PRELIMS
Immunology and Serology- patient’s sample are
LEC 1: INTRO TO MANAGEMENT & ORG SYSTEM
LABORATORY PERSONNEL
1. Generalist- trained in multiple areas of the
laboratory with staffing flexibility and wide area of
knowledge
2. Laboratory supervisor- individual responsible for
staffing and scheduling the laboratory
3. Specialist/Section head - person trained and
experienced in one specific laboratory discipline
4. Medical Technologist- person with expertise in
testing methods and has the ability to analyze and
solve problems, a bachelor degree holder in medical
technology program, some requires certification of
practice
5. Medical Technician- knowledge may be lacking to
review or troubleshoot test results
LABORATORY SECTIONS
1. Clinical Chemistry- patient’s specimen is tested for
various chemical components
EXAMPLE: glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride,
hormones, enzymes
2. Clinical Microscopy- performs routine and special
test on patient’s urine and fecal samples, examined
and performed through microscopic analysis
EXAMPLE: urinalysis, fecalysis, FOBT, pregnancy test
3. Hematology- performs routine and special tests on
the component of whole blood and to other body
fluids
EXAMPLE: CBC, differential count, platelet count
4. Blood Transfusion Service- prepares and performs
cross-matching for the compatibility of patient’s blood
to donor’s blood which includes whole blood, packed
red blood cells, platelet concentrates and plasma
transfusions
EXAMPLE: cross-matching, blood typing, antibodies
screening
5. Blood Bank Production- prepares different blood
components, derivatives and other blood products for
transfusion. Incharge of supply of various blood
products
6. Histopathology and Cytology- surgical specimens
are examined for pathologic diagnosis and
interpretation. Cytology sections requires smears of
body fluids to gather evidence for certain medical
conditions
7.
analyzed to identify any present antibody or antigen
that causes any medical condition that may be
considered as infectious
EXAMPLE: HIV, hepatitis, measles
Management- process of reaching organizational
goals by working with and through people and other
organization resources which attains organization
goals in an effective and efficient manner. The four
functions of planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling, and the attainment of organizational goals
in an effective and efficient manner.
• Planning- means identifying goals for future
organizational performance and deciding on
the tasks and use of resources needed to
attain them. In other words, managerial
planning defines where the organization
wants to be in the future and how to get
there.
• Organizing- involves assigning tasks, grouping
tasks into departments, delegating authority,
and allocating resources across the
organization.
• Leading- the use of influence to motivate
employees to achieve organizational goals.
Leading means creating a shared culture and
values, communicating goals to employees
throughout the organization, and infusing
employees with the desire to perform at a
high level.
• Controlling- means monitoring employees’
activities, determining whether the
organization is on target toward its goals, and
making corrections as necessary.
ESSENTIAL MANAGEMENT THEORIES
1. Systems Theory- Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-
1972)- more a perspective than a fully formed practice
Systems Theory encourages you to realize that your
business is a system and is governed by the same laws
and behaviors that affect every other biological
2. Principles of Administrative Management- Miner
and engineer Henri Fayol (1841-1925)- his principles
of administrative management as a top- down
approach to examining a business. He put himself in
his manager’s shoes and imagined what situations
they might encounter when dealing with their team.
• Principles of Management
❖ division of work- employees should
have complimentary skillset that will
allow them to specialize in certain
areas
❖ authority- to give employees order,
must be agreed upon by all
employees first
 ❖ discipline- idea of employees
listening to command, being
disciplined, and getting work done
❖ unity of command- employees
answer to their managers
❖ unity of direction- team should be
striving for common goals
❖ subordination of individual interests
to the general interest- general
interests must be superior to
individual interests
❖ remuneration- there are monetary
and non-monetary versions that are
both needed to motivate employees
❖ centralization- balance between
decision making power
❖ scalar chain- each company must
have hierarchical structure
❖ order- refers to cleanliness and
organization within a workplace
❖ equity- employees should be treated
well equally and respectfully
❖ stability of tenure personnel-
businesses should try to limit
turnovers and keep employees
around as they accumulate
knowledge
❖ initiative- employees should share
ideas and be rewarded for
innovative thinking
❖ esprit de corps- managers should
work to keep employees engaged
and interested
• Basic business activities- technical,
commercial, financial, security, accounting,
managerial
• Functions of Management- forecasting,
planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating, controlling
3. Bureaucratic Management- Max Weber (1864-
1920)- took a more sociological approach when
creating his bureaucratic management theory.
Weber’s ideas revolve around the importance of
structuring your business in a hierarchical manner
with clear rules and roles.
4. Scientific Management- Frederick Taylor (1856-
1915)- promotes standardization, specialization,
assignment based on
ability, and extensive training and supervision. Only
through those practices can a business achieve
efficiency and productivity. This management theory
attempts to find the optimal way to complete a given
task, often at the expense of the employees’ humanity
5. Theories X and Y- Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)-
Theory X posits that employees are apathetic or
dislike their work. Managers who adhere to Theory X
are often authoritarian and will micromanage
everything because they don’t trust their employees.
Theory Y posits that employees are self- motivated,
responsible, and want to take ownership of their
work. Managers who adhere to Theory Y include their
employees in the decision-making process and
encourage creativity at all levels.
6. Human Relations Theory- Elton Mayo (1880-1949)-
in which he states that employees are more motivated
by social factors like personal attention or being part
of a group than environmental factors, such as money
and working conditions.
7. Classical Management- predicated on the idea that
employees only have physical needs. Because
employees can satisfy these physical needs with
money, Classical Management Theory focuses solely
on the economics of organizing workers.
• key principles- profit maximization, labor
specialization, central leadership,
streamlined operations, emphasis on
productivity, single – person or select – few –
decision-making, priority to the bottom line
8. Contingency Management- Fred Fiedler (1950 and
1960)- Fiedler based his theories on the idea that
effective leadership was directly related to the traits
the leader displayed in any given situation. Fiedler’s
theory suggests that there is no one management
approach that suits every situation and every
organization.
• Variables influence organizational structure-
size of the organization, technology being
employed, style of leadership
9. Modern Management- embraces the idea that
people are complex. Their needs vary over time, and
they possess a range of talents and skills that the
business can develop through on-the-job training and
other programs.
10. Quantitative Management- a response to
managerial efficiency, together with experts from
scientific disciplines they address staffing, materials,
logistics, and systems issues.
11. Organizations as Learning System- a system that is
built on a succession of subsystems. In order for the
business to run smoothly and efficiently, each
subsystem must also work smoothly and efficiently
within itself, but also with the
LABORATORY MANAGER’S ROLES AND ATTRIBUTES
1. coordinate resources in an effective and efficient
manner to accomplish the organization’s goals.
2. providing a product or service that customers value.
3. to achieve high performance, which is the
attainment of organizational goals by using resources
in an efficient and effective manner.
MANAGEMENT SKILLS
1. conceptual skills- the cognitive ability to see the
organization as a whole system and the relationships
among its parts. It involves the manager’s thinking,
information processing, and planning abilities. It
involves knowing where one’s department fits into
the total organization and how the organization fits
into the industry, the community, and the broader
business and social environment.
2. human skills- the manager’s ability to work with and
through other people and to work effectively as a
group member. Is demonstrated in the way a manager
relates to other people, including the ability to
motivate, facilitate, coordinate, lead, communicate,
and resolve conflicts. Allows subordinates to express
themselves without fear of ridicule, encourages
participation, and shows appreciation for employees’
efforts.
3. technical skills- the understanding of and
proficiency in the performance of specific tasks.
Includes mastery of the methods, techniques, and
equipment involved in specific functions such as
engineering, manufacturing, or finance. includes
specialized knowledge, analytical ability, and the
competent use of tools and techniques to solve
problems in that specific discipline.
TYPES OF MANAGEMENT
1. top managers- are at the top of the hierarchy and
are responsible for the entire organization.
Responsible for setting organizational goals, defining
strategies for achieving them, monitoring and
interpreting the external environment, and making
decisions that affect the entire organization.
Responsible for communicating a shared vision for the
organization, shaping corporate culture, and nurturing
an entrepreneurial
spirit that can help the company innovate and keep
pace with rapid change.
2. middle managers- middle levels of the organization
and are responsible for business units and major
departments. They are responsible for implementing
the overall strategies and policies defined by top
managers. Generally, are concerned with the near
future rather than with long- range planning.
3. project managers- responsible for a temporary
work project that involves the participation of people
from various functions and levels of the organization,
and perhaps from outside the company
4. first line managers- directly responsible for the
production of goods and services. They are
responsible for groups of non-management
employees. Their primary concern is application of
rules and procedures to achieve efficient production,
provide technical assistance, and motivate
subordinates
5. functional managers- responsible for departments
that perform a single functional task and have
employees with similar training and skills.
6. general managers- responsible for several
departments that perform different functions.
Responsible for a self-contained division, and for all
the functional departments within it.
Management by objectives (MBO program)- a
management tool whereby managers and employees
work together to set and track objectives for a specific
time period. Objectives and plans cascade down the
organization until every individual has specific
objectives
Implementation of MBO program- establish long
range company goals in such areas as sales,
competitive positioning, human resource
development. Use these long-range plans to
determine company-wide goals for the current year.
Then the company goals can be broken down further
into goals for different departments, and eventually
into goals for individual employees. It requires each
employee to produce five to ten specific, measurable
goals. In addition to a statement of the goal itself,
each goal should be supported with a means of
measurement and a series of steps toward
completion. These goals should be proposed to the
employee's manager in writing, discussed, and
approved. Provide for a regular review of employee
progress toward meeting goals. This review can take
place either monthly or quarterly.
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTVES (ADVANTAGES)
1. Continually driving the organization to move
towards its strategic goals.
2. Everyone within the organization knows what they
have to achieve during the period.
3. It helps employees understand how their targets
contribute to organizational targets.
4. Employees who understand how what they do
contributes to the organization can be more
motivated.
5. The model secures the commitment of employees
to attaining the organizational goals.
6. As each employee understands how they uniquely
contribute to the organization, employees feel crucial
to proceedings, leading to increased loyalty.
7. Employees tend to have more commitment to goals
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTVES (DISADVANTAGES)
1. Developing targets can be time-consuming, leaving
both managers and employees with less time to carry
out their duties.
2. If not implemented with care, it can lead to poor
teamwork between employees. This happens as each
employee is only concerned with their targets, and
not good teamwork.
3. It can result in unnecessary office politics as
employees fight to outshine each other.
4. It underemphasizes context. For example, it does
not take the extent of senior management buy-in into
consideration. It does not take into account the ability
of lower-level teams to hit the objectives set.
5. Provide for a regular review of employee progress
toward meeting goals. This review can take place
either monthly or quarterly.
LEC 2: ORGANIZING & STAFFING
Organizing- a management function that provides the
relationship between people and the activities that
they will undertake as to fulfill their organizational
objectives.
Organization- an entity that results from people
joining together in pursuit of a common cause.
organizational system- self-contained collection of
interacting interdependent components, working
together toward a common purpose.
FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM
1. Input Mechanism- process through which needed
resources are acquired and replaced.
• People
• Test request
• Specimen
• Information supplies
• Financial resources
2. Transformation- internal process whereby
resources received through the input channels.
• Test performance
• Personnel
• Instrument
• Expertise
3. Output Mechanism- the process of delivering the
goods and services produced to the external
environment.
• Test Result
• Consultation
• Salaries
• Information
• Wastes
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATION
1. Holistic and synergistic with clearly defined
