturated steam P2 n = 1.135
= 0.577 (Power)nth stage Total power
P1
( n 2th )
Super heated steam P2 n = 1.3 Where,
= 0.546
P1 nth = Number of
n < 1.135 particular stage.
Wet steam P2
= 0.582 Key points:
P1
(I). For pressure compounding impulse turbine
For Gas P2 n>1.3 Nozzle (N) Moving blade
= 0.528
P1 (MB)
Pressure (P) ↓ C
Steam Turbine Velocity (V) ↑ ↓
Impulse turbine Pressure drops only in nozzle otherwise constant
Blade velocity (Cb) πDN (II). For velocity compounding impulse turbine
60 N MB SB
Where, Pressure ↓ C C
D = mean diameter of blade, Velocity ↑ ↓ C
N = Speed in rpm • For reaction turbine-
Area of flow (Ab) π 2 FB MB
( D2 – D12 ) Pressure (P) ↓ ↓
4
Where, Velocity (V) ↑ ↓
D1 = Root diameter ∆H MB
• Degree of Reaction (R) =
D2 = Tip diameter ∆H MB + ∆H FB
Force (I) For De-Laval turbine, R = 0
ɺ ( C w1 ± C w 2 )
m 1
I. Tangential force
(ii) For Parson's reaction turbine, R = (or 50%)
(Ft) ɺ ( C f 1 – Cf 2 )
m 2
II. Axial force (Fa) (III) For Hero's turbine, R = 1 (or 100%)
Power ɺ ( C w1 ± C w 2 ) × C b Various types of turbine-
m
kw De-Laval turbine Single stage impulse turbine
1000 Curtis turbine Velocity compounded (multi
Efficiency C1 2 stage) impulse turbine
I. Nozzle efficiency I. Reteau turbine Pressure compounded (multi
2 ( ∆h ) stage) impulse turbine
(ηN)
2 ( C w1 ± C w 2 ) Parson's turbine Impulse- Reaction turbine
II.
C12 Hero's turbine Pure reaction turbine
II. Blade or diagram Radial flow turbine
L- Jungstrom
efficiency (ηd) 2 ( C w1 ± C w 2 ) C b turbine
III.
∆h Pressure compounded turbine is also a multi stage
III. Stage efficiency = ηd × ηN impulse turbine.

Gas turbine Optimum pressure
ratio γ
1. Simple gas turbine-  P2   Tmax  2( γ−1)
( rp )opt   = 
 P1 opt  Tmin 
Wmax i.e. maximum
specific output. 2
Wnet( max ) = Cp  T3 − T1 
 
Tmin
ηopt = 1 −
Tmax
Air rate (AR) 3600 kg of air
Wnet kWh
Brayton or Joule cycle-
Normal air fuel ratio ⇒ 60:1
(Closed cycle of simple gas turbine is based on this
Cycle work ratio Wnet
cycle) (WR) where,
WT
Wnet = WT − WC
Back work ratio Compressor work
(BWR) Turbine work
( BWR = 1 − WR )
For gas turbine BWR – 40%
to 60%
Specific fuel 3600 kg of fuel
consumption (sfc) Wnet kWh
Processes on (P-V) & (T-S) diagram
• Effect of modification on performance of simple
Process (1-2) The isentropic compression in the gas turbine cycle–
compressor Optimum Work output Thermal
Process (2-3) Constant pressure heat addition in modification to efficiency
the combustion chamber cycle
Process (3-4) Isentropic expansion in the turbine Regeneration No effect Increases
Inter cooling Increases Decreases
Process (4-1) Constant pressure heat rejection
Reheat Increases Decreases
ηRankine > ηBrayton
Reheat + Increases Increases
Observation: Regeneration
Thermal Efficiency Work ratio Reheat + Inter Increases Decreases
1 T1 γ –1 cooling
ηT = 1 −
( γ−1) / γ
rw = 1 –
T3
( rp ) γ Inter cooling + Increases Increases
rp
Regeneration
ηT = f(rp, γ) Τ  Reheat + Inter Increases Increases
rw = f  1 ,rp , γ  cooling +
 T3 
Regeneration
Where, Where, Key points (1) :
rp = pressure ratio rp = pressure ratio P2/P1 • Efficiency of Brayton cycle with regeneration–
P2/P1 γ = Adiabatic index ( γ−1) / γ
γ = Adiabatic index T1
η = 1−
T1
T3
( )
rp
= Temperature ratio
T3
• Overall efficiency of combined plant–
ηT↑when rp↑, γ↑ rw↑ when rp↓, γ↓, T1↓, T3↑ η = η1 + η2 − η1 + η2

Key points (2) : Multistage compression with intercooler–
• The overall efficiency of combined cycle power
plant is nearly 50%.
• Nearly 80% power developed by turbine is
consumed by compressor.
Combined cycle–
Gas turbine + steam turbine
ηC = ηB + ηR − ηB ηR for series
Compressors
Workdone with Z × Work required for

complete intercooling each stage
for Z stage
n −1
For 2 stage- work  
n  P3  2n
2× P1V1   − 1

• Important terms used in Air compressor- n −1  P1  
 
P2
(1). Compression ratio or pressure ratio, rp =
P1 Power input N
W× watt
(2). Compressor capacity–Volume of air delivered by 60
compressor. Expressed in ⇒ m3/min. Clearance ratio (C) Clearance volume
(3). Free air delivery–
Actual volume delivered by compressor when (Its value varies 4 to Swept volume
reduced to the N.T.P. conditions. 10%)
Compressor capacity is generally given in terms of Isentropic efficiency Isentropic work
F.A.D.
(4). Mean effective pressure– actual work
Ratio of work done per cycle to the suction volume Mechanical efficiency I.P
of the compressor.
Reciprocating Compressor– (Single acting) B.P
(Ideal Compression – Isothermal) Volumetric efficiency Volumeof air sucked
Wisothermal ηV Swept volume
P 
P1V1ℓ n  2  1
 P1   P n
n −1
= 1+ C − C 2 
Wpolytropic    P1 
n  P  n n
P1V1   − 1 =
 2
mR ( T2 − T1 )
n −1  P1   n −1 Key points:
 
γ −1
1. For minimum work pressure ratio in each stage is
Wisentropic  
γ  P2  γ γ
P1 V1   − 1 =
 1
mR ( T2 − T1 ) P2 P3  P3  2
γ −1  P1   γ −1 same. = = 
  P1 P2  P1 
P2 = P1P3
Advantage of intercooling : WC↓, rp↓ (per stage)

η V↑
Centrifugal compressor– (Ideal process ⇒ adiabatic)
A centrifugal compressor consist of three
components– (i) A stationary casing (ii) A rotating
Wisentropic > Wpolytropic > Wisothermal impeller (iii) A diffuser.

Isentropic efficiency (ηisen) Isentropic work
Actual work
Slip Cbl2 – C w 2
Slip factor (φs) Cw 2

C bl 2
Work factor (φw) Actual work

(Generally φw = 1 to 1.03) Euler work
Discharge – πD1B1 × Vf1
Pressure coefficient (φp) Isentropic work
Area – (πD – nt))B Euler work
t = thickness of blade
φp = φw × φs × ηisen
Key points–
• Pre-whirl is provided in centrifugal compressor to
avoid shock wave formation because of high speed
of turbine blade.
• Thus mach number (M) < 1 is desired.
• Generally a pre-whirl of 6o is provided.
Work done (Euler's work)–

• W = C w 2 .Cbl2
Vr1 ' < Vr1
C w 2 = Velocity of whirl at out let
Axial flow compressor–
Cbl2 = Mean blade velocity at exit Used for High mass flow rate
Application In aircraft and gas turbine and
For ideal condition, radial blade– gas turbine due to low frontal
area.
C w 2 = Cbl2
Work done C C − C Nmbl ( w2 w1 )
W= C22 Where,
C w1 = Whirl component of
velocity at inlet.
(C2 = Absolute velocity at outlet of rotor) C w 2 = Whirl component of
• Power required per impeller velocity at outlet.
P = mC
ɺ w Cbl ɺ = mass flow rate.
m Cbl = Mean velocity at
2 2
entrance
Key points– or exit.
1. For, rp= 4 : 1 ⇒ Single stage compressor required Degree of Pressure rise in rotor blade
reaction of axial Pr essure rise per stage
2. For, rp = 12:1 ⇒ Multi stage compressor required compressor (Rc)
1 – Cw 2
• Velocity of centrifugal compressor >> Velocity of =
2C2
reciprocating compressor
For axial compressor, Rc = 0.5