boundaries
2. Have purposeful activity or primary task
3. Develop into hierarchy of system
4. Organizations operate as open systems
5. Seeks a state of stability and equilibrium
6. Self – regulating
TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
1. flat- decentralized structure, span of control and
authority is widened, there is participation in the
lower level of management
2. pyramid- centralized structure, the managers have
full control of members
3. bureaucratic/line/hierarchical- oldest and simplest
form, rule centered structure, associated with chain of
command, downward communication
4. shared governance- combination of flat and
pyramid type
CHARACTERISTIC OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
1. Division of labor
2. Chain of command
3. Span of control
4. Level of management position
5. Organizational relationship
• Formal- direct relationship, uninterrupted.
• Informal- dotted line, coordinated
relationship.
FORMS OF ORGANIZATION
1. Formal Bureaucracy (formal groups)- lines of
authority assigned by the owners of the organization.
The members of this group know whom they work for,
whom they supervise, how their department relates
to other groups and even who supervise their boss
2. Informal Groups- alliance that form outside the
boundaries of the formal bureaucracy from the
interaction and allegiance of people with common
interest.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF AN ORGANIZATION
1. Design Element and Factors
• Task to be performed- includes type of
equipment, level of automation, nature of
the product or service to be produced.
• People Involved- number of people needed
and availability to perform the work are very
important in an organization. Motivation also
pays a very important factor.
• Workplace- includes the total space available,
amount of storage room, the visibility and
accessibility of workers, supervisors and
proximity of test areas.
2. Design Strategies and Models
• Bureaucratic Models- all decisions be
checked with headquarters before action can
be taken.
❖ Modern job description- each job
has a formally established set of
official duties.
❖ Hierarchy- based chain of command.
❖ Rules and regulation are consistently
applied.
❖ Hiring and firing- are based on
qualification and performance.
• Situational Models- specific job needs.
❖ Routine strategy- repetitive tasks
and need minimally trained work
force.
❖ Engineering strategy- non repetitive
work performed by a professionally
prepared staff
❖ Craft strategy- is applied to produce
best, unique products whereby
workers are extremely skilled.
❖ Discover strategy- for work that
requires investigation such as the
structural development.
Organizational Chart- the formal written presentation
of the structural plan of the organization.
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND
AUTHORITY
1. Departmentalization
2. Decentralization
3. Unity of command
4. Scalar principle
5. Span of control
6. Exceptions principle
CONCEPTS OF AUTHORITY
1. The empowerment by formal job classification of an
individual to make commitments and act on behalf of
the organization.
2. To decide how resources, rewards and penalties are
used.
3. To ensure that designated goals and responsibilities
are achieved.
4. Power of ACT.
5. Authority and responsibility should go hand in
hand.
6. To ensure harmonious flow of organizational energy
toward completion of its task and mission.
TYPES AND ROLES OF AUTHORITY
1. Line Authority- authority taking the straight-line
route (direct).
2. Staff Authority- type of authority the personnel
office exerts (indirect).
3. Functional Authority- exercise control within the
boundaries of professional’s specialty.
LEC 3: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Information Management (IM)- a system that
incorporates all the processes needed for effectively
managing data both incoming and outgoing patient
information, is being applied in Clinical laboratory, in
order to maximize the availability of patient
information to persons in charge (Ex: Physicians,
Specialists, Consultants, etc)
Laboratory Director- need to ensure that the
laboratory has an effective information management
system in place in order to achieve accessibility,
accuracy, timeliness, security, confidentiality, and
privacy of patient information
Information- major product of the laboratory, must
be managed carefully with a good system for the
laboratory’s documents and records (WHO)
IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF IM
1. includes the confidentiality, correctness, accuracy,
& timeliness related to patient’s information &
obtaining samples
2. Unique identifiers for patients and samples
3. Standardized test request forms (requisitions)
4. Logs and worksheets
5. Checking processes to assure accuracy of data
recording and transmission
6. Protection against loss of data
7. Protection of patient confidentiality and privacy
8. Effective reporting systems
9. Effective and timely communication
Communication- the process by which information is
exchanged and understood by two or more people,
usually with the intent to motivate or influence
behavior, the exchange of thoughts, messages, or
information, the art and technique of using words
effectively to impart information or ideas, a system
for sending & receiving messages that can be
employed through technology, such as: o mail,
telephone, television, radio, or computer o these
means are also referred to as Carrier of
Communication, or Channels, the exchange or
transmission of ideas, attitudes, or beliefs between
individuals or groups
• Speech- the actual use of words/phrases, the
study of meaning in language, or is referred
to as Semantics
❖ Semantics- how we give meaning to
words that we would like to express
to the receiver
• Signals- can be in 2 forms: Sending of
Frequencies (e.g. Radio frequencies, Internet
signals) & Sending of Signages (e.g. Printed
texts, Images, Color Codes), there is no need
to use words in order to explain instructions
• Writing
• Behavior- can be characterized by the body
language (Ex: tone of the voice, hand
gestures, facial expressions, simple silence)
Effective communication- the most important skill
needed in clinical laboratory in order for the
laboratory services can be delivered effectively
MODEL OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1. Encode (Sender encodes message)- to select
symbols with which to compose a message
2. Message- the tangible formulation of an idea to be
sent to a receiver
3. Channel- the carrier of a communication
4. Decode (Receiver decodes the message)- to
translate the symbols used in a message for the
purpose of interpreting its meaning
5. Feedback- a response by the receiver to the
sender’s communication
Management communication strategy- a plan used
by the laboratory for the dissemination of information
(Ex: easy explanation of medical jargons (used in
Healthcare work setting) to patients
ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION PLAN
1. Define objectives and purpose of the plan
2. Use a concise message
3. Gear communication to education level of recipient
4. Identify the structure and format of written
communication- design a format and use it as a
template for all written communications
5. List recipients of laboratory communication-
identify all stakeholders who should receive
communication o to ensure that the message
enclosed will be addressed to the right person
6. Identify the method/s of communication
• Written- Memo, Newsletter, Email, Specimen
collection manual, etc.
• Verbal- Phone call, Intercom, etc.
• Visual- Banner, Poster, Video, etc.
Turnaround time (TAT)- is the time from the
beginning (collecting & processing sample) until the
time you have finished the examination & that the
result has been out
LABORATORY TEST REPORT
1. Laboratory procedure
2. Identification of the patient
3. Name of the physician
4. Date and time the specimen was collected
5. Date and time the specimen was received
6. Date, time and by whom the specimen was
examined
7. Condition of any unsatisfactory specimen
8. Results and date of reporting
Test reports- should be designed as a format so that
all information that is needed by the laboratory,
laboratory users, & for any accreditation requirement,
are all included
TEST REPORT CONTENTS AS REQUIRED BY ISO 15189:
1. Identification of test
2. Identification of laboratory
3. Unique identification and location of patient, where
possible, and destination of the report
4. Name and address of requester
5. Date and time of collection, and time of receipt in
laboratory
6. Date and time of release of report
7. Primary sample type
8. Results reported in SI units or units traceable to SI
units, where applicable
9. Biological reference intervals, where applicable
10. Interpretation of results, where appropriate
11. Applicable comments relating to quality or
adequacy of sample, methodology limitations or other
issues that affect interpretation
12. Identification and signature of the person
authorizing release of the report
13. If relevant, notation of original and corrected
results
Laboratory Head- responsible for ALL laboratory
report
GENERAL QUALITIES OF A LABORATORY REPORT
1. Compactness
2. Consistency of terminology, format and usage of
understandability
3. Clear and easy to understand
4. Statement of date and time of collection
5. Gross description and source of specimen when
pertinent
6. Sharp differentiation of reference or normal and
abnormal values
7. Sequential order of multiple results on single
specimen
8. Identification of patient, patient location and
physician
9. Assurance of accuracy of transcription of request
Documents & records- one of the 12 essential
elements of the quality system, the Management
system addresses both use and maintenance of
documents and records, Major Goal (of keeping
documents and records): to find information
whenever it is needed
Documents- provide written information about
policies, processes and procedures (WHO), are
content files that have information in a structured or
unstructured format, are sets of information at hand
that can be revised or changed, since they are created
out of planning
CHARACTERISTICS OF DOCUMENTS
1. communicate information to all persons who need
it
2. need to be updated or maintained
3. must be changed when a policy, process or
procedure changes
4. establish formats for recording and reporting
information by the use of standardized forms— once
the forms are used to record information, they
become record
IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS IN CLINICAL LABORATORY
1. Quality Manual- a document that describes the
quality management system of an organization (ISO
15189), embodies the entire organization, a top-level
document, describes the organization’s Quality
Management System (QMS)
• Purpose- to clearly communicate
information, to serve as a framework for
meeting quality system requirements, to
convey managerial commitment to the
quality system
• Key Points to remember- there is only one
official version, the quality manual is never
finished-it is always being improved, it should
be read, understood and accepted by
 everyone, it should be written in clear, easily
understood language, the quality manual
should be dated and signed by the
management
• Manual Contents- quality policy of the
laboratory, reference to all processes and
procedures, table of contents (description of
the lab, staff education & training)
Policy Manual- state the laboratory and institutional
policy for the guidance of those working in the
laboratory, should reflect the philosophy and overall
goals of the organization, should be dated and
approved by the laboratory director
• Dress codes
• Food & smoking rules
• Telephone use
• Laboratory organizations & reporting
relationship
• Writing, review & authorization of
procedures
• Vacation & holiday request
• Supply requisition
• Absences & late arrival notification
• Reporting & releasing of test results
• Specific statements about enforcement of
safety rules
2. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)- contain
written step-by-step instructions or methods that
laboratory staff should meticulously follow & should
not be deviated when performing a procedure, can be
signed by Section heads & Laboratory managers
• Factors to be ensured- consistency, accuracy,
quality
• A Good SOP should be- detailed, clear, &
concise, easily understood by new personnel
or students in training, reviewed & approved
by the laboratory, updated on a regular basis
• SOP Contents- title, purpose, instructions,
Name of Person preparing the SOP,
signatures of approving officials and dates of
approval
3. Reference Materials- good source of reference
materials, are needed in order to find scientific &
clinical information about diseases, laboratory
methods, & procedures (Ex: Books, Journals,
Magazines)
Records- the collected information produced by the
laboratory in the process of performing and reporting
a laboratory test (WHO), laboratory information,
either written by hand or computer printed, collected
information produced by any department/agency, are
historical files that provides proof or evidence
• TAKE NOTE: All Records are documents, BUT
not all Documents are records (Ex: Birth
certificate, Driver’s License, Laboratory
Accreditation certificates)
CHARACTERISTICS OF RECORDS
1. need to be easily retrieved or accessed
2. contain information that if they are finalized, they
are then permanent, and does not require updating
Storing documents & records- storage must be given
careful consideration, as the main goal of
documentation is finding the information when it is
needed
TYPES OF STORING
1. Paper system for records- permanence,
accessibility, security, traceability
2. Using an electronic system- permanence, security,
traceability
FACTORS ON RECORD RETENTION
1. length of time the laboratory will need to have
access to its records
2. government requirements or standards that dictate
record retention times
3. whether the laboratory is engaged in ongoing
research requiring many years of data
4. time interval between the laboratory’s assessments
or audits
Laboratory information system (LIS)- computer
network of hardware & software for receiving,
processing, and storing laboratory data & information,
can interface/connect with laboratory instruments to
transfer data into patient records, evaluate quality
control data, & store preventive maintenance records,
can interface/connect with an health information
system (HIS), pathology information system, & other
information systems
COMPONENTS OF LIS
1. LIS Software User Interface- determines how the
user (Laboratory personnel) will interact with the
system
2. Request Entry- requests for laboratory tests to be
performed can be entered through clients located in
the nursing units or remote primary care practitioner's ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF
office, it can be usually done by nurses & other staff COMPUTERIZED SYSTEMS

3. Data (results) Entry- Electronic Data Interface (EDI), ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Manual Data Entry, Release patient results
Error reduction Training
4. Data Storage- Redundant Arrays of Independent Quality control Time to adapt to a new
Disks (RAID), a way of storing the same data in management system
different places, using multiple hard disks Provision of option for Cost
(duplication), to protect the data in case of drive data searching
failure or loss of data o System backup Access to patient Physical restrictions
information
5. System Security- use of firewall, data encryption, Generate reports Need for backup system
passwords, & biometrics Ability to tracks reports
6. Barcoding- is employed for easy specimen Improved capacity for
collection & handling, a unique sign for each specimen maintaining patient
confidentiality
7. Interface- deals with the information that has been Financial management
connected from one department to other Integration with site
departments, in order to facilitate a common outside the lab
boundary/area where the information has been
merged together

8. Manual Procedures- serves as user’s manual that

covers the instructions

9. System Maintenance

10. Disaster Recovery

INFORMATION PROVIDED BY LIS

1. Patient Demographics

2. Work lists

3. Data Retrieval (inquiry)

• Generate patient results- flag critical values,

print reports if requested
• Perform delta checks- results of an analyte
assay are compared to the most recent
previously performed results on the same
patient
❖ Delta check- data checking from the
previous result, to the present
• Patient results can be retrieved electronically
at a client or via the internet with a web
browser
4. Quality Control- an LIS can analyze quality control
specimens and prepare charts and reports ( Ex:
Westgard rules, Levey-Jennings charts)
5. Quality Assurance- can provide reports on
turnaround time, documentation of critical result
reporting, and corrected reports
6. Management Reports- cost per billable test,
calculations, test volume, turnaround time, employee
hours, workload data
7. Encoding Systems
LEC 4: CHANGE MANAGEMENT
Change Management − “Change is inevitable &
pervasive”, the method & manner in which an
organization describes & implement the change
within its internal & external processes, since it is part
of a system for all approaches, it is a collective term
that refers to the preparation, supporting & helping of
not only the individuals, but also the whole
organization in making the organizational change
occur − is a series of tools, techniques, & processes
aimed at successfully effecting change
• Six Sigma- it is a disciplined data-driven
approach & methodology for eliminating
defects in any process, it is a measure of
quality that strives for near perfection B.
• Customer Relationship Management (CRM) −
is used to manage interactions with
customers, goal is to build customer
relationship in order to increase the sales,
improve customer service, & to increase
profitability
 • Total Quality Management (TQM) − is the
continuous process of detecting &
eliminating the errors in manufacturing o it is
to improve the customer experience & to
ensure that all the employees are well-
trained, it ensures the internal guidelines &
process standards, in order to reduce errors
• Enterprise applications, such as Systems
Application Product (SAP)
TYPICAL TOOLS & TECHNIQUES USED BY CHANGE
MANAGEMENT PRACTITIONER
1. Questioning skills- to gather information about the
‘as is’ & ‘to be’ status of the business process
• ‘As is’- the good practices that will be
sustained in the organization
• ‘To be’- the things to be added or changed in
the future
2. Process Mapping- for BOTH ‘as is’ & ‘to be’
processes, the implementation itself
3. Gap analysis- bridging the gap between the ‘as is’
processes & the ‘to be’ processes
4. Business Case management
5. Project Management
6. Problem solving
7. Negotiation skills
TYPES OF CHANGE
1. Operational changes- can influence the way
dynamic business tasks are led, including the
computerization of a particular business segment −
pertains in addressing what are the weak points that
hinders a successful operation, and the strengths that
empower the good practices being done that will
strengthen the overall operation, are
changes/modifications that is within the scope of
services, all about the services on how we operate the
entire organization (Ex: (In Laboratories) Use of
manual calibration of equipment → Use of automated
calibration of equipment = to be more effective &
efficient in saving time, money, & other resources)
• Step 1- identify the weak points
• Step 2- address them
• Step 3- empower & strengthen the good
practices, this needs to be amplified in order
to improve the overall operation
2. Strategic changes- occur when the business
direction, in relation to its vision, mission, &
philosophy, is altered − may be either Long-term or
Short-term, is the movement of a company away from
its present state, to increase its competitive
advantage/s in the near future, o in order to prepare
the means on how to maintain the co-alignment with
the shifting in competitive technological capacities &
social environment
• Shifting- abrupt or sudden change, in terms
of internal or external factors (Ex: Updating
the mission & vision of the business
whenever the company grows or reaches its
goals, Introduction of new technology &
trainings for new sets of skills)
3. Cultural changes- can influence the internal
organizational culture, it promotes the reconstruction
of cultural concept within the organization or society,
also promotes the repositioning of culture as to what
is acceptable or not, as well as the redirection of
standard norms
• Purpose- to increase the individual capacities
to adapt in organizational changes, rather
than being skeptical about the change and
reject its process
• Skeptical- moments when the people aren’t
easily convinced (having doubts) by the
proposed change (Ex: Removal of
stereotyping of LGBTQIA+ Community in
workplace)
4. Political changes- (in human resources) occur
primarily due to political reasons of varying types,
refers to the organizational stand-point of the
workplace wherein, the manager does not use force
or bullying in order to engage the participation of
stakeholders (e.g. employees, other members of
organization), & accept the change, can be employed
when there is an appointment of new manager or
leader (Ex: Changes in Organizational hierarchy
(Organizational chart))
Organizational capabilities- are determined by the
overall professional & personal attributes of the
members of the organization
• Talent- when an employee develops existing
skills/talents, removal of employees with
poor performance, keeping of employees
with best talents, to build strong alliances &
partnerships
• Speed- to see the rapidness of an
organization in recognizing opportunities &
act quickly on them
• Shared mind-set & coherent brand identity-
to ensure the consistent image of the
organization, to ensure the positive
experiences of the customers & employees
• Accountability- to obtain & maintain high
performance from employees, to meet their
goals & to avoid failure
• Collaboration- is the sharing of ideas &
talents across boundaries, in order to pull
 services & technologies that makes the
operation more efficient
• Learning- the time when we generate new
ideas through
❖ Benchmarking- looking & mimicking
what the other companies are doing
& their best practices
❖ Experimentation
❖ Competence acquisition- hiring &
developing of people with new skills
& ideas
❖ Continuous improvement
• Leadership- effective leaders generally have a
clear leadership brand:
❖ What they are supposed to know
(scope of their job)
❖ What they are supposed to be (their
role/s)
❖ What they have to do
• Customer connectivity- the ability to connect
with targeted customers is always a strength
of the company, building trust & rapport with
the client or patient
❖ Customer service surveys (feedback
forms)
❖ Follow-ups
• Strategic unity
❖ Intellectual level- making sure that
employees from top to bottom,
knows what the strategy is & why it
is important
❖ Behavioral level- is the time spent of
employee to support the strategy
❖ Procedural level- continuously invest
in procedures that are essential to
company strategies
CHANGE MANAGEMENT MODELS
1. Kurt Lewin’s 3-step “Unfreeze-Change-Refreeze”
Model- proposed by the universally recognized
founder of Social psychology, Kurt Lewin, in the
1950’s, highly relevant today & often used as the basis
for many change management strategies, this model
provides a high level approach to improvement, this
model is caters to the changes of groups or teams
• Unfreezing- to unfreeze the existing (old)
behaviors, in order to create an awareness
on how the status quo is hindering the
organization in some way, the old behaviors,
processes, attitude, & organizational
structure are all carefully examined in order
to show the employees how necessary a
change is for the organization.
Communication is always important in this
step, so that employees can become
informed about the change, the logic behind
the change, and benefits of the change to
each employee
• Changing (Transitioning / Moving) − in
Lewin’s correlation of behavior to ice, this
step is now known as the ‘melted ice’
(water), the step that is marked with
implementation of change, this is when the
change becomes real & is the best time for
the creation of new behavior & culture that
will support the change
• Refreezing- to ensure that people do not
revert back to their old ways of thinking,
prior to the implementation of change, is the
step wherein you have already molded the
water into the desired shape, is employed in
order for the organization to stick to the
changes & for them to be sustained, it
symbolizes the act of reinforcing, stabilizing,
& solidifying the new state of behavior &
culture after the change o this is now the
accepted new norm or status quo
2. Proski’s ADKAR Model- this believes that the
change occurs as a process & not as an event, due to
this, this change model facilitates an individual change
(specific to one person only) RATHER THAN working as
a group, this model has also adopted the 3 distinct
processes of change theory of Kurt Lewin & William
Bridges’
• Current state- addresses the elements:
Awareness & Desire, to move out of the
current state, the individual needs awareness
for the need of the change, & the desire to
participate & support the change
• Transition state- addresses the elements:
Knowledge & Ability, to successfully move
through the transition state, it requires
knowledge on how to change, & the ability to
implement the required skills & behavior
• Future state- addresses the elements: Ability
& Reinforcement, this state is influenced by
the ability in order to address reinforcement
(either positive or negative), to sustain the
change
Awareness of the business reasons for change
Desire to engage & participate in the change
Knowledge about how to change
Ability to implement change
Reinforcement to ensure change sticks
3. Kotter’s 8-step Model of Change- introduced by
Harvard Business School’s John Kotter, focuses on
efficient & effective change management in a
competitive world, was developed in order to improve
an organization’s ability to change & increase its
chances of success, this model caters the changes of
the entire organization, this model will help the
organizations to succeed & implement the change,
this model follows a hierarchy, or the 8-step model of
change
• First 3 steps- are about creating the right
climate for change
❖ Create urgency
❖ Form a powerful coalition
❖ Create a vision for change
• Steps 4-6- they link the change to the
organization; engaging & enabling the
organization
❖ Communicate the vision
❖ Empower action
❖ Create quick wins
• Steps 7-8- are aimed at the implementation
& consolidation of the change
❖ Build on the change
❖ Make it stick
MIDTERMS
LEC 1: HUMAN RESOURCES, THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION, LEADERSHIP
Personnel management- personnel administration,
phase of management concerned with engagement
and effective utilization of manpower to obtain
optimum efficiency of human resources
• Recruitment
• Selection
• Placement of employees
• Employees’ development in the organization
• Maintenance of Manpower
• Utilization of the Human resources of an
organization
Personnel program- consisting of series of activities
intended to carry out personnel policies of laboratory
for purpose of realizing objectives of organization
• Employment- recruitment, interviewing,
conduction of testing to employees,
induction of newly-hired employees,
placement of employees to the different
departments (e.g. transfer due to promotion,
replacement of worker), merit o training,
counseling o separation of employees
• Safety- provision of the safety standard,
mechanical safeguards, accident
investigation, safety rules, safety records &
statistics
• Employee relations- collective bargaining,
wage & salary administration. grievance
system, medical & dental services, labor
management relation, morale studies
• Employee research and standards- job
analysis, job description, job evaluation, job
grading wage analysis, organization planning,
employee manuals
• Employee services- recreational plans,
insurance plans, profit-sharing plans,
miscellaneous services
Personnel policy- is the statement of intention that
commits the laboratory manager to a general course
of action in order to accomplish a specific purpose
• Recruitment, Selection, & Planning
• Employee induction & Training
• Employee rating & Promotion
• Transfer, Downgrading, & Lay-off
• Disciplining & Discharge
• Salary & Wage administration
• Changes in Work assignment & hours
• Services for employees
• Employees’ health & Safety
• Employees’ participation & Work problems
SOURCES OF RECRUITMENT
1. Internal sources ̶ the employees actively working
in the laboratory ̶ applies when vacancy exists,
employees within the organization are transferred
from one department to another, &/or promoted, the
use of these sources may encourage employee
development & improve their morale
2. External sources- person who apply in person, who
answer advertisement, & who are recommended by
schools, hospitals, laboratories, & other institutions,
include employees who have been procured from
outside the organization, or the people who have
literally applied for the job vacancy, the use of these
sources could challenge present employees to
improve their qualifications, in order to be qualified
for higher positions if they want to be promoted
Motivation ̶ a general term applying to drives,
desires, needs and wishes of an individual in order to
perform, generates ‘driving factors,’ in order to satisfy
the desires, needs, & wishes by performing actions,
willingness, & set of goals
Theories of Motivation - the foundation & guiding
principles that are geared towards how we can meet
& satisfy all the desires, needs, & wishes that we want
achieve, are not influenced by Management, but
rather through Motivation, out of our own drive &
initiative
• Maslow’s theory- Dr. Abraham M. Maslow
postulated 5 basic needs which are organized
into successive levels, unfulfilled needs drive
a person to work, the hierarchy of needs are
being addressed or achieved from the
bottom up to the top (chronological order),
in a pyramid shape which means, one cannot
move to another phase, for as long as there
are needs at the bottom that aren’t resolved
or addressed first, this theory is useful for
BOTH personal development & workplace
growth, this theory assumes that all people
experience these 5 needs in the same order,
according to him if you fail to meet the
deficiency needs, you experience harmful /
unpleasant results (Ex: Illness, Starvation,
Loneliness, Self-doubt) In contrast, Self-
actualization needs can make you happier &
feel complete, BUT you will not be harmed if
these needs will not be fulfilled he
categorized these needs into 2:
❖ Lower needs- physiological needs,
safety needs, love/social needs
❖ Higher needs- esteem needs, self-
actualization needs
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
1. Physiological needs- tangible needs, most basic
human survival needs, which are the ff: food, water,
sufficient rest, clothing, shelter, overall health,
reproduction
2. Safety needs - protection from Violence & Theft,
emotional stability & Well-being, health security,
financial security
3. Love needs (Social needs)- it relates to human
interaction, the last stage for the ‘Lower needs,’
together with the Physiological & Safety needs
• Family bond
• Friendship bond
• Physical & Emotional intimacy- sexual
relationship- intimate emotional bonds
• Membership in Social groups- belonging to a
Team of co-workers
4. Esteem needs – the higher needs or ‘Ego-driven’
needs begin at this stage
• Self-respect- pertains to the belief that you
are valuable & deserving of dignity, is more
on “pag-papahalaga sa iyong sarili”
• Self-esteem - the confidence in your
potential, personal growth, &
accomplishment, pertains to the trust that
you put in yourself
5. Self-actualization needs- higher level intangible
needs, describes the fulfillment of your full potential
as a person
• Education
• Skill development- the refining of talents in
areas such as in Music, Athletics, Design,
Cooking, Gardening, etc.
• Caring for others
Broader goals- learning a new language,
travelling to new places, winning awards
2. Herzberg’ motivation-hygiene theory- was
developed by Frederick Herzberg, who was a
Psychologist & the pioneer in Motivation theory,
developed this theory by interviewing a group of
employees to find out what makes the employees
satisfied or dissatisfied on their job
• Extrinsic factors (Hygiene factors) ̶ the
factors that CANNOT MOTIVATE employees,
but can minimize the dissatisfaction of an
employee IF handled properly, these are
issues related to employees’ environment
Ex: Company policies, Supervision, Salary,
Interpersonal relations, Working conditions
• Intrinsic factors (Motivational factors)- the
factors that create satisfaction, by fulfilling
the individuals’ needs & personal growth
Ex: Achievement, Recognition, Work itself,
Responsibility, Advancement
EXTRINSIC FACTORS INTRINSIC FACTORS
(HYGIENE FACTORS) (MOTIVATIONAL
FACTORS)
Pay / salary increases Achievement
completing important
task successfully
Technical supervision or Recognition (being
having competent single out or praised)
superior
 Human relations Responsibility for one’s
own or other’s work
Organization policy & Advancement (changing
administration status through
promotion)
Working condition or
physical surrounding
Job security