Key points– (For axial compressor) Mixing of Always chance No chance
1. Design of blade based on Aero dynamic theory. working fluid
2. Blade shape is in Aerofoil. with
3. Radial blades used in ⇒ Turbojet and space craft lubricating oil
application. Suitability Pressure: Low, Pressure : Low
(rp)Axial < (rp)centrifugal medium and & medium
• Efficiency curve of axial and centrifugal high Volume : Large
compressor– Volume : Low
and medium
Cost Higher Lower
(Maintenance)
Efficiency Higher (rp > 2) Higher (rp < 2)
Key points–
• Surging : Occurs at less mass flow rate. • Comparison between Centrifugal and Axial
• Choking : Maximum flow rate in compressor. compressor
Stalling–
Feature Reciprocating Centrifugal
Aerodynamic separation of break away of flow from
Type of flow Axial (parallel Radial
the plate profile.
Note- In axial flow compressor, stalling is a local to the direction
phenomenon while surging affects the entire of axis of the
compressor. machine)
Pressure High about Low about 1.2:1
ratio (per 4.5:1
stage)
Efficiency Low High
Frontal area Larger Smaller
Starting Low High
torque
• Comparison between Reciprocating and
required
Centrifugal Compressor
Feature Reciprocating Centrifugal Delivery Upto 400 bar Up to 20 bar
5 to 8 3 to 4.5 pressure
Pressure ratio
(per stage) possible
Discharge High pressure Medium Suitability Slightly More suitable
pressure pressure for multi difficult for multi stage
Discharge Small Greater staging
volume of
Application Refrigeration, Jet engines
air/gas
central air
Vibration Greater Less
problems conditioning
Mechanical Lower Higher supercharging

efficiency I.C. engines

IC Engine
Specification of Engine IC engine parts and their material and

Cylinder Specification = D × L manufacturing process-
D = Bore dia L = Stroke length Part Material Manufacturing
(i) L = D (Square Engine) process
(ii) L > D (Under Square Engine) Cylinder Cast iron Casting
(iii) D > L (Over Square Engine) block
Over square engine Cylinder Aluminium & Casting
operate at a high speed head Cast iron alloy
because of large bore and Aluminium Casting
Piston
short stroke so less alloy
friction.
Swept volume Connecting Forged low Forging and heat
(Expressed in terms of Rod carbon steel treated
CC) Crank shaft Forged steel Forging
π Piston Ring Cast iron Pot casting method
VS = A × L = D 2 × L
4 Gudgeon pin Plain carbon Forging but it
If L is the stroke length steel hollow rod
and r is the crank radius Fly wheel Cast iron Casting
then L = 2r Cam & Cam Forged steel Forging
Cubic capacity or shaft
engine capacity-
Engine capacity in CC = Swept volume × No. of Spark Plug
π
Cylinder = × D 2 × K , K = No. of cylinders
4
Compression ratio– Actual valve timing diagram for 4-stroke SI
V + VC Vs
rc = S = ( rc – 1) Engine-
VC Vc
2LN
Piston speed – 2 LN m/min = m / sec.
60
L = Stroke length, N = Engine speed (rpm)
Application of engine-
IC Engine EC Engine
Gasoline Automotive Steam Locomotive,
marine, engine marine
aircraft
Gas Industrial, Stirling Experimental
engine power engine space,
vehicles
Diesel Automotive, Steam Power, larges
engine Railways, turbine marine
power, marine
Gas Power, Closed Power,
turbine aircraft, cycle marine
industrial gas
marine turbine
TDC BDC
TDC BDC
Before
Before
After
After
Before
Before
After
After
Suction Valve 10º-20º × × ×
Inlet valve 10º-20º × × ×
open open
Suction valve × × × 30º-40º Inlet valve × × × 25º-40º
close close
Compression 20º-30º × × 30º-40º Fuel valve 10º-15º × × ×
(end) (start) open
Spark plug 20º-30º × × × Fuel valve × × × 15º-20º
ignites close
Expansion 20º-30º × 30º-50º Compression 10º-15º ×25º-40º ×
(start) (end) (end) (start)
Exhaust valve × × 30º-50º × Expansion × 10º-15º 30º-50º ×
open (start) (end)
Exhaust valve × 10º-15º × Exhaust × × 30º-50º ×
closed valve open
Actual Valve timing diagram for 4 stroke CI Exhaust × 10º-15º × ×
Engine- valve close
In 2-stroke engine, valves are replaced by ports
Ports- port are simple operation provided in cylinder
that is alternately covered and uncovered by the
piston and control flow of air & fuel.
2-stroke engine and 4 stroke engine definition-
2 Stroke Engine 4 Stroke Engine
Working cycle is Working cycle is completed
completed in one in two revolution of crank
revolution of crank shaft shaft
More power output Less power output
Less Floor space More Floor space
Easy starting Difficult starting
More fuel consumption Less fuel consumption
High mechanical Low mechanical efficiency
efficiency
Low thermal efficiency High thermal efficiency
Less compression ratio More compression ratio
More lubricating oil Less lubricating oil
consumption consumption
Low volumetric High volumetric efficiency
efficiency (50-55)% (90-95%)
High power to weight Less power to weight ratio
ratio
Lighter fly wheel Heaver fly wheel required
required
Compression between SI Engine & CI Engine
Description SI Engine CI Engine
Basic cycle Works on Otto cycle Works on diesel or dual cycle
Fuel Gasoline, a highly volatile fuel. Self Diesel oil, a non volatile fuel, self ignition
ignition temperature is very high temperature is comparatively low.
Introduction A gaseous mixture of fuel-air is introduced Fuel is injected directly into the combustion
of fuel during the suction stroke. A carburetor is chamber at high pressure at the end of the
necessary in this ignition system. compression stroke. A fuel pump and
injector are necessary.
Load control Throttle controls the quantity of F/A The quantity of fuel is regulated to control
mixture to control the load. the load. Air quantity is not controlled
Compression 6 to 10 Upper limit is fixed due to anti 16 to 20 Upper limit is fixed due to weight
ratio knock quality of fuel. increase of engine.

Speed Due to light weight & also due to Due to heavy weight & also due to
homogenous combustion, they can operate heterogeneous combustion, they cannot
at high speed. operate at high speed.
Thermal Low thermal efficiency because of low High thermal efficiency because of high
efficiency compression ratio. compression ratio
Weight to Low High
power ratio
Ignition Ignition takes place with the help of a spark Ignition takes place as a result of high
method plug. temperature developed as a result of
compression after the compression stroke
Pressure at 6 to 12 kg/cm2 or 10 bar 35 kg/cm2 or 35 bar
the end of
compression
Vibration & Low because of Homogeneous combustion High because of Heterogeneous combustion
Noise
Fuel 0.25 kg 0.20 kg
consumption
per BHB for
same output
Fly wheel Lighter or less weight fly wheel used Bigger or heaver fly wheel used
Pollution It emit carbon monoxide (CO), so more It emit carbon dioxide (CO2), so less
pollution pollution
Engine performance parameters Pm × LAnK