4. David Mcclelland’s achievement model- this ties the

strength of behavioral motives to the individual’s
assessment of the likelihood of achieving a specific
goal, states that every person has 1 of 3 main or
dominant driving motivators, these motivators are not
inherent, which means that humans are not born with
these driving motivators; we develop & learn them
3. Douglas Mcgregor’s theory (theories x & y / over time through Culture, Education, & Life
contrasting theories)- was proposed by Douglas experiences
McGregor, influenced by Abraham Maslow’s
• Achievement needs- job & career success, if
Hierarchy of needs, based on the 2 Different Views of
this is the dominant needs: you are the type
managers on their employees wherein a manager’s
of person who is a risk-taker, likes to receive
attitude has an impact on their employees’ motivation
feedback on your achievements, & likes to
• Theory X (Authoritarian Theory)- explains the work alone
importance of heightened supervision, • Power needs- control & influence, if this is
external rewards & penalties, managers the dominant needs: you are the type of
become Micromanagers person who likes to win arguments, enjoys
• Theory Y (Participative Theory)- highlights the competitions & status recognition
motivating role of job satisfaction & • Affiliation needs- warm, friendly
encouragement of workers to approach task relationships, if this is the dominant needs:
without direct supervision, employees you are the type of person that wants to
become more independent & more confident belong to the group or be liked by other
people, favors collaboration over
THEORY X THEORY Y competition, & doesn’t like high-risks or
People hate to work; People don’t have to be uncertainties
that they need to be forced or threatened to
drive work 5. Alderfer’s ERG theory- proposed by Clayton
Threatened or punished Work is considered as Alderfer, was also influenced by Abraham Maslow’s
to achieve natural as rest or play Hierarchy of needs, by categorizing the hierarchy of
organizational goals needs into 3 (ERG)
They lack ambition & They will commit
• Existence needs- physiological needs,
only want security themselves to the
concerned with providing the basic material
external organization
existence requirements of human,
People want counterpart in Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs:
responsibility Physiological need, Safety need
• Relatedness needs- interpersonal
relationship, acceptance & belonging,
concerned with the desire for maintaining
important interpersonal relationships,
counterpart in Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs:
Love need (Social need), Extrinsic component
of Self-esteem (from Esteem need)
❖ Extrinsic component- pertains to
how you bring / adjust yourself to
 your environment & how you relate
yourself to other people
• Growth needs- creativity, challenge &
personal growth on the job, concerned with
the desire for personal growth, counterpart
in Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs: Self-
actualization need, Intrinsic component of
Self esteem (from Esteem need
❖ Intrinsic component- pertains to
your relationship with yourself &
how you develop yourself (in terms
of skills, knowledge) to become
proficient
Progression & Regression Theory- when the needs in
the low category are satisfied, an individual will invest
MORE effort in the higher category of needs
6. Vroom’s expectancy theory- was proposed &
postulated by Victor Vroom, his theory states that
individuals’ source of motivation is summarized
through 3 things:
• they value reward that is associated with an
action
• They trust that they will receive the reward if
they do a good job
• They believe that they have the ability to
achieve their objectives by working hard on
them
this theory holds that: “Effort will bring rewards”, all
about ‘rewards’, according to him, individuals’
motivation is affected by different variables that
influence their selection in decision making
• Expectancy- associated to the belief that
efforts bring performance & performance
leads to rewards
• Outcome- associated to the actual realization
or when the rewards are materialized o the
rewards are already to be received by the
employee
• Instrumentality- associated to how much
they believe that they have the ability to
generate good results, that will lead to a
reward that is, by working hard, covers the
know-how or knowledge & skills in order to
execute the specific task
• Valance- associated to the value placed on
the available reward o how big or small the
reward is
• Choices- associated to the individual’s
perspective wherein it leads to conscious
choices
❖ Conscious choices- influenced by the
existing / present alternatives, if any
of these factors are lacking, this can
eventually lead to lack of motivation
7. Adams’ equity theory- was pioneered by John
Stacey Adams, this theory holds that they perceived in
their work situation2 especially compared with people
in similar positions focuses on determining whether
the distribution of resources is fair, by considering 2
perspectives:
• Employees’ inputs- their performance, hard
work, skills, enthusiasm
• Employees’ outputs- rewards, compensation,
benefits, intangibles (e.g. recommendations,
praises)
8. Skinner’s reinforcement theory- was introduced
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, built on the assumption that
behavior is influenced by consequences, based on the
observation that we tend to behave to the way we are
treated
• Law of Effect- was proposed by Edward Lee
(E.L.) Thorndike, according to this principle a
POSITIVE BEHAVIOR that is followed by
PLEASANT CONSEQUENCES is likely to be
repeated o and that, a NEGATIVE BEHAVIOR
that is followed by UNPLEASANT
CONSEQUENCES is less likely to be repeated
• Stimulus- events that leads / initiates
responses, pertains to our behavior
• Response- the behavior that was resulted
from the stimulus, pertains to the
consequences, that may be either be
pleasant or unpleasant
• Reinforcement- the consequence of action or
response from the environment that will
increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated
• Behavior motivation- the application of
practice of reinforcement, this is to see
whether responses should be accepted or
not, in terms of punishment or penalties that
can decrease the likelihood of unpleasant
behaviors from repeating
Leadership- the way the people in the organization
makes all the decisions, regarding the financing,
budgeting, sales, marketing, & human resources, an
organization with strong leadership has a clear vision
for the future o also has employees that are highly
motivated by the given tools (trainings,
encouragement) & they understand & exceed
management expectations, in order to ensure this,
Managers must make it a point that they have a
constant communication with their employees
Organizational Culture- comprised of behaviors,
values, & shared beliefs that are established by the
leaders, & must be reinforced to the subordinates o
the behavior of employees is evident through
observation, factors such as work areas, tools that
employees need to perform their job functions &
tasks and responsibilities that supervisors assign to
employees affect employee behavior, defines the
proper way to behave in the organization
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
LEADERSHIP SUCCESS
INTERNAL FACTORS EXTERNAL FACTORS
Leadership Customers/clients
employees Economy
Organizational culture- comprised of behaviors,
values, and beliefs
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP MODELS
1. Exploitative & Authoritative- views the workers as
tools & means of production without no further
obligation to them
2. Benevolent & Authoritative- a know-how feeling for
the best for the employees & need only inform &
direct their actions without seeking any feedback,
setting what is best or not for the employees, without
any care for their feelings nor feedback
3. Consultative- though the opinions & advice of the
staff are useful, the decisions remain exclusively to
the manager
4. Participative- the input & responsibility for decision-
making process are laced directly on the staff with
only general guidance & oversight from the
management, involves the “Team Approach”, this is
most applicable & ideal one among all four models
principles of leadership- when it comes to the use of
principles, there is a mixture of these four principles
depending on which is applicable & more effective in
a certain workplace & a certain situation
• Employee-Oriented- managers have strong
ties with their employees, rather than in
production, managers give importance to
their relationship with their employees, & the
production is just secondary
• Product-Oriented- has an emphasis to the
high productivity at the expense of all other
factors o no matter what happens, the
outcome or output is the top priority
• Structure Style- the manager has more
options on how to get the work done by
specifying & delegating specific tasks to the
employees in order to achieve their common
goal, where the Managers directs the staff
towards getting the work done:
❖ paying attention to the assigning of
tasks
❖ specifying what is expected of the
subordinates
❖ uniformity of the procedures to be
followed
❖ personally deciding what & how the
work will be done
• Consideration Style- most ideal and beneficial
for employees, shown by the manager’s
effort to explain their action:
❖ to treat workers equally
❖ listen to their subordinates’
concerns
❖ look out for their welfare
❖ give out advance notice of changes
❖ being friendly & approachable in
general
LEC 2: MANAGEMENT OF WORK GROUP
Management of Work Group (Team Management)-
the ability of an organization to administer or
coordinate a group of individuals to perform a task ̶
involves teamwork, communication, objective setting,
& performance appraisals; aiming for the same goal
Work Group- two or more people with common
interest, objectives, & continuing interaction
Work Team- a group of people with complementary
skills who are committed to a common mission,
performance goals, & approach for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable
Group interaction- is a key determinant of group
performance o Group interaction, should cover the
type & quality of communication, behavior, sense of Routine processes & tests done inside the
commitment, & structure of the organizational culture Laboratory)
that may make or break the overall performance,
flexibility in group composition is limited, managers 2. Can finish the task within the allotted time, or
must do the best they can with available people earlier ̶ so that there will be an extra time to check
the quality of the output versus the performance itself
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A GROUP AND A TEAM versus the laid time, in order for the manager &
employees to know the area that they need to adjust,
GROUP TEAM to improve their output & performance, it must be a
GOAL Not share a Shares two-way street process, or is referred to as the ‘Check
common goal common goal & Balance,’ in order to assess & re-assess everything
ROLE Not assigned Tasks are
to individual assigned in FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP WORKING
each member
1. Group Composition- group composed of members
INDEPENDENCE Independent Interdependent
who share the same motivation can be problematic
KNOWLEDGE May not know Usually aware
OF OTHER all members of their • Task-oriented- everyone wants to do their
MEMBERS members own thing
• Self-oriented- everyone wants to be the boss
• Interaction-oriented- too much chatting, but
GROUP FORMATION
there’s not enough work ̶ are very important,
1. Formal Groups - official or assigned groups as they can detect & diffuse tensions that
gathered to perform various tasks may arise

2. Informal Groups - unofficial or emergent groups 2. Group Cohesiveness

that evolve in the work setting to gratify a variety of
3. Group Communications
member needs not met by formal groups
4. Group Organization
CHARACTERISTICS OF A WELL-FUNCTIONING,
EFFECTIVE GROUP GROUP DEVELOPMENT
1. Relaxed, Comfortable, Informal atmosphere 1. Forming- when the group begins to discuss the
task/s & orientate towards a work plan, time when
2. Tasks are well understood & accepted
the task has been introduced to everyone
3. Members listen well & participate
2. Storming- conflicts & tensions emerge when there
4. People express feelings & ideas are different working styles, differing expectations &
different work ethics, stage when challenges,
BENEFITS OF GROUP WORK arguments, & conflicts arise due to the difference in
executions of task/s, but will all be eventually resolved
1. Build essential skills
3. Norming- beginning to develop mutual trust &
• Communication- a good quality
effective ways of working, begins when the conflicts
communication will always pave the way for
from storming are resolved
a better understanding & a harmonious
relationship within the group 4. Performing- when effective work patterns are
• Conflict management ̶ employing rational producing the required results, occurs when the
thinking, wherein thoughts are way above people are working harmoniously & cooperatively, it
the emotions in order to not influence the will lead to building a more effective working pattern
weighing in & out of situations
• Problem solving ̶ addressing of operational Group behavior- encouraging others towards the
problems as tasks are being done in these group goals, enable effective internal
types of problems, the processes must be communications, maintaining group discipline, ethics
recalled in order to know what or where
• Harmonizing- reducing tension & building
things went wrong, in order to employ
team spirit
temporary solutions, that can be eventually
• Problem-solving- listening to others &
replaced with permanent solutions
communicating well
• Project management ̶ the anticipation of
expected outcome / output is necessary, as
well as the amount of time that will
determine the completion of the project (Ex:
PEOPLE-RELATED PROBLEMS VS PROCESS-RELATED can also generate higher quality work &
PROBLEMS lower absenteeism or turn-over rates =
resulting in positive work outcomes
PEOPLE-RELATED PROCESS-RELATED ❖ Job Characteristics Theory (JCT) ̶
PROBLEMS PROBLEMS developed by Hackman & Oldham,
Members who No agreed ground rules Core Job Dimensions, Critical
dominate Psychological States, Work
Members who don’t No agendas for Outcomes
contribute meetings ❖ Specification of Contents
Talking & not listening No specific roles / tasks ❖ Methods & Relationship of jobs
Ideas are No set deadlines
dismissed/ridiculed CORE JOB DIMENSIONS
No one is initiating No chairperson for
1. Skill variety- refers to the range of skills (human,
discussion meetings
technical, & comprehensive skills) & activities
Members are isolated/ Meetings start &/or run necessary to complete the job, embodies the number
ignored late of different skills that a specific job requires
Lack of leadership No meeting records are
kep 2. Task identity- measures the degree to which the job
Uncommitted, No review of progress requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece
unreliable members of work, signifies the extent to which a job requires
the completion of a project, from beginning until the
end (ex: Shifting (day & night duty)
LEC 3: STAFFING AND SCHEDULING
3. Task significance- looks at the impact & influence of
Staffing- selecting the right people for the job, related a job, pertains to the impact the job has on others (ex:
to recruitment, selection, development, training, & An Emergency room (ER) doctor feels that his job is
compensation of Human resources in an organization more meaningful than the hospitals’ janitors)
Human Resources- refers to the employees or 4. Autonomy- describes the amount/level of individual
workers within the organization choice, discretion, freedom, & independence involved
in a job (what they have to do for their job), brings
Scheduling- the process of arranging, controlling, & more satisfaction to the employees because of the
optimizing work & workloads in a production / thought that they have the right to do or choose how
manufacturing process ̶ does not only pertain to the they’ll execute the job, in the manner that is not
schedule itself (timing of work), but it is also used to complicated to them = generating more productivity
allocate schedule for the calibration, maintenance, & resourcefulness (ex: Involving the employees in
and troubleshooting of equipment & machineries decision-making, instead of just instructing them what
inside the laboratory, also involves the planning of to do in their jobs)
skeletal forces, during holidays and/or long weekends,
monitors the purchasing / ordering of laboratory 5. Job Feedback- measures the amount of information
materials (e.g. reagents, test kits) being used to an employee receives about their performance, & the
operate the laboratory extent to which he or she can see the impact of the
work, can be either a Positive or Negative feedback
Staffing process- setting of a long-term goals and
objective for the number & types of personnel needed • Positive- boosts morale & motivation
to meet the labor requirements of the laboratory, • Negative- indicates that there is always room
finding the “right fit” based on education, specific for improvement
technical skills, & experience is critical, under the
Organizing management function, once the staff has Critical Psychological States- the result or outcome if
been recruited, arranging them by giving them the Core job dimensions have been met
schedule/s, places a vital role in the operability of the
• Experienced Meaningfulness of work- the
specific jobs/tasks that are being assigned to them
extent to which people believe that their job
makes them accountable
is meaningful, & that their work is valued &
• Job Design- it also referred to as ‘Work appreciated
design’ or ‘Task design’, a core function of • Experienced Responsibility for the Outcomes
human resource management, it outlines the of work- the extent to which people feel
job responsibilities very clearly, as well as in accountable for the results of their work, &
attracting the right candidates to the right for the outcomes they have produced,
job, refers to the way that a set of task is degree of accountability that a person has for
being organized, a well-developed job design their work outcomes
 • Knowledge of the Actual results of the work
activity- the extent to which people know
how well they are doing
TECHNIQUES OF JOB DESIGN
1. Job Rotation- a job design process by which
employee roles are rotated or shifted in order to
promote flexibility & tenure in the working
environment, it reduces boredom in the existing work
profile of employees
2. Job Enlargement- the process of increasing the
scope of a particular job, by adding more task & duties
to it, as the process of allowing individual workers to:
• Determine their own pace (within limits)
• Serve as their own inspectors by giving them
responsibility for quality control
• Repair their own mistakes
• Be responsible for their own machine set-up
& repair
• Attain choice of method
3. Job Enrichment- increases the employees’
autonomy over the planning & execution of their own
work, leading to self-assigned responsibility, consists
of designing a job in such a way that the employees
get greater autonomy in planning, decision making, &
controlling
4. Job Simplification- involves the breaking down of
job roles into small components, usually consists of
relatively simple tasks = increasing the quickness of
job completion
• Job Description- it should be competency
based & reflect any skills needed, the
requirements for each staff position may vary
depending on the size of the laboratory and
complexity of testing services offered, must
list the main features of a specific job,
includes the persons’ main duties,
responsibilities, & their working condition
❖ Basic core task- tasks that
employees must complete in order
for the business/organization to
operate successfully
❖ Advanced technical skill- the abilities
& knowledge needed in order to
perform specific tasks (ex 1:
Knowledge on programming,
languages, design programs,
mechanical equipment/tools), (ex 2:
Performing HIV testing, Blood
testing analysis, Nuclear Medicine,
Molecular laboratory = requires
RMT license in order to get
proficiency training & certificate to
do these)
❖ Supervisory responsibility/skills-
considered as “soft skills,” because it
involves the direct communication
between the manager & employees ̶
are qualities or traits that allows the
managers to perform the
designation of job roles (ex:
Leadership skills, Communication
skills, Conflict resolution skills, &
Motivation skills)
JOB DESCRIPTION SHOULD:
1. Lay out all activities & tasks that should be
performed
2. Specify responsibilities for conducting testing &
implementing the quality
3. System (policies & activities)
4. Reflect the employee’s background & training
5. Be kept current & be available for all people
working in the laboratory
KEY SECTIONS COMMON TO MOST JOB
DESCRIPTIONS
1. Job title
2. Minimum qualifications and desired worker skills
3. Job duties
4. Responsibilities and accountability
5. Job relationships
JOB DESCRIPTION CRITERIA
Regulatory State or federal laws mandate
qualifications & may require
licensure of some laboratory
personnel (ex: Licensure
examination, often denotes
specific scope of practice)
 Certification Voluntary action that declares focus on a certain area of topic & build up an
that the individual has passed an understanding in a specific niche
accredited examination indicating
that they possess at least entry- • specific niche- suitable position, either in life
level knowledge of the job (ex: or in employment
Certification (for an individual), MODELS PROS CONS
Accreditation (recognition for Generalist Staffing flexibility Increased
institutions) resource
Education Educational requirements related allocation to
to academic degrees and/or maintain &
specific course work (ex: College documentation
diploma) staff
Training On-the-job training (OJT) that is competency
directly related to the position Entry-level Entry-level, as
(ex: Clinical internship training opportunities staff gain
program, Proficiency trainings_ experience in
Experience The number of years of tenure
experience that is preferred Breadth of Lack of depth
and/or required knowledge
Physical Any specific physical Specialist Depth of knowledge Narrow base of
demands requirements related to the job experience
(ex: Color recognition, standing, Career ladder Limited
walking, physical strength, opportunity flexibility in
manual dexterity, speed, mobility, scheduling
& precision)
Skills, abilities, Special individual skills &
knowledge additional talents that would be
base helpful for future tasks (ex:
Speaking a second language,
writing skills, communication or
presentation skills)
Work Where the major amount of work
environment is to be performed (ex: Clinical
laboratory, nursing home,
satellite laboratory, home draws)