I.P. = kW
Mean effective pressure (Pm) : 1000 × 60
It is defined as the hypothetical pressure which Where Pm = Mean effective pressure
acting on the piston through out power stroke. L = Stroke length in (m) (L = 2r)
a A = Area of Piston in (m2)
Pm = × s N / m 2
ℓ K = No. of cylinder
where a = Area of actual indicator diagram (mm2)
 n = N ( for 2 stroke engine )
s = Spring scale or stiffness (N/m2 per mm) n = No.of power stroke 
ℓ = Length of indicator diagram (mm)  n = N / 2 ( for 4stroke engine )
W.D./ cycle / or Wnet N = Engine speed
I.P. I.P.
Pm = = = Brake power–
Swept volume ( VS ) Swept Volume π × D 2 × L It is the power available at engine crank shaft for
4 doing useful work. It is also known as engine output
power. It is measured by dynamometer.
P1rc ( rp − 1) ( rcγ −1 ) 2πN × T 2πN × WR
For Otto = BP = = kW
Pm
( rc − 1)( γ − 1) 60 ×1000 60 × 1000
P1  γ rcγ ( rρ − 1) − rc ( rργ − 1) 
W = Net load acting on the brake down (N)
For Diesel = R = Rope radius
( γ − 1)( rc − 1) N = Engine speed
• When rp ↑⇒ ηOtto ⇒ Pm ↑ T = Resisting torque
Method for measuring Break power :
Where, rc ⇒ Compression ratio Absorption type Transmission type
rp ⇒ Pressure ratio dynamometer dynamometer
rρ ⇒ Cut-off ratio
⇒ Entire energy losses ⇒ Energy is not wasted
When two engine are different dimension, it
by Frictional resistance Example- Epicyclic-train
compared by mean effective pressure.
Example- Prony break dynamometer, Belt
Indicated power–
dynamometer, Rope transmission
Power produced by inside the engine cylinder by
brake dynamometer, dynamometer, Torsion
burning of fuel. It is calculated by finding the actual
mean effective pressure. Hydraulic dynamometer dynamometer.

Friction Power (F.P.) : rc ↑
ηth ↑ 
F.P. = I.P. − B.P. γ ↑
Different methods to measure friction power are-
rc = compression ratio, γ = Adiabatic index
Willian's • This method also known as fuel
line method rate extra polation method • rc → (6 to 12) limited due to risk of pre-ignition &
• Use for CI engine only. detonation.
Morse test • Use in multi cylinder engine
• Use for both CI and SI engine
• Also use for measured I.P.
Mortaring • In this test, swinging field type
test electric dynamometer is used.
Efficiency of engine– Diesel cycle–
Mechanical B.P. B.P.
efficiency ηmech = =
I.P. B.P. + F.P.
(ηmech)
Relative Actual thermal efficiency
Efficiency ηrel =
Air standard efficiency
(ηrel)
Large Volume
Thermal Power produced (kW) For any process (Volume ratio) =
efficiency ηth = Less Volume
mɺ f × CV
(ηth) V1
• Thermal efficiency is two type – Compression ratio ( rC ) = , Cut-off ratio (ρ)
Indicated thermal Brake thermal V2
efficiency ( ηith ) efficiency (ηbth) V3 V
= , Expansion ratio ( re ) = 4
B.P. V2 V3
=
I.P.
kW = kW
f × C.V.
ɺ × C.V. mɺ
m f rc = ρ × re rc > re
1  ( ρ − 1) 
γ
• Order of efficiency
4 stroke C.I. > 4 stroke S.I. > 2 Stroke C.I. > 2 Stroke ηDiesel = 1 −  
rc( )  γ ( ρ − 1) 
γ−1
S.I. engine
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) : Unit =
kg  rc ↑

kW hr ηDiesel = f ( rc , γ, ρ ) ⇒ ηDiesel ↑  γ ↑
SFC is two type ρ ↓

(A) Indicated specific fuel (B) Brake specific fuel
consumption (I.S.F.C.) : consumption (B.S.F.C.): • rc = 16 to 24 due to limitation of mechanical strength
mɺf mɺf of engine component.
I.S.F.C. = B.S.F.F. =
I.P.in kW B.P. in kW • If cut-off happens at K% of the stroke, then cut-off
ratio (ρ) = 1 + K (rc – 1)
Air standard cycle Dual cycle–
Otto cycle
Compression ratio
V V
rc = 1 = 4 = re = expansion ratio
V2 V3 1  (αργ − 1) 
ηth = 1 − γ −1  
1 rc  (α − 1) + γα(ρ − 1) 
ηth = 1 −
rc γ −1 P3
where α = pressure ratio = =
ηth = f (rc , r) P2

Key point : T2 = T4 = T1 × T3 = Tmin × Tmax
• if ρ = 1 than → ηDual = ηOtto. 1 1
• if α = 1 than → ηDual = ηDiesel  T  2( γ−1)  Tmax  2( γ−1)
rc =  3  = 
• For maximum efficiency of dual cycle, more heat
 T1   Tmin 
added at constant volume & less heat added at
Comparison of Cycle-
constant pressure.
For same compression ratio ηOtto > ηdual > ηdiesel
Condition for maximum work done in Otto cycle-
and heat addition
For same compression ratio ηOtto > ηdual > ηdiesel
and heat rejection
For same maximum ηdiesel > ηdual > ηOtto
temperature and heat
rejection
If T1 = Tmin, T3 = Tmax Same maximum pressure ηdiesel > ηdual > ηOtto
• Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle : and heat input
1 T T ηdiesel > ηdual > ηOtto
ηOtto = 1 − = 1 − 1 = 1 − min For Same maximum pressure
( rc )
γ−1
T2 Tmax and output
• For maximum Work done-
Some other important cycle–
Carnot cycle Stirling cycle Ericsson cycle
(2T + 2S) (2V + 2T) (2P + 2T)
Atkinson cycle Lenor cycle (only 3 process) Joule cycle

(1P + 1V+ 2S) (1P + 1V + 1S) (2P + 2S)
Combustion of fuel Combustion in SI Engine-

(F / A)actual Ideal Otto cycle
Equivalence ratio = (φ) =
(F / A)Stochiometeric
For, Stoichiometric mixture φ = 1
Rich mixture φ > 1
Lean mixture φ < 1
Stoichiometric AFR is having value between 13.4 to
15 by mass or by volume 9 to 9.5.
Air fuel ratio–
Operating condition A/F
Starting 3 : 1 – 5: 1
Warning up 7:1
Idling (or Running with zero load) 10 : 1
Cruising (or running with max ηth ) 16 : 1
Maximum power (Full throttle) 12.5 : 1 No combustion takes place, expansion is mirror
Acceleration 10 : 1 image of compression.

Stages of Combustion
1st Stage (ab) : Ignition delay period
2nd Stage (bc) : Rapid or uncontrolled combustion
3rd Stage (cd) : Controlled combustion
4th Stage: After burning
Ignition delay period
• Physical delay- Time between the beginning of
injection & reaching the chemical reaction
conditions.
Different stages of combustion– • Chemical delay- Time in which pre-flame reaction
At 1 spark plug ignites and at 2 visible flame appears start slowly and then accelerate until a stabilized
Flame initialization ( 1 – 2) flame front is created and combustion starts.
Flame propagation (2 – 3)
Rapid or Uncontrolled combustion–
Flame termination (3 – 4)
Flame initialization (1-2)- • Period from delay period to the point of maximum
• Ignition delay or ignition lag period pressure on the indication diagram.
• The time interval between instant of spark and • Rate of pressure rise- depends upon fuel injected
instant where is noticeable rise in pressure due to accumulated, which is directly proportional to the
combustion time of injection & engine speed.
• In this time interval molecules get heated up to • Higher the delay period, higher would be the rate of
self ignition temperature get ignited and produce a pressures.
self propagating nucleus of flame. • During this period it is difficult to control the amount
• It should be as small as possible for generation
of fuel burnish.
power (0.00015 to 0.0002) second.
Period of Controlled combustion–
Flame propagation (2-3)
• Main phase of combustion. • Once the fuel accumulated during the delay period is
• The time duration between point 2 (combustion burnt the period of uncontrolled combustion,
starts) & point 3 (peak pressure) is known as temperature & pressure in the cylinder will be so high
flame propagation. that the further quantity of fuel injected will burn as
• Most of the heat is generated during this phase. soon as it leaves the nozzle pointed sufficient O2 is
Flame termination (3–4)- present in cylinder.
• After burning: During this period some fuel After burning–
particles still bourn or associate due to which heat • It is assumed combustion process shall end after third
is released, but this is of no use because piston is
stage, but due to poor distribution of fuel particles,
at TDC.
combustion continues during part of expansion
• This period corresponds to ignition lag of SI
Engine. stroke.
Combustion in CI Engine-
Knocking in SI Engine- Knocking in CI Engine-
• Knocking or detonation • Due to accumulation of
is due to auto ignition of fuel during large delay
end charge before period creates very high
reaching the flame front pressure
in that part of combustion
chamber.
• In SI Engine knocking • In CI engine it takes
takes place at the end of place at beginning of
combustion process. combustion.
• Pressure rise is very high • Knocking is due to auto
during knocking due to ignition of more fuel
homogeneous mixture. accumulated due to
long delay period.
Pressure rise is not so
high.