• Job Specification- specific job duties must be SEARCH PROCESS

identified to ensure that the incumbent
understands what he or she is to do, “That’s
not in my job description”, describes the type
of employee required & outlines the
particular working conditions that are
encountered in the job, “Other duties as
assigned” is often discouraged by human
resources professionals (ex: assigning non-
technical duties to a Clinical laboratory
scientist as punishment for poor job
performance (e.g. washing glassware,
mopping floors, or trash removal) may be
considered working out of title & possibly
discriminatory)
Generalist- people who are knowledgeable about
many topics & has various interests, skills, & hobbies ̶
they understand all the moving parts of an industry,
people in leadership roles may be generalists at first
Specialist- people who are experts in certain fields of
study, occupation, or practice ̶ are individuals that
1. Search Committee- can be simple or complex
depending on the level of the position, ideal to
consider an appropriate gender, ethnic/race, & age
mix of the search committee, this needs to be done in
order to stay objective & eliminate any perceived bias
in selecting the candidate
• For Entry-level positions- the interview
process need only involve the supervisor &
manager
• For the Supervisory level or above- it is
advisable to assemble a formal search
committee consisting of an appropriate mix
of individuals with experience
2. Advertising- the advertisement should contain only
the minimum qualifications, all about the job
availability or job vacancy, avoid using “preferred”
qualifications as requirements, as that may eliminate
some good candidates, also consider where to
advertise, salary Range should not be stated as it
might deter good candidates from applying or
encourage less qualified candidates, salary ranges may
be discussed as part of the interview process, but they
are often best addressed as part of the final
negotiations
• Must be concise, stating the job title, the
minimum educational requirements, any
applicable licensure or certification
requirements, brief summary of the main job
responsibilities
3. Interview- a conversation between the job
applicant & representative of an employer, one of the
most popularly used devices for employee selection,
the questions asked are usually based on the
submitted resumé of an applicant, key points to
consider when reviewing résumés are spelling,
grammar and syntax (the arrangement of words &
phrases in order to create a well-formed,
grammatically-correct sentence in a language), not
taking the time to carefully review & submit a well-
written résumé suggests a lazy, irresponsible, poorly
educated, or otherwise less than acceptable
candidate, avoid asking psychological or stress
questions which are not related to the job duties of
the applicant
• Group 1- consists of those individuals who
have outstanding qualifications & are strong
candidates for the job
• Group 2- includes those who meet just the
minimum qualifications, if none of the group
1 candidates are viable, those in group 2
move up the list
• Group 3- includes those individuals who do
not meet one or more of the qualifications
CONSIDERATIONS IN CREATING A RESUMÉ
1. Informal writing, inappropriate use of
abbreviations, colloquialisms
2. Handwritten or photocopied résumé
3. Appearance
4. Colored paper, embossed emblems or watermarks,
perfumed paper
5. Minimum qualifications
6. Too much information
7. Discriminatory practice
8. Inconsistencies in work history, education, or other
time- relevant events.
CATEGORIES OF INTERVIEW QUESTION FORMATS
1. Leading Questions- questions that are easy &
results to easy answers, not very informative & should
not be used frequently (ex: “Are you a hard worker?”,
“Can you work by shift?”, “Do you know how to draw
a blood sample?)
2. Direct Questions- questions that require short &
simple answers (e.g. Yes, No, One-word answer), can
be helpful in gaining specific information (ex: “Have
you had hands-on training in performing
phlebotomies?, “Do you have any experience in
working in a Molecular laboratory?”, “Have you ever
experienced using Spectrophotometer?)
3. Open-ended Questions- questions that are more
difficult for the interviewer to construct, require the
interviewee to provide a complex answers, through
these questions, you’ll be able to yield a significant
amount of information allowing the interviewer to
observe the manner, style, & articulation in answering
(ex: “How does your training apply to the job, “What
do you think is your ‘additional edge’, among other
candidates?”)
4. Hypothetical Questions- are problem-solving
questions that are useful & mostly used before ending
the interview, gives an opportunity to the interviewer
to determine how the candidates think on their own
(sense of independence & maturity) in the event of
any situation in the work place (ex: “If you had to
reduce your budget by 20%, how would you go about
it?”, “In an emergency room, there are 2 patients, the
first one is an emergency patient while the other one
is a pediatric patient, which one will you attend to first
and why?”)
INTERVIEW TIPS
1. Prepare before the interview; do not use the
interview time to look at the candidate’s résumé for
the first time
2. Allow an adequate amount of time for the interview
3. Avoid interruptions. Schedule the interview in a
quiet area
4. Welcome each candidate warmly & make the
candidate feel at ease
5. Explain the interview process & what follow-up the
candidate might expect
6. Avoid asking stress questions
7. Avoid controversial issues. Do not ask illegal
questions
8. Do not make promises to the candidate that you
cannot keep
9. If you do not know the answer to a question, don’t
guess
10. Don’t do all the talking
Hiring process- candidates interviewed should be
evaluated based on their qualifications such as
education, abilities, experience, responses to the
interview questions, candidate’s references are
checked
Background check- to ensure the safety of patients &
staff as well as to provide protection for the employer,
some employers have embraced Internet social media
sites such as Facebook, Myspace, or YouTube as
additional resources in scrutinizing candidates, is
intended to verify the experiences & credentials, this
may include a review of an employee’s employment
background, credit history, & criminal records
Backdoor Reference checking- type of checking done
by the employer on people who are not listed on the
reference
Reference check- intended to provide insights on the
abilities of employees as performers ̶ typically focuses
on the professional & personal references that an
employee provides to the employer
Job Staffing- the laboratory manager must assess the
needs of the laboratory to determine the number of
employees needed as well as the mix of expertise,
training, or credentials of technical staff
ELEMENTS WITHIN THE LABORATORY THAT SHOULD
BE ADDRESSED
1. Test Mix
2. House of Operation
3. Supervision
4. Service Level
5. Service Supported
6. Productivity Levels
4. Staff Scheduling- matching the people in the lab
with the current workload requirements, scheduling
process
• needs of the laboratory
• hours of operation
• the staff required versus the needs of the
employees
Life-Work Balance- can improve or increase staff
retention while continuing to provide the services
required of the laboratory
Metrics for Success- are measurements/tools in order
to assess success if the goals have been met by
performing the standard operating procedures,
scheduling processes are reviewed to provide options
& opportunities that meet the key success factors for
the laboratory
• Reporting efficiency
• Turnaround time
• Productivity measurements
• Impact on staff
• Scheduling processes
STAFFING & SCHEDULING ARE VERY DEPENDENT ON
THE FF
1. Locale- workplace itself
2. Availability of technical staff- those employees who
are on duty for a particular shift
3. Practice patterns by physicians
4. Service lines offered by the healthcare facility
5. Patient expectations
TERMINOLOGIES
1. Test mix- moderately and highly complex tests,
requires a different group of technical staff than a
laboratory performing mostly routine testing on
automated analyzers.
2. House of operation- a full-service laboratory
supporting an ER and/or intensive care units requires
a different pattern than an outpatient laboratory.
3. Supervision- the need for supervising technologists
in addition to technicians on off shifts, weekends, and
holidays.
4. Service levels- turnaround time, phlebotomy,
results reporting, and sequential testing are all
variables to consider when staffing the laboratory.
5. Services supported- laboratories that support level
1 trauma centers, transplant programs, cardiovascular
surgical programs, and clinics, to name a few, could
have different minimum staffing requirements than a
general acute-care suburban facility.
6. Productivity levels- 100% productivity of available
work time is 87% of total worked time.
LEC 4: PERSONNEL SELECTION PROCESS
Personnel selection process- also referred to as
‘Recruitment Process’ or ‘Employee Selection
Process’, a methodical placement of individuals into
jobs
Methodical Placement- done according to a
systematic procedure, an established form of
procedure
Personnel- the most important laboratory resource,
critical to the implementation of the quality
management system are people who possess
integrity, recognize the importance of their work &
participate in continuous improvement
PERSONNEL SELECTION PROCESS
1. Needs Assessment- the roof of any employment
decision is a need, needs to be conducted in order to
determine if there is a need for manpower
• Initial screening- 1st step in selection process
• Minimum criteria
❖ Education
❖ Experience
❖ Organizational skills- personal &
professional attributes
2. Recruitment- process by which a job vacancy is
identified, and potential employees are notified.
• Job description- outline of role of job holder
• Person specification- outline skills and
qualities required of post holder
• Applicant may demonstrate their suitability
through application forms, letter of CV,
resumes
3. Selection Process- the steps involved in choosing
people who have the right qualifications to fill a
current or future job opening, the process of actual
selection & shortlisting of the right candidates
• Posting or advertising job vacancies
• Reception of applications/applicants either in
person or in writing
• Preliminary interview- increase accuracy of
prediction on applicant (personal, history,
educational, volunteer activities, work
experience, aspirations, objectives, strengths
and weaknesses)
• Applicant reports to the personnel manager
or their assistant who briefs them on
opportunities in the organization
❖ Performance tests- measure ability
of applicants in doing their applied
tasks
❖ Intelligence tests / Cognitive
Aptitude tests- includes general
reasoning and mental abilities like
memory and inductive reasoning
❖ Interest tests- inventory of likes and
dislikes of applicant in relation to
their work
❖ Test for emotional reaction and
adjustments/personality test- value
systems such as emotional reactions
and maturation and characteristics
• Applicant is interviewed by the personnel
manager to check the veracity of information
❖ Planned and patterned
interviews/formal interview- highly
structured
❖ Non-directive interviews-
spontaneous, unstructured, not pre-
arranged
❖ Depth interviews- open ended
questions
❖ Group interviews
• Investigation of applicant’s background
• Introduction of the qualified applicant to his
immediate boss
• Medical examination- CBC, platelet count,
urinalysis, fecalysis, psychological test, drug
test
• Induction & placement of the new employee
4. Employment- the actual stage of recruitment where
the job placement eventually takes place
• Recruitment- process by which a job vacancy
is identified & potential employees are
notified
❖ Job description- outlines the role of
the job holder, is the totality/scope
of the job itself
❖ Person specification- outlines the
skills & qualities required in order to
be hired, pertains to the unique
skills & know-how of applicants
• An applicant who has held 3 to 4 jobs within
the past five years is a high risk.
• Recent emotional crises in an individual
• If the writing is sloppy, it may indicate a
generally careless attitude
• Over qualification is about as bad as under
qualification.
• Check if the reference is a close friend or
relative of the applicant.
• If the medical history is lengthy or
ambiguous, there is a good chance that the
applicant is either in poor health or
somewhat neurotic.
• Hiring relatives or close personal friends must
be discouraged.
• If other things are equal, hire people you
instinctively like.
• Generally, the person who works for financial
reasons is likely to be a more stable
employee than is the person who is
economically independent.
5. Personnel Orientation- the introduction of the
employee to their new working environment
 • briefing on the opportunities for education,
training, & advancement in workplace
• briefing on sick-leave policies, overtime, time
of the job, place of receiving the pay, tryouts
(where proficiency testing takes place), &
meetings between new employee and
personnel manager\
• A briefing of the history, objectives, policies,
rules and regulations of the laboratory.
• Introduction to his associates and
subordinates.
• Description of his duties and responsibilities
and the role he plays in the organization.
• Introduction to lab facilities and services.
• Briefing on mechanism of setting problems,
complaint or grievance and rules pertaining
to discipline or reprimand.
• Briefing or opportunities for education,
training and advancement.
• Briefing on sick leave policy, overtime work,
time and place for receiving pay.
• Try – out the employee’s new job.
• Another meeting between the
6. Personnel Evaluation- is an informal evaluation
which consists of periodic written reports on
employees’ performance, it provides a basis for
counseling interview with the employee, it provides a
resource document for appraisal, promotion, transfer,
separation, & references, a way of summarizing day-
to-day & week-to-week evaluation
Promotion- the advancement of an employer to a
better job; better in terms of: greater responsibilities,
more prestige ‘status’, greater skill & specialty, &
increased rate of pay or salary
• Honesty, ambition, initiative, determination,
enthusiasm, common sense, knowledge,
originality
Discipline & dismissals (discharging)- for the
protection of both employee and employer,
disciplinary action requires documented facts
sufficient to support the contemplated action
• Incident report- referred to as the
documented facts that are attached on the
201 file (employees’ file) which states/shows
how we work in our job
• Specific instances of poor performances or
misconduct
• Circumstances surrounding performances or
misconduct
❖ dates, times, places, names, & titles
of persons involved in the situation
❖ whether or not the employee knew
what he was supposed to do
• Evidence of warning that the misconduct
should not be repeated or that the poor
performance could not continue
• Records the definite time limit was set for
improvement & follow-up
personnel records- without these, it can be very
difficult to monitor performance & productivity levels
of an employee, may also serve as a protection for
both the organization & the employee, in the event
that the employee is making a claim against the
organization, important that they are always kept up
to date/updated, complete, & are regularly reviewed
• Employee, job description, education,
experience, qualifications, length of
employment, job references, written
reprimands, comments, personal list, job
application, curriculum vitae (CV),
appointment letter, emergency contact
information, pay-roll & benefits information,
performance appraisal form, employee
resignation letter, exit interview
documentation
LEC 5: PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Performance Evaluation (Appraisal)- process of
observing & assessing employee performance,
recording the assessment, providing feedback to the
employee, skillful managers give feedback & praise
concerning the acceptable elements of the
employee’s performance, they also describe
performance areas that needs improvement and
employees can use this information to change their
job performance, employees are graded annually
wherein they can be promoted, regulated, & that their
salary can be raised, defined as a formal & productive
procedure in order to measure an employee’s work &
result/s based on their responsibilities, outputs,
feedbacks, & overall contribution to the organization
• Morale
• Motivation
• Self-esteem
KEY ELEMENTS/ COMPONENTS IN EMPLOYEE
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
1. Technical Competency
2. Communication Skills
3. Efficiency
4. Customer Service
5. Adherence to Policies
6. Punctuality
7. Observance of Safety Rules
8. Professional behavior
PROS & CONS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES always clear to those who are designing performance
Self-development Destroy initiative appraisal systems
Foster good Encourage
Performance appraisal program- is frequently
communication competitiveness
developed by one or more members of the upper
Provide constructive Produce stress
management & supervisory employees
feedback
Clarify job requirements Require large financial • Upper management
investment • Supervisors / Managers
Provide an opportunity Consume significant • Human resources staff
to refine job skills time for managers with • Staff employees- those who are involved in
many employees developing a performance appraisal program,
Define performance those who are strong performers & welcome
expectations new opportunities
Promote behavioral
modification REASONS FOR INCLUDING STAFF EMPLOYEES IN THE
Identify educational PLANNING PROCESS OF DESIGNING PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL
needs
Provide documentation 1. They are strong performers
for promotion,
compensation, and 2. They are team players
termination decisions
3. They have direct relationship with their work
Promote recruitment &
retention Standards- are formal requirements that outline
Protect the organization expectations of job performance (e.g. how well a job
from discrimination should be performed), can be used to compare the
lawsuits quality of work among staff members
Provide an opportunity
to share departmental Performance Appraisals- must contain specific,
and organizational measurable, & realistic standards of performance
visions Criteria- standard for judging task performance
Encourage teams to
improve the way their Norms- informal behaviors that are generally
organization operates accepted in workplace