Factors tending to reduce detonation & knocking in Firing order of IC Engine-
SI & CI Engine– The firing order of the engine is a sequence in which
Factors SI Engine CI Engine multi-cylinder engines are fired.
Compression ratio Low High Firing order is maintained for proper balancing of
Inlet temperature Low High the engine & adjustment of unbalanced forces.
Inlet pressure Low High 2 Cylinder 1 – 2 or 2 – 1
Self ignition High Low 3 Cylinder 1–3–2
temperature 4 Cylinder 1–2–4–3
Time lag or delay Long Short 1–3–4–2
period of fuel 5 Cylinder 1–2–4–5–3
Load on the engine Low High 6 Cylinder 1–5–3–6–2–4
Combustion wall Low High 1–3–5–6–2–4
temperature 1–3–2–6–4–5
Speed (rpm) High Low
Lubrication system–
Octane Number–
Mist or Mixed 2-stroke engine, generally
• It is amount of Iso-octane by volume in the lubrication small petrol engine such as
mixture of Iso-octane & n-heptane, which creates
scooter, moped, bike etc.
equal amount of knock as created by the actual
Wet sump lubrication 4 stroke engine generally
SIE fuel.
a. Splash lubrication small petrol and diesel
• Octane number is the measure of the resistance of
gasoline to detonation or pre-ignition of the fuel b. Modified splash engine.
in the S.I. Engine lubrication
• For comparing anti-knocking properties of c. Fuel pressure
gasoline fuel two reference fuels are used n- lubrication
heptane and Iso-octane. Dry sump lubrication 4 stroke engine, generally
Normal Heptane (C7H16) Iso-octane (C8H18) large stationary & aircraft
Its octane number is zero, Its octane number is engine
which gives maximum 100, which gives Comparison between air cooling system & water
knocking. minimum knocking. cooling system–
Straight chain paraffin. Complex chain Air Cooling system Water cooling system
paraffin Due to direct transfer of Need of pump and
Highly prone to knock Highly knock heat from engine to air, no radiator increases weight
resistance water jacket, radiator & & air resistance of
Small ignition delay (ID) Long ID & High SIT water pump are required, vehicle.
& low self ignition therefore weight is
temperature (SIT). reduced.
Cetane Number Engine is smaller in size & Engine has larger
• It is amount of cetane by volume the mixture of its design much simples. dimension & its design is
normal cetane & α-methyl naphthalene which more complicated.
creates equal amount of knock as created by actual Worm up performance of Worm up performance is
CIE fuel. air cooled engine is better. poor & results in greater
• Cetane number is the measure of the combustion This results in low wear to cylinder wear.
quality of diesel oil or it is the measure of the cylinders.
ignition delay. Volumetric efficiency of air Volumetric efficiency of
• For comparing anti-knocking properties of diesel cooled engine is lower due water cooled engine is
fuel two reference fuel are used α-methyl to higher cylinder head higher
naphthalene & normal cetane. temperature
α-methyl naphthalene Normal Cetane (C16H34) Air cooling can not be Water cooling system
(C11H10) employed for high specific required more
Its cetane number is Its cetane number is 100, output engines due to maintenance. As light
zero, which gives which gives minimum complex nature of fins leakage of radiator may
maximum knocking. knocking. required result in engine
Complex chain paraffin. Straight chain paraffin. breakdown.
Highly prone to knock Highly knock resistance Control of cooling system Control of cooling
Long ID & High SIT Small ignition delay (ID) is much easier. system is comparatively
& low self ignition
difficult
temperature (SIT).

REFRIGRATION & AIR CONDITIONING
Limitations of First law of thermodynamics 4–1→ Rev. adiabatic or isentropic expansion
As per Flot : Heat ↽ ⇀ Work TH TL
(COP) HP = (COP) Re f =
[He did not define how much heat (low grade TH − TL TH − TL
energy) is converted into work (high grade energy)]
Second law of thermodynamics (COP) : Range
Refrigerator → 0 to ∞
Heat pump → 1 to ∞
Reversed Carnot COP is independent of working
fluid
(COP)summer < (COP)winter
(COP)ice at 0ºC < (COP)comfort air conditioning
Unit of refrigeration-
1TR ⇒ RE produced by melting 1 ton of ice from &
at 00C in 24 hrs.
1TR = 210 kJ/min
= 50 kcal/min
= 200 B. Th. U/min
=3.5 kW
Refrigeration
Refrigeration temperature :
Refrigerator & Heat Pump Requirement for common applications-
Summer Air conditioning 10 to 200C
RE Qe HE Q R –10 to –200C
(COP) Re f = = ( COP )HP = = Cold storage
–250C
W W W W Domestic refrigerator
Frozen foods –350C
(COP) HP = (COP) Re f + 1
Freeze drying –35 to –420C
Here Q R = Q A + W Reverse Brayton or Reverse Joule or Bell
QA = Heat extracted from low temperature region coleman Refrigeration cycle–
QR = Heat rejected to high temperature region.
Direction of heat flow is defined by Clausius
statement, i.e.
(i) Always heat flow from H.T. to L.T. itself
(ii) But heat does not flow from L.T. to H.T without
any external work or energy.
Reverse Carnot cycle–
1–2→ Compressor : Rev adiabatic or isentropic
compression of refrigerant
2-3→ HTHX : Rev. isobaric heat rejection
process.
3-4→ Expansion device : Rev. adiabatic or
1–2→ Isothermal expansion or heat extraction isentropic expansion of refrigerant
2–3→ Rev. adiabatic or isentropic compression 4-1→ LTHX : Rev. isobaric heat addition (or heat
3–4→ Isothermal compression or heat rejection extraction) to refrigerant
 HTHX → High temperature heat exchanger  2–3= Condenser : Isobaric heat rejection process
  3–4= Expansion device (Throttle valve) :
 LTHX → Low temperature heat exchanger  Isenthalpic expansion/liquid
PH T2 T3 1 refrigerant
rP = = COP = γ −1
PL T1 T4 4–1= Evaporator : Isobaric heat addition to
γ
(rP ) −1 refrigerant vapour.
h1 − h 4
( COP )VCC =
h 2 − h1
RE = m ( h1 − h 4 ) kW
•
Winput = ( h 2 − h1 ) kJ / kg
Air cycle refrigeration is used in–
Its COP is low but used in Air conditioning (A/C) of •  kJ 
Power input = m× Win  or kW 
aeroplanes because of low weight per tonne of  sec 
refrigeration. •
Liquidification of gases m Ventry
Volumetric eff . ( ηvol ) =
Vapour compression cycle π 2 N
D L× × K
(COP) VCC > (COP)gascycle 4 60
( Gas cycle→ Air refrigeration cycle i.e. Ventry ⇒ Specific volume at the entry of compressor in
Bell coleman air refrigeration cycle) m3/kg
State of the working fluid at the entry of expander is
saturated liquid.
(m) vapour < (m)gas Expansion work is negligible in comparison to the
(WC ) Vapour < (WC )gas compression work.
Heat Rejection Ratio (HRR)/Heat Rejection
Factor (HRF)
Heat rejection by condenser
HRR =
Vapour compression cycle- Ref.effect
QR 1
HRR = = 1+
RE COP
1–2= Compressor : Rev. adiabatic or isentropic

compression of refrigerant
vapour.
Effect of operating variables-
(A) Evaporator (B) Condenser (C) Superheating
pressure↓ pressure↑ (1) SH inside evaporator : RE↑ & dry compression is
ensured.
(2) SH outside evaporator : Only dry compression
is ensured & RE is constant.
(i) RE↓ (i) RE↓ RE↑
(ii) W C↑ (ii) W C↑ W C↑
(iii) COP↓↓ (iii) COP↓↓ COP ↑↓ C
(iv) Condenser load↑ (iv) Condenser load↑ Condenser load↑ i.e. QR↑
i.e. QR↑ i.e. QR↑
(v) Temperature at (v) Temperature at Temperature at discharge end of compressor↑
discharge of discharge of
compressor↑ compressor↑
(vi) ηvol↓ (vi) ηvol↓ P 
n
ηvol = unaffected, ηvol = 1 + K − K  2 