Competency-based appraisals- appraisals are often

APPRAISAL TYPES
1. Formal Performance Appraisal- generally occurs at
least annually (or semi-annually) on a specific date &
time, such as the anniversary of the employee’s hire
date
2. Informal Performance Appraisal- can occur
whenever the supervisor feels communication is
needed, monitoring & making sure that the
employees are always aligned with the goals that the
organization wants to achieve
• Monitoring behavior modification
• Recognizing accomplishments
• Identifying stumbling blocks in achieving set
goals
• Giving support where applicable
• Fostering ongoing communication between
formal appraisals
Who is responsible for developing a performance
appraisal program?- the organizational philosophy &
purpose for having performance appraisal should be
position-specific & competency-based using
observable & measurable standards, to focus on skills,
personality traits, motivators, & behaviors of an
individual, studies the pattern of behavior of each
laboratory personnel to know whether they have
been able to either reach their goal or missed them
Competency- the state of having the correct or
needed skills for the position, can be used to describe
the major skills, abilities, & attributes that a staff
member need in order to be successful in the
organization
COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT METHODS
1. Direct Observation- helps identify & prevent any
performance problems, the employee’s techniques
are watched during the examination process, which
allows the observer to see if the employee is following
the SOP, to avoid subjectivity during a competency
assessment, the observer uses a custom designed
checklist
• Checklist- used when there are specific,
observable items, actions or attributes to be
 observed, must be approved by the
laboratory director
2. Indirect Observation- is gathering information
through means other than looking at actual samples
of student work
• Surveys
• exit interviews
• focus groups
RATING SYSTEM
1. graphic rating scale- provides a ranking scale
(usually 1 to 5) for unsatisfactory to outstanding
performance, one of the most popular methods since
they provide quantitative assessment, easy to use &
understand, may be used to compare the
performance of employees through a set of criteria
that produces a numerical value, can also be visual
(e.g. 5-star rating system— the most famous & widely
used rating system)
2. Essay Appraisal- the source answers a series of
questions about the employee’s performance in essay
form.
3. Checklist Scale- a series of questions is asked and
the manager simply responds yes or no to the
questions
4. Ranking Method System- employees in a particular
department are ranked based on their value to the
manager or supervisor.
5. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)- entails
writing a competency statement for each aspect of
the job ̶ focuses on employee behaviors & avoids any
evaluation of attitudes, contains a set of specific
behaviors, that is represented by bars, which are
grades / gradations (numerical value) of performance
that becomes a reference point on how an employee
should behave towards their work, these bars avoid
any evaluation of attitude
OTHER TYPES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
1. Self-appraisal- employees may be provided with a
copy of the same form used by the manager, ratings
and scores can then be easily compared.
2. Peer-to-peer appraisal- require trust among
employees working together, coworkers are asked to
evaluate each other, risky when conflict exists among
employees
3. 360 Degree Feedback- a multi-dimensional
performance appraisal method that evaluated an
employee using feedback collected from the
employee’s Circle of Influence, it eliminates bias &
offers a clear understanding of an individual’s
competence, often performed anonymously and
invites open, constructive in-depth feedback from all
levels (peers, subordinates, supervisors, customers,
and self)
STEPS TO A SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
INTERVIEW
1. Prepare for appraisal interviews carefully- take the
time to thoroughly evaluate all of the employee’s
work.
2. Be factual and specific- take the time to thoroughly
evaluate all of the employee’s work.
3. Develop open communication- take the time to
thoroughly evaluate all of the employee’s work.
4. Use the employee’s motivations to build a
development plan- take the time to thoroughly
evaluate all of the employee’s work.
JUDGING PERFORMANCE: GUIDELINES FOR
APPRAISING POOR PERFORMERS
1. Don’t wait until appraisal time to address a poor
performer
2. Ensure that the employee has a current copy of
their job description & performance standards
3. During the interview, give examples of poor
performance to support your assessment & the
consequences of the behavior
4. Prepare a list of specific changes you would like him
or her to make and the time frame in which to correct
the behavior
5. Present the information in a manner that shows
confidence in the employee’s ability to improve
6. Set measurable standards for improvement & plan
together how this can be accomplished
Merit increases- are the end product of formal
performance appraisals that connect levels of
performance with varying levels of salary increase or
performance incentive.
CAUSE OF POOR PERFORMANCE
1. Distractions- especially personal issues which can
make the employee’s concentration difficult (ex: Sick
child or parent (Health problem), Love problems,
Financial problems, Conflicts within the work place)
2. Excessive workloads- those that pressure or hurry
the employee, which may cause them to inadvertently
make errors
3. Insufficient initial orientation or training
4. Resistance to change- some people may not want
to use new procedures > “We’ve always done it this
way, why change?”
5. Compromised sample- the laboratorian may or may
not know that the sample arrived in the wrong
preservative or was improperly stored
6. Absence of SOPs or Failure to update them- test kits
may come with modified manufacturer’s instructions,
and these modifications need to be reflected in the
SOPs
7. Poorly written procedures- including omitting
certain steps, the wrong sequence of steps, or
incorrect sample or reagent quantities, can cause very
serious errors and should always be suspected when
several employees obtain erroneous results
8. Job Descriptions that are NOT CLEAR may be a
source of error- for example, confusion about who has
responsibility for calibrating an instrument could
result in the calibration not being done, causing
erroneous results
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION ERRORS
1. Stereotyping- when a rater places an employee into
a class or category based on one or few traits or
characteristics (ex: Stereotyping an older worker as
slower & more difficult to train), it is a fixed or
overgeneralized belief about a particular group or
class of people, act of assuming or making gross
generalizations without any clear basis or factual
evidence
2. Halo Effect- when a manager gives an employee the
same rating on all dimensions, even if his/her
performance is good on some dimensions and poor on
others, a type of cognitive bias when one trait of a
person is used to make an overall judgment on a
person / thing, an error in reason that is based on only
1 single trait that you know regarding that person /
thing, has more influence that is based mostly on the
physical appearance, as compared to stereotyping
SUMMARY
1. Always remember that a successful appraisal
recognizes people as the most valuable resource of an
organization.
2. The most important reason for doing appraisals is
to motivate your employees positively, not to punish.
3. Recognizing accomplishments is a powerful way to
motivate.
4. Providing performance appraisals will show
employees that you and the organization are
interested in their work and in their development.
5. Documentation of each individual’s job-related
competency is one way that a laboratory can not only
ensure quality results, but also fulfill federal and
accrediting agency requirements.
FINALS
LEC 1: MANAGEMENT OF LABORATORY OPERATIONS
Policies- are general statement of understanding
which guide or channel thinking and action in decision
making, it provides channels or gateways in order to
probe our critical thinking & analysis skills, it pertains
to the do’s & don’ts in operating the laboratory
Procedures- are plans that establish a required
method of handling future activities, are truly guides
to action rather than to thinking & they detail the
exact manner in which a certain activity must be
accomplished, are ways or manners of taking action or
simply, completing a task
Staffing process- the setting of a long-term goals and
objectives for the number & types of personnel
needed to meet the labor requirements of the
laboratory, it depends primarily on work
requirements, as well as the workload or the bulk of
tests & services being done per schedule or per shift
Scheduling process- matching the people presently
working in the laboratory with current workload
requirements, must be consulted to the staff
members in order for them to know whether there
are certain considerations or adjustments that they
need to take into account (e.g. vacation-leave,
requests for time off of work, seminars, training)
STEPS IN MAKING SCHEDULE
1. Plan a schedule management
2. Define activities
3. Sequence activities
4. Estimate activity resources
5. Estimate activity durations
6. Develop schedule
GENERAL COMMENTS ON STAFFING AND
SCHEDULING
1. Based on the practice of 8 hour shifts which depend
upon the demand and the availability of personnel
2. Largest number of personnel is assigned during the
first 8 hour periods
3. Provision is made to increase staff during the night
shift especially in times of emergency
ROTATION PLAN OF THE STAFF
1. Determine the day-off schedule
2. Be aware of the schedule of leave- sick, maternity,
vacation, emergency, or absence w/o leave, being
aware of the staffs’ schedule of leave will help
minimize the same days off
3. Note the availability of reliever
4. Determine the rotation
Occupational Health & Safety (OSH TRAINING)- a
cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the
health & safety of people engaged in
work/employment, as secondary effect, it may also
protect coworkers, family members, employers,
customers, patients, suppliers, nearby communities, &
other members of the public who are impacted by the
workplace environment
THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
1. Must always be responsible for his/her safety
2. Must follow the rules and use equipment properly
3. Ensure that the workplace is safe
THE ROLE OF THE EMPLOYER
1. Make sure that the employees have proper training,
support, equipment (safety equipment), workload,
enough manpower available & accessible resources &
environment
2. Ensure that the workplace is safe
Structural requirements- safety factors should be
considered in the design and layout of the building
• Entrance and exit route
• Blockage of hallways and doors
• Location of sprinklers and fire extinguishers
• Storage of flammable materials
• Ventilation system
The following must be considered in the floor plan
layout & workplace design
• Separate clinical & administrative offices
from areas with hazardous materials
• There should be a system in the delivery &
storage of potentially hazardous materials
• There should be a proper ventilation system
• Accessibility of special safety equipment
fume hoods & first aid stations
Risk- is the degree or likelihood of a hazard causing
harm, it is the chance/probability that a person will be
harmed or experience an adverse health effect if
exposed to a hazard, it may also apply to situations
with property or equipment loss or harmful effects on
the environment
Hazard- it is something that has the potential to cause
harm, is any source of potential damage, harm, or
adverse health effects on something or someone
(Electricity, Chemicals, Working up a ladder, Noise, a
Keyboard, Bully at work, Stress)
HAZARDS IN LABORATORY
1. Biological hazards- infectious materials, caused by
microorganisms
• Blood-borne pathogens- any material that
could possibly become contaminated with
blood, must be treated as having potential to
carry a pathogen transmitted by blood are
caused by microorganisms
• Source- location of potentially harmful
organism
❖ Prevention- hand washing,
biohazardous waste disposal,
decontamination, specimen bagging
• Transmission- direct contact, indirect contact ̶
vectorborne, inhalation of Infected materials
/air-borne, droplet, ingestion
❖ Prevention- hand washing, Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE), aerosol
Prevention, Sterile / Disposable
Equipment, pest control
• Host- becomes another source
❖ Prevention- standard Precaution,
immunization, OSHA guidelines,
healthy lifestyle, exposure Control
Plan, post-exposure Prophylaxis
METHODS OF COMPLIANCE/PROTECTIVE MEASURE
AND PROCEDURE
1. Adoption of universal precaution policy
2. Engineering and work practice controls
3. Personal protective equipment
4. Housekeeping techniques
Universal precaution- barrier protection, gloves, face
protection, protective Body clothing, wash hands,
avoid accidental injuries, proper disposal
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
1. Gloves- usually have separate sheaths or openings
for each finger and the thumb. Latex, nitrile rubber or
vinyl disposable gloves are often worn by health care
professionals as hygiene and contamination
protection measures.
2. Face & Eye Protection- must be worn when
potential exists for contamination of mucous
membranes, to provide protection of the eyes, nose &
mouth, protection may consist of one of 2 choices
• eye protection (that includes side shields)
• face mask- chin length face shield only
3. Mask (Face mask)- is also known as a surgical mask,
intended to be worn by health professionals during
healthcare procedures, designed to prevent infections
in patients & treating personnel by catching bacteria
shed in liquid droplets & aerosols from the wearer's
mouth & nose
4. Protective Body clothing- disposable clothing worn
to create a barrier between blood, bodily fluids, or
respiratory secretions
2. Sharp hazards- they can create a cut in the skin
which allows contact between blood, or fluids, the risk
of infection after exposure to infected blood varies by
blood borne pathogen, they also pertain to needles,
Lancets, Broken glass
• Possible injuries- Cuts, Punctures, or Blood-
borne pathogen exposure
3. chemical hazards- the substance/s that has the
potential to cause harm to life or health, they also
pertain to preservatives & reagents
• Possible injury- exposure to toxic,
carcinogenic, or caustic agents
• OSHA- the agency responsible for developing
and enforcing regulations governing safety in
the workplace.
• Material Safety Data Sheets- a document
required by OSHA detailing safety
information about each hazardous substance
CHEMICAL SPILLS
1. If there’s skin contact- flush the area with large
amount of water
2. Remove contaminated clothing
CHEMICAL LABELLING
1. Poisonous
2. Corrosive
3. Carcinogenic
4. Flammable
CHEMICAL HANDLING
1. Chemicals should never be mixed together
2. Chemicals should be added in the order specified in
the instruction
3. Prepare reagents under fume hood
4. Do not pipette by mouth
CHEMICAL STORAGE
1. the most important rule- to make sure that any
chemicals or wastes stored together are compatible
with each other
FIRE FIGHTING STRATEGIES
1. construction- building structure, fire resistant
construction material, lay out plan for entrance and
exits, storage of flammable materials
• Flammable chemicals- should be stored in
safety cabinets & explosion proof
refrigerators
• Gas cylinders- should be located away from
heat

2. NEVER store the following types of wastes near FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
each other- Acids & bases reagents, Organics & acids,
1. Fire resistant building materials
Cyanide, sulfide, or arsenic compounds & acids, Alkali
or Alkali earth metals, alkyllithiums, & aqueous waste, 2. Automatic sprinklers
Powdered or reactive metals & combustible material,
Mercury or silver & ammonium containing 3. Self closing doors
compounds 4. Fire hydrants

5. Fire extinguisher
4. Radioactive hazards- the amount of radioactivity 6. Fire blankets
present in the laboratory is very small and not
dangerous, however the effects of radiation are 7. Materials that can be used to prevent fire
cumulative related to the amount of exposure
TYPES OF FIRE AND FIRE EXTINGUISHER
5. Electrical/fire hazards- physical harm from shocks
or burns, dangers from fire caused by heat and sparks

• Recommended Safeguards From NFPA

❖ Extension cords adapters should not
be used
❖ Equipment should not be operated
with wet hands
❖ Report dangerous conditions such as
frayed cords and overloaded circuits
to the appropriate persons
❖ Circuit breakers should be labeled
and conveniently located
❖ Electrical equipment should not be
used in areas with flammable
materials
❖ There should be a constant electrical
safety checks
• Recommended procedures in dealing with
electrical accidents
❖ Never directly touch a person who is
in contact with a live wire or
equipment
❖ Unplug the electrical source
❖ Separate the victim from the live
wire by using nonconductors like
wood and plastic
❖ Protect victim from electrical shock
by covering him with coat until help
arrives
• Rescue, Alarm, Contain, Extinguish
6. Physical hazard- are hazards that are factors or
conditions within the environment that can harm your
health
• Avoid running in the workplace
• Watch for wet floors
• Keep long hair pulled back
• Avoid dangling jewelry
• Use closed-toe shoes
MANAGEMENT OF SAFETY LABORATORY
1. responsibility
• Safety committee- assigned to overall
development & monitoring of safety
management program
• Safety officer- in charge with the
implementation & day-to-day management
of the safety program
2. The Safety Management Program
• Policy & procedures- all laboratories should
have safety manuals
• Communications- to make sure that the
person working a hazardous substance has
the information, proper training to perform
the job
• Disaster plan- emergency plan should be
established for fire evacuation
• Safety audits & inspections- safety inspection
& drill should be conducted periodically
• Accident investigation & accident prevention-
there should be reporting system for
accidents in lab
LABORATORY SAFETY MANAGEMENT
1. Solid Waste- any solid, liquid, semi-solid or
contained gaseous material that is discarded,
abandoned, recycled, or is an inherently waste-like
material
2. Non-hazardous Waste- are those that pose no
immediate threat to human health & the environment
(Ex: Household garbage)
WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. Biodegradable Waste- originates from plant or
animal sources, which may be broken down by other
living organisms
2. Non-biodegradable Waste- cannot be broken down
by other living organisms
3. Hazardous Waste- potential threat to human health
or the environment when improperly treated, stored,
transported & disposed
PROPER DISPOSAL OF LABORATORY WASTE
1. Laboratory waste
• Chemical Waste- if the chemical waste is not
hazardous: dispose in trash or in sink
• Regulated Hazardous Waste- if the waste can
be neutralized or destroyed neutralize first:
then dispose in the sink, if the waste can’t be
neutralized: collect in hazardous waste
containers, then contact licensed disposal
company
2. Radioactive Waste
• If the half-life of the radioactive waste is < 90
days ̶ decay in storage ̶ dispose in trash or in
sink
• Half-life → 90 days- contact licensed disposal
company
3. Biological Waste
• Sharps- contact licensed disposal company
• Animal carcasses- should be incinerated
• Infectious waste- blood, blood products,
pathology waste products & microbiological
waste, should be autoclaved or incinerated
before the waste is disposed in color coded
container with biohazard symbol, or in sink
LEC 2: MATERIAL MANAGEMENT
Material management- systemic process of
overseeing and controlling acquisition and utilization
of supplies to ensure both availability and cost
effectiveness, aims to have right material, right
quantities, right time, right price, right sources at least
costs, at the hospital level, these 2 functions are
handled by a centralized material management
department organized into 2 sections
• Purchasing- oversees the ordering of supplies
& the processing of invoices from vendors
• Stockroom (Warehouse)- maintains security
and inventory levels & issues supplies
throughout the facility
Purchasing- clinical laboratories as a business require
raw materials for successful operation whereas
equipment idled by breakdowns of lack of supplies is
an economic less for business, the same situation in
the clinical laboratory can seriously interfere with the
delivery of patient care, it is the 1st stage/phase of
material management, procurement of goods &
services from external agencies, a concept that is
concerned with bringing materials from outside an
organization to the point of production & moving in
the processes inventor
GOALS OF MATERIAL MANAGEMENT
1. Supplies arrive in a timely manner
2. Spoilage is reduced to a minimum
3. Back orders and delays are avoided
4. Storage space is used to the best advantage
5. The most economically advantageous price is
obtained
6. Financial resources are not tied up in inventory
SEQUENCE OF PURCHASING
1. Product Research and Specification (Enquiries and
Quotation)- in order to determine the best products
for laboratory use, time must be spent on product
research leading to the development of product
specifications, purchase process is initiated by a
purchase request, product research & specification
will be summed up by the Enquiries & Quotation,
ample time must be given to do the product research,
in order to determine which products are suitable,
practical, & which products are the best for laboratory
use, a similar process of evaluation & product
specification is necessary prior to purchase of major
equipment
• Written specifications- must include a
detailed description of the required
equipment, specifications must never be
made by verbal agreement
• On site visits to see equipment operating- in
other laboratories is encouraged
• An environment necessary to accommodate
the equipment must be prepared in advance
• A more complicated decision is whether to
buy major equipment
• Complete instruction manuals should be
obtained with the instruments & preventive
maintenance manuals should be available
• Purchasing of supplies- for budgeting
purposes, they are products that meet
specific time requirement & price criteria,
moreover, supplies may be classified as items
that are consumed within 1 year or have a
shelf life of less than 1 year, items consumed
within 1 year as established by the
comptroller even though their shelf life
exceeds 1 year
• Considerations in purchasing supplies: only
authorized staff members who are familiar
with the quality of service & reliability of
supplies should place orders → PURCHASER,
delivery schedules are a major factor in
determining whether a purchasing system is
in or out of control, high use items should be
delivered frequently
• an excellent method of doing this & can save
the laboratory time & money is through a
purchase order
2. orders- purchase order is a document authorizing
the purchase of a product or service from a vendor
• Release Order & manuals- the point in which
the company agrees to deliver goods at a
predetermined price notified by the
laboratory
• Standing Order- an annual contract in which
the companies agree to deliver goods at a
predetermined price & on an established
schedule
3. receive- goods should be unpacked & inspected as
soon as possible to ensure that everything is delivered
or that some acknowledgement of back ordered items
is made, damaged or defective goods should be
identified early in order to assure replacement credit,
these refer to the general ledger entries recorded if
you are using accrual accounting, these are the
invoices whether you buy a product or sell them, both
accounts are recorded when revenues & expenses are
inquired, not when cash is exchanged
• The purchase request must agree with the
invoice
• The invoice must agree with the packing slip
• They must all agree with the final bill from
the company
DOCUMENTATION NEEDED IN MMS
1. Enquiries- start point of a sale or purchase process,
lead to getting information from a vendor/supplier for
the requirement at hand ̶ in order to get a quotation,
place the order and receive the requirements, it
becomes a vital document that will provide general &
essential information either from the vendor or
supplier, lead to establishing a connection with the
right vendor/supplier
2. Quotations- consist of various pieces of vital
information of a requirement towards a
sale/purchase, stated important information are the
price, delivery times, delivery details, payment terms,
taxation, etc., on a quotation being accepted, an order
is placed for the requirements, it is a very common
term in material management which refers to 2
numbers:
• The highest bid price- refers to the price that
a buyer is willing to pay for security
• The lowest ask price- refers to the price that
a seller is willing to receive
• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO- Bid-ask
Spread, it will serve as a ground basis on
what to purchase, how to sell, & how to re-
value the supplies/service delivery
3. Orders- (in business or commerce) it is a stated
intention, either spoken or written, to engage in a
commercial transaction for specific products or
services, when the purchase order of the buyer & the
sales order of the seller agree, the orders become a
contract between the buyer and seller
4. Invoices (Bill)- a commercial document issued by a
seller to the buyer, it indicates the products that has
been bought, quantities, & agreed prices for products
or services the seller has provided the buyer, an
invoice indicates the sale transaction only, they are
also referred to as ‘receipts
4. record- inventory management is a continual
process of checking stock levels, rotating stock and
minimizing the cost of carrying inventory.
METHODS TO TRACK INVENTORY LEVELS
1. Perpetual System- it keeps account of the inventory
each time a product is used, there is a use of log books
& ledgers
2. Periodic System- more common at the bench
department level, once a week or at another specified
time, the stock level is counted & appropriate supplies
are ordered, there is a scheduled time that needs to
be followed
3. Random Checks- used to document the value of
supplies at a specific time, this snapshot verification
procedure is a key part of financial accounting, it is
especially useful in confirming the accuracy of
perpetual systems which can easily be distorted if not
meticulously maintained, usually checked by an
Internal checker
Low Level- that point at which on hand supplies are
sufficient to carry the laboratory through until goods
on order are received
Upper Limit- that level which will meet the
laboratories requirement for a longer period of time,
such as several months to a year, also known as the
“Reorder quantity,” which is referred to as the safe
stocks before reordering once again
PRIMARY FACTORS DETERMINING THE SAID LIMITS
1. Anticipated delivery time for each item
2. Available storage space
3. The shelf life of the item
4. The anticipated rate of usage
COMMON INVENTORY HANDLING METHODS
1. First In, First Out (FIFO)- this is the most common
technique, inventory items are sold in the order they
are purchase
2. Last In, First Out (LIFO)- this is common among non-
perishable items like petroleum, minerals, and metals,
last to enter the system are sold first
3. First Expired, First Out (FEFO)- materials are sold
based on date they should be consumed regardless of
when it was purchased
STOCK REPLENISH TECHQNIQUES
1. Minimum-Maximum (Min-Max method)- one
method for determining when and how much to
reorder is to establish a set point at which inventory is
to be recorded and a reorder to level to be
maintained
2. Just in Time (JIT)- a major technique developed by
manufacturers to take advantage of inventory
management opportunities is a Japanese model called
‘Just in time Ordering’, it was originated in Japan in
response to their country’s limited resources, it means
that goods are received from suppliers ONLY as they
are needed, main objective is to reduce inventory
holding cost & increase inventory turnover
FINANCIAL CONTROL INVENTORY
1. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)- answers the
question of “How much to order at one time?”, it is
applied through a Perpetual system type of inventor
2. End of Period Inventory (EOP)- also referred to as
the Reorder Point which provides the base or safety
level for reordering inventory, it is applied through a
Periodic system type of inventory
3. Retention of Title (ROT)- which helps establish the
best times to order to take advantage of the EOQ &
EOP, it is a straightforward retention of title clause
within a contract of sale which means that the
ownership remains with the supplier until full
payment for the goods has been received
IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE EOQ, EOP, ROT:
1. Annual Usage- determining level of inventory
needed is based on the workload of the laboratory
2. Average Daily Usage- can be obtained by dividing
the amount of supplies ordered in a year by 365 days
3. Cost of Ordering- the cost of running a centralized
purchasing department is directly tied to the number
of purchase orders placed, & the associated work
involved with keeping track invoices as products are
shipped and received, obtained by dividing the
expenses of the purchasing section by the number of
purchase orders issued
4. Annual Holding Cost- involves decisions based on
bulk orders, space utilization, & whether it is better to
have the product on hand or in the supplier’s
warehouse, when the vendor is holding the stock, the
institutions money is available for the purposes
5. Cost per Unit- a straightforward calculation once
the decision has been made as to be the best price
available, factors such as quantity discounts &
container size affect this decision, dividing the
purchase price by the container size provides this
value, it is the best unit price available for the
product/item as well as for service deliveries once
overall expenses are all accounted for to predict profit
for each item
6. Lead Time- the amount of lead time or advantage
notice needed between placing an order & its arrival is
an especially important consideration, influences the
minimum inventor that must be kept in stock as well
as the quantity that needs to be requested
LEC 3: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
Financial management- the area or function in an
organization which is concerned with profitability,
expenses, cash, & credit, refers to the efficient &
effective management of money (funds)
Budgeting- according to Henry Mintzberg, the roles of
leaders are spokesperson, budgetary, or resource
allocator, figurehead, decision maker, & liaison, it is
the planning document used by as organization that
forecast both the relationship between funds &
expenses, it is through budgeting that an organization
turns its strategic plans into daily operations, it is the
process of making a plan on how you will spend your
business’s money over a given period, it can estimate
/ predict the company’s revenue (sales) & expenses
for a particular period (short-term basis), it is the area
of financial management that involves planning for
typical & atypical expenses
APPROACHES IN BUDGET
1. Centralized- budget is fully controlled by the leader
(or the top management)
2. Decentralized- there is participation of the lower
level as designated by the leader
TYPES OF BUDGET
1. fix ceiling budget- uppermost spending limits set by
the organization, also referred to as the “Budget
ceiling”, it is a “cap” on spending, limiting all the
spending & expenses, this is to ensure that the
company does not spend more than what it makes
2. open ended budget- dangerous type because it has
no specific amount declared, there is no concrete tally
of amount nor any specified expected monetary
expenses for several on-going activities
3. flexible budget- one can adjust, also known as
“Variable budget”, provides a “what-if” look at the
future of a company’s financial performance, it is a
financial plan of estimated revenues & expenses
based on the current amount of output, it uses the
revenues & expenses in the current production as a
BASELINE, it estimates the revenues will change based
on the changes in the output
4. Sunset budget- designed to self-destruct within a
prescribed time period in order to ensure the
cessation budget & spending by a predetermined date
5. Zero-based budget (ZBB)- it is an approach to
making a budget from nothing or from scratch,
primary goal is to reduce spending by looking at the
where cost can be cut out, the budget is not based on
the previous one, instead, it starts at zero
6. Contingency budget- used during emergency, it is
the money allocated or set aside in a budget for an
expected cause, it avoids the complexity of revising a
budget with each unexpected cost that needs to be
re-submitted for approval, ideally, once it has been
used, it needs to be replenished during budget
planning
Operation Budget- deals with the process of planning
for the laboratory as an ongoing business concern
accounting for everyday need, it refers to the budget
that are used for daily operations
OPERATIONAL BUDGET PREPARATION
1. Time Frame- timeline
2. Forecasting stage- business foresight (projected
expenses & profit)
3. Scheduling Stage- when & where the budget will go
4. Synthesis of Information- collation of information
for budget preparation
Cost accounting- is to provide the manager with the
information to operate the business, its emphasis on
analyzing & providing operational information, main
function is to cost accumulation & allocation in order
to determine the cost values
Managerial Accounting- it provides information to the
members of the management for decision-making
purposes, these information will include cost
information that came from the cost accounting, is
another name given to this branch of accounting
because its emphasis on analyzing & providing
operational information
Job Costing (Expenses)- the important determinant in
forecasting the staffing needs for the budget year is
the projected volume of work, the number of labor
hours needed can be projected in ratios that calculate
the tests performed per paid hours and/or worked
hours, it determines manufacturing costs
systematically, by dividing them into overhead direct
material & direct labor cost, & estimating their actual
value, this is used in order to control the use of raw
materials, labor hours, & equipment, by allocating the
cost of each customer order separately
• Labor cost= number of working days x daily
pay rate x number of workers
Basic Accounting Principles- to provide financial
information by an effective accounting system, that
are extracted by the managers, they are ideally met
during the induction
• Internal reporting to managers, for the used
in planning & controlling current operation
• Internal reporting to managers for used in
strategic planning
• External reporting to stockholders,
government & other outside parties
Business Organization- for accounting & tax purposes,
corporation may be further differentiated, if they are
privately owned & the profits from the enterprise are
distributed to the owners, they are called for non-
profit companies & subject to all taxes, not for profit
corporation that are sponsored by government,
charitable religious or educational organization to
serve a social cause have a special tax exempt status
• Non profit organization (NPO)- organization
with mission and purpose to serve society
and benefit the public
• Not for profit organization (NFPO)-
organization that funnels all profits back into
organization’s operations and doesn’t
provide financial wealth to its owners
• For profit organization- organization that
provides products or services to public and
uses profits to invest in growing organization
and earning wealth for its owners and
shareholders
ACCOUNTING SPECIALTIES
1. Financial accounting- is primarily dedicated to
recording the bottom line financial position of the
organization, often referred to as a Score keeping
function, function is on the cash flow & financial
position of the firm
2. Cost accounting (Managerial accounting)- has the
primary objective of providing the manager with
operation to operate the business, another name
given to this branch of accounting because of its
emphasis on analyzing & providing operational
information → EXPENSES & PROFIT
• Expenses- cost that business incur in running
the operations
• Profit- revenue that remains after expenses
• Revenue- total amount of money a company
generates
Balance sheet- refers to financial statement that
reports a company’s assets, liabilities and equity
The Accounting Equation- the balance sheet provides
a snapshot of the economic status of the business at a
specific time
• Assets- they are the resources that the firm
uses to conduct its business, they are
consumed or expire in the day to day
operation of the enterprise, it tries to answer
a simple question: “How much do I have?”,
these are anything valuable that the
organization owns (Ex: Equipment,
Machineries, Land, Buildings, Intellectual
property)
• Equities- claims on the assets of the
organization, such as bills and owner interest,
it refers to the remaining value of an owner’s
interest in a company that is after all
liabilities have been deducted, it tries to
answer a simple question: “How much do I
owe?”, it refers to the net amount of funds
invested in a business by its owners & any
retained earnings
❖ Liabilities- are the same for all
enterprise and consist of bills owned
or other financial obligations of the
owner (Ex: Mortgage)
❖ Stockholder equity (Retained
earnings)- it refers to the remaining
/ retained value of the company,
depending on the type of corporate
structure, last question to ask: “How
much is left over?”