 P1 

Subcooling/Undercooling of HP refrigerant liquid– Absorber : Water
Simple VCC ⇒ 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1 Liquid pump replacement : H2 (Due to partial
VCC with Subcooling ⇒ 1 – 2 – 3 – 3′ – 4′ – 4 – 1 pressure of H2)
(i) RE↑
(ii) WC = Const
(iii) COP↑
(iv) Condenser load i.e., QR↑
(v) η vol = unaffected
(vi) Temperature at discharge
end of compressor remains
constant
Use of heat exchanger in VCRS–
RE = h1 – h7
WC = h3 – h2
QC = h3 – h5
h6 = h7 COP of VAS –
Entropy rise = Enthalpy drop
Cpv ( T2 − T1 ) = CPℓ ( T5 − T6 )
Use of flash chamber W
It allows only the liquid particle to enter into
evaporator which results in high absorption of heat.
Note– W
With use of F.C. there is no impact on COP.
It help in reducing the size of evaporator.
Cascade refrigeration system–
It is used to obtained very low temperature
( COP )1 × ( COP )2
COP = TE = Evaporator temperature
1 + ( COP )1 + ( COP )2 TG = Generator temp
Vapour absorption system TC = Condenser temp. = Atmospheric temperature
Q W QE
V.C.System V.A.System COP = E = ×
QG QG W
Compressor 
Replaced by
→ 1. Absorber
2. Generator
3. Liquid pump
4. Pressure reducer
Types of vapour absorption system–
• 2 fluid system : Pair : Refrigerant & Absorber TE (TG − TA )
1st pair : Aqua ammonia system (COP) max =
TG (TC − TE )
Refrigerant : Ammonia (NH3)
Absorber : Aqua (water) H2O (COP)VARS = 0.3 to 0.5 generally
2nd pair : Li-Br & Water system Electrolux Refrigerator
Refrigerant : Water (H2O) To create noiseless operation i.e. no use of pump
Absorber : Lithium bromide (LiBr) It works on 3 fluid system e.g. NH3 + H2O+H2
• 3 fluid system : Ammonia, water, hydrogen H2 is used to create low partial pressure of
Refrigerant : Ammonia vapour
Comparison between VCC & VAS-
Feature VCC VAS Remarks
Energy (Type) HGE (Work) LGE (Heat) 2 Fluid system : Heat + little work,
3 Fluid system : Heat only.
Compactness Very Bulky Compressor replaced by 4 components
compact
Dry compression Essential Not necessary In VAS no compressor
Noise Very high Silent Due to absence of compressor
Initial cost More Less –
Running cost More Less (Nil) In VAS Waste heat is used
COP High Low No comparison, because input energy is of
different grade.

Designation of Refrigerant
Saturated Unsaturated
hydrocarbon hydrocarbon
Representation R-(m – 1) (n + 1) p R-(m – 1)
(n + 1) p
Chemical CmHnFpCℓq CmHnFpCℓq
formula
Relation n + p + q = 2m +2 n+p+q
= 2m
Where,
m = no. of carbon atoms
n = no. of hydrogen atoms
p = no. of fluorine atoms
q = no. of chlorine atoms
• If Ref. is inorganic Compound
R– (700 + Molecular weight)
Refrigerant Normal Freezing NH3 ⇒ R - 717
boiling point point H2O ⇒ R - 718
R717(NH3) –33.30C –77.70C Air ⇒ R - 729
R744(CO2) –78.50C –56.60C SO2 ⇒ R - 764
0
R764(SO2) –10 C –75.20C CO2 ⇒ R - 744
0
R–11(CCl3F) –24 C –1110C Important chemical formula.
R-12(CCl2F1) –29.8 –1550C
0 R-11 ⇒ CFC ℓ 3
R-22(CHClF2) –40.8 C –1600C
R-12 ⇒ CF2C ℓ 2
Use of some common refrigerant–
R-14 ⇒ CF4
Refrigerant Uses
Freon 11 Central AC, Centrifugal compressor R-22 ⇒CHF2C ℓ
(R11) (large capacity) Miscibility of refrigerants with oil
Freon 12 Domestic refrigerator (house hold Refrigerant Miscibility with oil
(R-12) refrigerator), reciprocating R-11, R-12 Good miscibility
compressor (small capacity)
NH3, CO2, R-134a No miscibility
Freon 22 Window type AC, Reciprocating
(R22) compressor (large capacity) R-22 Partial miscibility
NH3 Cold Storage, Ice plant, large Note–
industries In immiscible oil refrigerant mixture, oil separator is
Air Aircraft, gas liquidification used between compressor and condenser
Brine Milk chilling plant Leakage Detection of Refrigerants-
CO2 Direct contact freezing of foods Leakage Detected By
H 2O Water, Li-Br absorption system NH3 Burning sulphur candle
R-134a Domestic refrigerator
R 113 Air conditioning Halocarbon Halide torch test
Desirable properties of an ideal refrigerant- Hydrocarbon & Propane Soap bubble water test
Low boiling point SO2 refrigerant NH3 Swab test electronic
High critical temperature (at least above the leak detector equipment
condensing temperature) Material Attack Favourable
High latent heat of vaporisation
NH3 Cu Ferrous metals
Low freezing point
Low specific heat of the liquid & high specific heat Freon (or) Al Cu
of vapour Halocarbon Compounds
Low specific volume of vapour Remember–
Non corrosive to metal The thermostatic expansion valve is used in dry
Non flammable & non explosive type evaporator.
Non toxic In transport type air crafts, mostly used air
Low cost conditioning system is Boot strap air cooling
Completely immiscible with oil system.
Easy to liquefy at moderate pressure & temperature Boot strap air cooling system has two heat
Easy to locating leak by odour or suitable indicator exchanger.
Psychometry Representation of diff. constant parameter on
Psychometric properties physcometry chart:
1. Temperature related Const. DBT ⇒
Dry bulb Temperature measured by ordinary Vertical line, uniformly
temperature thermometer spaced, ↑ (+ x direction)
Wet bulb Temperature measured by wet bulb
temperature thermometer
Dew point When an unsaturated air is cooled
temperature isobarically, then the temperature at
which first droplet from air appears Const. sp. humidity ( ω)
to condense is known as DPT. Horizontal Line (toward
2. Moisture related sat. curve), uniformly
Humidity m P spaced, ↑ (+ y direction)
ratio or ω = v = 0.622 v
ma Pa
specific
humidity or Pv Const. DPT Line
ω = 0.622 Horizontal line (away
Moisture Pt − Pv
content (ω) from sat. curve, Non-
Unit ⇒ kg/kg of dry air
uniformly spaced)
Absolute Mass of water vapour present in 1 m3
humidity of dry air.
Unit ⇒ kg/m3 of dry air Const. Rel. humidity
Relative P m (RH) (φ)
humidity φ= V = v
PS m vs Parallel to saturation
Where, curve.
PV = Partial pressure of water vapour ↑ (North west direction)
at a given temperature
PS = saturation pressure corresponding WBT → Non uniformly
to that temperature spaced and inclined
Degree of P  P − Ps  h → uniformly spaced
saturation µ = V × t  (same degree of
Ps  Pt − PV 
inclination for both)
 P − Ps  v → highest degree of
µ = φ t 
 Pt − PV  inclination
Specific R T
volume v= a
Pa
Different Psychometric processes–
R .T 3
= a m / kg dry air
Pt − PV
Enthalpy of h = ha + ωhv
moist air h = 1.005 t + ω (2500 + 1.88 t)
kJ / kg of dry air
Where,
t = DBT (oC)
ha = Enthalpy of dry air
ωhv = Enthalpy of wet vapour
Wet bulb WBD = Difference between dry bulb
depression and wet bulb temperature • (O – A) → (+ x) Axis ⇒ Sensible heating
(WBD) = DBT – WBT • (O – B) → (– x) Axis ⇒ Sensible Cooling
Dew point DPD = Difference between dry bulb • (O – C) ⇒ (+ y) Axis ⇒ Humidification
depression and dew point temperature
(DPD) = DBT – DPT • (O – D) ⇒ (– y) Axis ⇒ Dehumidification
For Saturated WBD = DBT – WBT = Zero • (O – E) → 1st Quadr ⇒ Heating & humidification
air DBT = WBT = DPT • (O – F) = 2nd Quadr ⇒ Cooling & humidification
For DBT > WBT > DPT • (O – G) = 3rd Quadr ⇒ Cooling & dehumidification
Unsaturated • (O – H) = 4th Quad ⇒ Heating & dehumidification
air

Process DBT ω WBT RH PV DPT h v
O–A ↑ C ↑ ↓ C C ↑ ↑
O–B ↓ C ↓ ↑ C C ↓ ↓
O–C C ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
O–D C ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
O–E ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↓ C ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
O–F ↓ ↑ C ↑ ↑ ↑ C ↑↓ C
O–G ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑↓ C ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
O–H ↑ ↓ C ↓ ↓ ↓ C –
In case of desert cooler, adiabatic saturation process Calculation of Sensible and Latent Heat-
occurs.
QS = [0.0204 ( CMM ) ∆t] kW
Chemical humidification & dehumidification are
Q L = [50 ( CMM ) ∆ω] kW
along const. enthalpy line.
Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) -– Where,
QS → Relative sensible heat
Sensible heat SH
(SHF ) = = QL → Relative latent heat
Total heat LH + SH
CMM → cubic meter per minute of supply air
SHF = 1 (for Sensible heating or cooling)
Number of air flow changes per hr-
SHF = 0 (for Humidification or Dehumidification)
By pass factor (x) :- =
(
CMM m3 / hr )
Case (i):- For heating coil Volume of room m3 ( )
Comfort Air Conditioning:-
• It depends on three parameters–
(i) Air temperature (ii) Humidity (iii) Air velocity
Effective Temperature (ET):-
It is the temperature of saturated air at which the
Case (ii):- For cooling coil person would experience the same feeling of
comfort as experienced in the existing environment.
Optimum Design condition for comfort:-
1. For summer Air- 2. For winter Air
Conditioning conditioning
ET = 21.7º C ET = 22º C
Efficiency of coil, η = 1 – BPF DBT = 25 ± 1º C DBT = 21º C
For more than one coils, (BPF)combined = xn RH = 50% + 5% RH = 50%
Where, n = Total number of coils and Room air velocity Room air velocity
x = BPF of each coil = 0.4 m / s = 0.15 − 0.2 m / s
If DBT (t) = 40oC and DPT = 20oC Remember–
ts Outlet condition of Centrifugal compressors are generally used for
air (t2) refrigerants–
That require large displacement and low condensing
50oC (except H2O) SH pressure
o
50 C H2O SH + HU SHF line is inclined at an angle of 45o with
Steam SH + HU temperature axis on psychometric chart
o SHF = 0.29
30 C SC
Approach is the temperature difference between cold
19oC SC + DH outlet water & WBT.

HEAT and MASS TRANSFER
Heat transfer is based on 2nd law of thermodynamics Water 0.6
Modes of heat transfer Asbestos 0.2
Conduction Convection Radiation Freon-12 0.0083 (Lowest)
• Heat transfer • By motion • Heat transfer by (b) Dependency of thermal conductivity (k)
without of fluid electromagnetic Thermal conductivity–
displacement molecules waves K of a gas increases with increasing temperature and
of molecules decreasing molecular weight.
Independent of pressure except in extreme cases as
• Occurs due to • Occurs due • Occurs from all for e.g vacuum.
temperature to bodies at Thermal conductivity of liquid decreases with
difference difference temperature increase in temperature except pure water and
in density above 0 kelvin glycerin in which thermal conductivity first
increases and then decreases with increase in
• Requires • It also • Does not temperature.
medium requires require any K of metal decreases with increase in temperature.
medium medium K of non-metallic liquids generally decreases with
increase in temperature.
Ksolid > Kliquid > Kgas
CONDUCTION (4) Thermal resistance
1. (a) Conduction mechanism in solid
By lattice vibration Qɺ = −kA dt = − dt
Transport of free electrons. dx  dx 
 
(b) Conduction mechanism in liquid and Gas  kA 
Collisions
dx K ( Kelvin )
Diffusion ( R th ) = ,
2. Fourier's law of heat conduction kA W ( Watt )
Thermal resistance decreases with increase in
thermal conductivity.
(5) Thermal diffusivity
ɺ = −kA dt
Q Heat conducted k
dx α= = m2 / s
Heat capacity ρ cp
Where : k = Thermal conductivity
Where : W = Watt ρ = Density
Qɺ = Heat flow through body per unit time (W) cp = Heat capacity at constant pressure
A = Area perpendicular to direction of flow (6) General heat conduction equation for constant
(m2) thermal conductivity
dx = Thickness of body in the direction of flow ∂ t ∂ 2 t ∂ 2 t q g ρc p ∂t 1 ∂t
2
(m) + + + = = [ Fourier - biot Eq. ]

∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k k ∂τ α ∂τ
k = Thermal conductivity of body (W/m-K)
• Dimension of k = MLT–3θ–1 Special case Equation
3. (a) Thermal conductivity (k) of different material 1. Unsteady state without ∂ t ∂ 2 t ∂ 2 t 1 ∂t
2
heat generation. + + = ⋅
Material Numerical value (W/m-K) ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 α ∂τ
Diamond 2300 (Highest) [Diffusion equation]
Silver 405 2. Steady state with heat ∂ t ∂ 2 t ∂2 t qg
2
Copper 385 generation + + + =0

∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k
Aluminium 200
(Poisson's equation)
Steels 15-35
3. Steady state without ∂2 t ∂2 t ∂2 t
Mercury 8 + + =0
heat generation
Glass 1.2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Air 0.024 ∇ 2 t = 0 (Laplace Equation)

4. Steady 1-D, without ∂2 t (10) Heat conduction through a composite wall
heat generation =0
∂x 2
5. Unsteady, 1-D, without ∂ 2 t 1 ∂t
heat generation. =
∂x 2 α ∂τ
(7) Conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates
∂ 2 t 1  ∂t  1  ∂ 2 t  ∂ 2 t qɺ g 1  ∂t 
+  +  2 + 2 + =  
∂r 2 r  ∂r  r 2  ∂φ  ∂z k α  ∂τ 
If temperature varies only in r-direction

1 ∂  ∂t  qɺ g 1  ∂t 
r + =  
r ∂r  ∂r  k α  ∂τ 
(8) Conduction equation in spherical coordinates
1 ∂  2 ∂t 
r +
1 ∂ 
 sin ψ
∂t 
+
1  ∂ 2 t  qɺ g 1  ∂t 
 + =   ɺ = ( T1 − T4 )
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  r 2 sin ψ ∂ψ  ∂ψ  r 2 sin 2 ψ  ∂φ2  k α  ∂τ  Q ,W
 LA LB LC 
If temperature varies only is r-direction  + + 
k
 A ⋅ A k B ⋅ A k C ⋅A
∂ 2 t 2  ∂t  qɺ g 1  ∂t 
+  + =   Thermal contact resistance
∂r 2 r  ∂r  k α  ∂τ 
(9) Heat conduction through a plane wall
Temperature drop at interface
R contact =
 i 
Q
A
 
(11) The overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
• ɺ = UA∆T = ∆T
ɺ =− kA ( T2 − T1 ) T1 − T2 Q
R total
Q =
L ( R th ) cond.
1
The negative sign ensure that heat transfer in the • U=
A ( R total )
positive x-direction is a positive quantity.
L K
( R th ) cond = ,
• U=
1
kA W 1 L 1
Variable thermal conductivity with temperature + +
h hf k h cf
ɺ = k A ( T1 − T2 )
Q Unit = W/m2-K (Kelvin)
m
L
(12) Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder
Where : km = k0 (1+ β)
• Heat flow in radial direction.
km = Mean thermal conductivity.
k0 = Thermal conductivity at zero temp. • Both ends are insulated.
β = Slope of variation temperature line.
ɺ = ( T1 − T2 )
Q
Temperature variation in slab for different  ln ( r2 / r1 ) 
values of β  
 2π kL 
ln ( r2 / r1 )
Where : ( R th ) cond =
2π kL
• Temperature distribution is logarithmic
(13) Heat conduction through a composite cylinder
ɺ = 4π ( Thf − Tcf )
Q
 1 r −r r −r 1 
 2
+ 2 1+ 3 2 + 2 
 h hf r1 k A r1r2 k B r2 r3 h cf r3 
Better insulator should be placed next to the pipe for
lesser heat transfer.
(16) Critical thickness of insulation
k = Thermal conductivity of insulating material
Note :
(a) if r < rc, Insulation will increase heat transfer
(b) if r > rc, Insulation will decrease heat transfer
For cylinder
k
rc =
ho
For sphere
2k
rc =
ho
Thf > Tcf
The radius of electric wires may be smaller than
ɺ = 2πL ( Thf − Tcf )
Q critical radius.
 r   r3   (17) Plane wall with uniform heat generation
 ln  2  ln   
 1 +  r1 r
+  2+ 1 
 h hf ⋅ r1 kA kB h cf r3 
  q g L2
  t max = t w + at
2k
(14) Heat conduction through hollow sphere L
at x =
ɺ = T1 − T2 , W
Q T1 > T2 2
 r2 − r1  t w1 = t w 2 = t w
 
 4πk r1r2 
r2 − r1 Where : tw = Wall temperature
( R th ) cond = Temperature variation is parabolic
4πk r 1r2
(18) Heat transfer from extended surface (FINS)
(15) Heat conduction through a composite sphere
Types of fins Heat transfer, W (Watt)
1. Fin is infinitely long
(
qɺ fin = )
hpk A θ0
2. Fin is finite in length qɺ

fin =( hpk A ) θ 0 tan h ( mLc )
and also looses heat
by convection from
its tip
3. Fin's tip is insulated qɺ fin = ( )
hpk A θ0 tan h ( mL )
Where, θ0 = T0 – T∞
k = Thermal conductivity
A = Cross section area of fin
p = Perimeter of fin
L = Length of fin
Lc = Corrected length
hp
m= , m −1
kA
m = Slope of heat transfer line
t
L c = L + , for rectangular fin of thickness t
2
D
Lc = L + , for circular fin of diameter D
4
qɺ
Efficiency of fin ηfin = actual
qɺ max
Types of fins Efficiency of fins
1. Fin efficiency for adiabatic tanh ( mL ) Fin effectiveness is inversely proportional to Biot
tip. ηfin = number.
mL
ρVC
2. Fin efficiency for long fin or 1 (19) Time constant ( τ *) =
ηlong = hA
infinite fin. mL Large value correspond to slow system response and
i small value correspond to fast response.
q with fin Heisler Charts are extensively used to determine the
Fin effectiveness (∈) ∈fin = i temperature distribution and heat flow rate when
q without fin both conduction and convection resistance are
Types of fin Effectiveness of fins (∈) almost of equal importance i-e Bi ≈ 1
2. CONVECTION
1. For adiabatic tip tanh ( mL ) It is mode of heat transfer by motion of fluid
condition. ∈fin =
hA molecules. It occurs due to difference in density.
kp (1) Newton's Law of cooling
Describe convective heat transfer between a surface
2. For long fin (infinite) kp and an adjacent fluid.
∈fin = ɺ = hA ( t − t ) , W (watt)
hA Q s f
Note : Where : ts = Surface temperature

Use of fin is justified if ∈ ≥ 2 tf = Fluid temperature
A = Area exposed to heat transfer, m2
Thin & closely spaced fines are
P h = Coefficient of convective heat transfer
∈fin ∝ to be designed
A (W/m2 0C, or W/m2-K)
(2) Value of 'h' depends on
Light, non corrosive, good 1. Fluid properties like viscosity, density etc.
∈fin ∝ K
thermal conductivity materials 2. Nature of fluid flow.
are used. 3. Geometry of the surface.
(3) Range of 'h' for different state
Conduction resistance hL c
Biot number = = States Range of 'h' (W/m2-K)
Convective resistance k
Free convection in gas 3–25
Volume of body
Where, L C = Forced convection in gas 25–400
Surface area of contact Free convection in liquid 50–350
R Forced convection in liquid 350–3000
For sphere, LC = (R = radius)
3 Condensation heat transfer 3000–25000
Comparison of effectiveness with Biot number Boiling heat transfer 5000–50000
(4) Dimensionless number
Biot number Effectiveness (∈)
Number Equation Significance
If Bi = 1 ∈=1
1. Reynolds F ρVL Behaviours of
Number
i
= fluid flow.
Fv µ
If Bi > 1 ∈<1 2. Froude Fi V Where free
Number = surface is
If Bi < 1 ∈>1 Fg gL present &
gravity force
Use of fin is most effective when heat transfer
is
coefficient is low. predominant
When biot number is less than 1. e.g. water fall.
3. Eulers Fi V In cavitation Local convection heat transfer coefficient (hx) for flow
Number = studies. over flat plates –
Fp P
For laminor flow h .x
ρ Nu x = x
R ex < 5 × 105 k
4. Mach Fi V Where fluid
= = 0.332R1/ 2 1/ 3
ex p r
Number compressibili
Fe C
ty is (wall temperature constant)
important. Nu x = 0.453R 0.5 1/ 3
ex pr
5. Weber Fi V In capillary
= (Uniform heat flux)
Number studies.
Fσ σ For turbulent h x .x
Nu x =
ρL flow k
6. Nusselt q convection hδ Enhancement R ex > 5 × 102 = 0.0296R 0.8 1/ 3
ex pr
Number = of heat
q conduction k (wall temperature constant)
transfer due
δ = Characteristic to convection Nu x = 0.0308R e0.8
x
p1/r 3
Length over (uniform heat flux)
conduction For fully developed laminar flow through
7. Prandtl Moleculars diffusivity Describe pipes/ducts– (Re < 2000)
Number of momentum thermal hD For constant heat flux condition
Pr = Nu = = 4.36
Moleculars diffusivity boundary k
of heat layer. hD For constant wall temperature
Nu = = 3.66 condition
k
8. Fourier αt
Fr = For fully developed turbulent flow through
Number L2 pipes/duct– (Re > 4000)
L → Characteristics Dittus – Boelter equation
Dimension hD
Nu = = 0.023R 0.8
e pr
n
9. Graetz π D k
G z = R ed Pr
Number 4 L Where,
3 n = 0.4 for heating
ν µCp  δ  n = 0.3 for cooling
Pr = = = 
α k  δt  RADIATION
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the
Where : ν = Kinematic viscosity
form of electromagnetic waves.
δ = Velocity boundary layer thickness. Range of thermal radiation– 10–7 µm to 104 µm
δt = Thermal boundary layer thickness. Thermal radiation can be reflected; refracted;
Pr < 0.01, for liquid metals. scattered and get absorbed when they pass through
Pr > 10,000, for heavy oils. media.
Grashoff number Properties of surface Emission
Rate of emission depends on–
Buoyancy forces gβ ( Ts − T∞ ) LC
3
(1) The temperature of the surface
GrL = =
Viscous force ν2 (2) The nature of the surface and
(3) The wavelength or frequency of radiation
GrL provides criteria in determining whether the fluid Total Emissive
flow is laminar or turbulent in natural convection. E b = σAT 4 Unit watt (W)
power (E)/
Important relation Stefan Where :
Nu = f (Re, Pr) Forced convection Boltzmann law Eb = Emissive power of a black
Nu = f (Gr, Pr)Free convection body
σ = Stefan– Boltzmann constant
Rayleigh number (Ra) = Gr × Pr
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2k4
Nu h
Stanton number ( δ t ) = = T = Absolute temperature.
R e × Pr ρVCp Monochromatic ∞
Emissive Power E = ∫ E λ ⋅ dλ W/m 2
Peclet number ( Pe ) = R e × Pr
(Eλ) 0

Emissivity (∈) E λ max × t = 2897.8µm.K ≃ 2900µmK
∈=
Eb t = Absolute temperature Kelvin (K)
Lambert's E θ = E n cos θ
Emissive power of any body Cosine Law
= En = Total emissive power in the
Emissive power of black body direction of its normal.
Emissive power E =∈ σAT 4 Watt Note : True for a radiation surface
of a real whose radiation intensity is
surface constant.
Note : qɺ
∈ = 1 for black body Shape factor F1− 2 = 1− 2
qɺ 1
∈ = 0 for white body
F1–2 = Fraction of energy leaving surface '1' and
0 < ∈ < 1 for gray body
reaching surface '2'
Diffuse surface A surface whose radiation
properties are independent of qɺ 1 = Rate of total energy radiated by A1
direction qɺ 1− 2 = Fraction of rate of energy leaving surface '1'
Gray surface A surface whose radiation and reaching surface '2'
properties are independent of Reciprocity Theorem
wavelength A1 F1− 2 = A 2 F2 −1
Irradiation (G) Total incident radiation on a
Note– Shape factor of Inclined plane of equal width.
surface from all directions per unit
α
time and per unit area of surface. F1− 2 = 1 − sin  
Radiosity (J) It refers to all of the radiant 2
energy leaving a surface per unit
time, per unit area of surface.
Note : In general, 0 ≤ Fm − n ≤ 1
J = E + ρG ρ = Reflectivity
Heat exchanged between Non-black bodies
Infinite parallel Net radiation heat exchanged
For black body Absorptivity (α) = 1, ρ = 0, τ = 0
planes σ ( T14 − T2 4 )
For opaque τ = 0, α + ρ = 1, ( q1− 2 ) = 1 1
W / m2
body τ = Transmittivity + −1
∈1 ∈2
For white body ρ = 1, α = 0, τ = 0
If surface are black i.e
Kirchhoff's The emissivity of a body is equal to ∈1 = 1, ∈2 = 1
Law its absorptivity when the body
remains in thermal equilibrium with qɺ 1− 2 ( Net ) = σ ( T14 − T2 4 ) W / m 2
its surroundings. Equivalent 1
i.e ∈ = α Emissivity ∈=
1 1
Planck's Law + −1
2πc 2 hλ −5 ∈1 ∈2
( E λ )b =
 ch  Infinite long A1σ ( T14 − T2 4 )
exp   −1 q1− 2 ( Net ) =
 λkt  concentric
1 A1  1 
Watt
Where : cylinder +  − 1
∈1 A 2  ∈2 
(Eλ)b = Monochromatic emissive
Radiation shield For N shields between 1 and 2.
power of a black body.
c = Velocity of light in vacuum concept q1− 2 ( Shield )
≃ 3 × 108 m / s A1σ ( T14 − T2 4 )
h = Planck's constant =
1 1  N  1 1 
= 6.625 × 10–34 J.s  + − 1 + ∑  + − 1

λ = Wavelength, µm  ∈1 ∈2  j=1  ∈j,1 ∈j, 2 
k = Boltzmann constant
= 1.3805 × 10–23 J/k q 1 q
t = Absolute temperature, K   With shields   Without shields
A N +1  A 
Wien's Gives relationship between the
If the shields have the same
Displacement temperature of a black body and the
emissivities as the bodies then.
Law wavelength at which the maximum
value of monochromatic emissive If one shield is used 50%
power occurs. reduction.

Heat Exchanger Case-2 For condensation & boiling
Energy equation If one of the (C = 0)
Heat given up by the hot fluid = Heat picked up by fluid is ( LMTD )parallel = ( LMTD )counter
the cold fluid. undergoing flow flow
Q= m (
ɺ h cph Th − Th
i e
) ɺ c c pc Tc − Tc
= m e
(i
) phase change
∈parallel =∈counter = 1 − e − NTU
flow flow
Parallel heat exchanger Counter heat Case-3 For gas turbine (C = 1)

exchanger If both the
1 − e − NTU
capacity rates ∈parallel =
are equal flow 2
ɺ h cph = m
m ɺ c c pc NTU
∈counter =
flow 1 + NTU
Balance heat exchanger (C = 1)
( LMTD )counter = ∆Ti = ∆Te
flow
LMTD ∆Ti − ∆Te
formula  ∆T 
ℓn  i 
 ∆Te 
Under an ( LMTD )counter > ( LMTD )parallel
identical flow flow
situation of
both heat
exchanger Boiling Regims
LMTD for ( LMTD )counter × F The boiling curve reveals range of conditions associated
cross flow heat flow with structured pool boiling.
exchanger F is correction factor < 1
Effectiveness q actual
(∈) of heat ∈=
q max.possible
exchanger
Where,
ɺ h cph Th − Th
qactual = m i e
( )
=m e
(
ɺ c c pc Th − Th
i
)
q max.
possible
(
= mc
ɺ p )min. ( Th i
− Tci ) Condensation–
No. of transfer UA Film wise condensation Drop wise
NTU =
( mc
ɺ p)
unit (NTU) condensation
(Indicate size min.
of heat
exchanger)
Heat capacity
ratio (C) C=
Cmin.
=
ɺ p
mc ( )min.
Cmax. ɺ p
mc ( )max
Case-1 (0 < C < 1)
(ɺ p
mc )max. ∈parallel =
1− e ( )
− 1+ C NTU hdropwise condensation > hfilmwise condensation
• Drop wise condensation has been observed to occur
1+ C
either on highly polished surfaces or on surface
1− e ( )
− 1− C NTU contaminated with impurities.
∈counter = •
1 − Ce ( )
− 1− C NTU Coating like silicon, teflon etc. are used to promote
droplet.

Mechanical Engineering Capsule

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanical Engineering Capsule

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Youth Competition Times

UPPSC AE UKPSC AE BPSC AE CGPSC AE MPPSC AE RPSC AE UPSSSC JE

Mechanics ...................................................................................................... 3-8

Strength of Material ................................................................................... 9-17

Theory of Machine ................................................................................... 18-34

Machine Design ........................................................................................ 35-43

Material Science ....................................................................................... 44-50

Production Engineering ........................................................................... 51-71

Metrology .................................................................................................. 72-75

Industrial ................................................................................................... 76-86

Engineering Drawing ............................................................................... 87-99

CAD-CAM, NC & CNC Machine ...................................................... 100-106

Robotics & Mechatronics .................................................................... 107-111

Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine ............................................. 112-126

Hydraulic Machinery ........................................................................... 127-136

Thermodynamics ................................................................................. 137-146

Thermal Power Plant ........................................................................... 147-156

IC Engine .............................................................................................. 157-163

Refrigration & Air Conditioning ........................................................ 164-169

Heat and Mass Transfer ...................................................................... 170-176

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 2 YCT

Newton's Every particle of matter attracts every

G = 6.67 × 10–11 N-m2/kg2

Coplanar Line of action of all forces lying on

• If magnitude & direction of forces are known then

Resolution of force in two perpendicular Varignon's Algebric sum of moment of two

Class I lever • Fulcrum is between effort & load

Ex. ⇒ Scissors, see-saw, claw

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 4 YCT

µS > µ K Maximum height Motion of an object

• Angle of repose– It is angle of inclination of the

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 5 YCT

• For lowering the load P = W tan (α – φ) Shape Name I

Note– Rod mL2

i Centroid of regular plane figure

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 6 YCT

For linear motion For circular motion Displacement x A sin ωt A cos ωt

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 7 YCT

Plane truss Space truss

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 8 YCT

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 9 YCT

Stress strain curve for different material

Resilience-(Energy absorbed by body within Proof resilience –(Energy Modulus of Toughness–

Modulus of resilience –(Proof

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 10 YCT

Maximum High & Ductile

Shear Strain and 2  2 

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 11 YCT

Strain in diagonal due to eysin θ

Shear force and Bending moment diagram

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 12 YCT

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 13 YCT

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 14 YCT

• Case- 3 : Strain energy due to shear load-

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 15 YCT

(B) Leaf spring :

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 17 YCT

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 18 YCT

Link 3 is fixed Oldham coupling

1. Wedge & flat cam A flat cam has a

2. Roller follower (Best • Here because of pure

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 21 YCT

Uniform Uniform SHM Cycloidal

amax ω2 S 0  ω2S  π2  ω2S   ω2S 