Recording of Financial activity (Accounting
Transactions)- one additional concept is important to
understanding the principles that guide accounting,
this is the method used to record & report income &
cost
• Cash basis (Revenue Recognition)- is the
simplest method but it does not provide any
information to the manager about the
operation of the company (cash in & out),
this is usually used in small businesses
❖ Revenue is recorded & recognized
when cash is received from
customers
• Accrual basis (Expense Recognition)- which
attempts to measure net income for a
particular period by matching expenses
against revenue (forecasting), this is usually
used in large businesses, invoices & bills are
usually used
❖ Expenses are recorded & recognized
when cash is paid to the suppliers &
employee
Profit center (Income-generating department)- refers
to those departments with billable service (Ex:
Radiology, Laboratory, & Nursing Department)
Cost centers- are areas that provide services that
benefit the entire institution BUT does not directly
assign individual chargeable items that would
generate income (Ex: Dietary, Housekeeping, &
Engineering)
RATE SETTING (GENERATING REVENUE)
1. Hourly rates method- is used to set charges for the
use of specialized areas such as surgical, suites, labor
& delivery rooms
2. Surcharged/Cost plus- is the most common
procedure for establishing a charge & the method
most retail businesses use (charge extra fee)
3. Weighted-value basis- is of more theoretical than
practical use because of its complicated & difficult
formulation (multiplied to a factor)
4. Historical method- is based on the rate of inflation
& income needs
5. Competition & Rate control (Benchmarking)- is
based on the competition from other laboratories
(comparison)
Costs- usually classified according to their relationship
with the level of output of the firm
• Fixed cost- refers to the expenses that do not
fluctuate when the volume of work changes
on a daily basis (Ex: Salary of manpower, Cost
in calibrating reagents to run test samples,
Rent & property taxes, Office salaries,
Insurance, Depreciation)
• Semi-variable costs- are costs that rise in
steps, based on more gradual changes in
workload, a semi-variable cost is an expense
which includes a mixture of fixed and variable
components, these costs vary (change) with
output, BUT not in direct proportion (Ex:
Hiring seasonal employees, Commissions of
salespersons, Monthly telephone charge /
bill, Repair & maintenance)
• Variable costs- responds directly to any
changes in workload, a variable cost varies in
direct proportion with the level of output (Ex:
Raw materials that are used as components
of the end-product, Direct labor, Packaging
costs, Royalties)
• Total costs- refer to the total financial outlays
rise in proportion to the number of
procedures performed, are the sum of fixed
costs, semi-variable costs and variable costs
for any particular level of output (Ex: Salary
of manpower, Cost in calibrating reagents to
run test samples, Rent & property taxes)
• Direct cost- refers to the cost that can be
traced to a particular procedure for which
the laboratory can generate revenue, is any
cost which is directly related to the output
level of a particular product or department
(Ex: Direct materials & supplies, Direct labor)
• Indirect cost (Indirect overheads /
Administrative costs)- refers to the expenses
shared by any components of the institution,
is any cost which cannot be linked with the
output of any particular product or
department (Ex: QC costs, Insurance,
Allowances)
Break-even analysis- it refers to the cost accounting
that provides methods for the application of financial
information to the evaluation group of techniques, it
identifies the point in sales volume at which revenues
match total costs and it is particularly used when
calculating participation in managed care programs
Gross profit (gross margin)- this ratio determines the
excess of sales above the direct costs involved in
producing a product or service, either by individual
test OR for the entire laboratory, this calculation is
useful in establishing pricing levels & marked shares
LEC 4: QUALITY ASSURANCE & LABORATORY DESIGN
Quality Control (QC)- relies heavily on quantitative
statistical methods that focuses on the final product
as defined by the standards set by the producer, it is
product-oriented, it is a system of ensuring precision
& accuracy in the laboratory by using quality control
reagents in every series of measurements, it is
measured PERIODICALLY, same with the clinical
samples, it is a system of techniques to ensure with a
specified degree of confidence that the result
obtained from each series of analysis is true & correct,
it is a series of analytical measurement
Quality Assurance (QA)- developed out of the
limitations of the QC approach & defined quality in
health care institutions by the success of the total
organization, not just individual components of the
system in achieving the goals of patient care, it is
process-oriented, it focuses on defect-prevention, this
is a systemic laboratory program, encompassing pre-
analytical, analytical, & post-analytical factors
Quality assessment & improvement- to ensure that
quality laboratory services are provided, every
laboratory should strive to obtain modern equipment,
to hire well-trained staff, to ensure a well-designed
and safe physical environment, & to create a good
management team
Quality Systems Management- ultimately dispels the
concept of “good enough” & promotes one of “it can
always be done better”
STANDARD APPROACHES TO QUALITY LEADERSHIP
AND MANAGEMENT
1. Total Quality Management (TQM)- a systems
approach that focuses on teams, processes, statistics,
& delivery of services/products that meet or exceed
customer expectations, continually look for ways to
reduce errors (“defect prevention”) by empowering
employees to assist in solving problems & getting
them to understand their integral role within the
greater system (“universal responsibility”), aim is long-
term success through Customer satisfaction, all
employees participate
2. Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI)- an element
of TQM that strives to continually improve practices &
not just meet established quality standards
3. Six Sigma- a disciplined data-driven approach &
methodology for eliminating defects in any process, it
was first applied & used in Motorola in 1986, aim is to
be able to achieve a nearly perfection of 99.99966%
defect-free product, process improvement program
that is a hands-on process with the single mantra of
“improvement” of the improved performance,
improved quality, improved bottom line, improved
customer satisfaction, improved employee
satisfaction
4. Lean- this term was coined to describe Toyota’s
business during late 1980’s, it means creating more
value for customers with fewer resources, aim is to
provide perfect value to the customers that has 0
waste (anything unproductive), ultimately designed to
reduce waste (non-valued activities) which means to
reduce cost by identifying daily work activities that do
not directly add to the delivery of laboratory services
in the most efficient or cost-effective ways, directly
addresses the age-old concept “that’s the way we
always did it” & look for ways to improve the process
MAJOR FEATURES IN QUALITY MANAGEMENT
1. Philip Crosby- he was frequently referred to as
“Evangelist of quality management”, he preached that
the need for quality practices in the book Quality is
Free, he propounded the ff:
• Quality is free, poor quality is expensive
• Do thing right the first time
• Zero defects is the only legitimate goal of
quality program
2. William Etwards Deming- he was the source of most
of the concepts & methods contained in the TQM
model, he was credited with providing the Japanese
with the information & training that brought them to
their position as the “World’s leader in production of
quality products”
3. Joseph Duran- he established the concept that
quality is a continuous improvement process that
requires manager’s active pursuit in reaching & setting
goals for improvement
4. James Westgard- he applied the Shewhart’s
Multirole System to the evaluation of quality control
data in the medical laboratory, he was a professor at
the University of Wisconsin Medical School &
associate director of Clinical Laboratories-Quality
assurance with the University of Wisconsin Hospital &
Clinics in Madison
QUALITY CONTROL STATISTICS
1. Accuracy (Validity)- nearness or closeness of a
result to the actual value of the analyte when
performing a test, ability of method means exact
value
2. Precision (Reliability / Reproducibility)- ability of an Chemistry), allows laboratorian to apply multiple rules
analytical method to give repeated results reproduces without the use of computer, graphic representation
a value, central tendency, dispersion, location of the acceptable limit of variation that can be done
manually

4. Youden Plot- also referred as “Twin plot” or “Two-

Data Population- used to describe & define the items
that are being studied at a particular time
QUALITY CONTROL CHARTS
1. Gaussian Curve- it is also known as “Normal
distribution curve” or “Bell-shaped curve”, it will
group any series of measurement in the same sample
in a cluster around the mean in a bell-shaped curve, it
occurs when data elements are centered around the
mean with most element goes to the mean
mean chart” or “Two-way average chart”, are used to
demonstrate & compare the performance of a
laboratory on paired samples with other laboratories
using common control lots or survey material, with x
& y axis, a 2-mean chart drawn at right angles to one
another with the one set of values on one axis
another set of values on the other axis, used to
compare results obtained on high & low control
serum from different laboratories, displays the result
of analysis by plotting the mean values of a specimen
on the ordinate & abscissa, it detects systematic error

• Standard Deviation (SD)- determines the

spread / distribution of the curve
• Mean- determines the curves location on X
axis

5. Westgard Control Rules/Westgard Multirule

System- also referred to in the laboratory as the
“Multirule analysis”, generally used where 2 levels of
control material are analyzed per run, it has
formalized the application of multi rule techniques to
the medical laboratory, rejection or warning rule used
to identify or indicate if the analytical process is out of
2. Cumulative Sum Graph (CUSUM)- plotted with the
control, it is commonly used, it is used with Levey-
accumulated differences from the mean of individual
Jennings Chart
values with the middle value being zero, calculates the
difference between QC results & the target means, RULE DEFINITION DECISION
helpful in identifying continuous bias, provides earliest 12s rule refers to the control rule warning
indication of systematic errors & it can be used within that is commonly used
13s rule, sensitive to small persistent errors, results with a Levey-
are out of control when the slope exceeds 45° Jennings chart when the
control limits are set as the
mean plus/minus 2s
13S rule A run is rejected when a Reject
single control
measurement exceeds the
mean plus 3s or the mean
minus 3s control limit.
22s rule reject when 2 consecutive Reject
3. Shewhart Levey-Jennings Chart- also referred as
control measurements
“SLJ Chart” or “Dot Chart”, control charts used to plot
exceed the same mean
quality control values against preciously set limits to
plus 2s or the same mean
determine if the procedure is in or out of control, minus 2s control limit.
most commonly used chart for QC recording (Clinical
 R4s rule reject when 1 control
measurement in a group
exceeds the mean plus 2s
and another exceeds the
mean minus 2s. This rule
should
only be interpreted within-
run, not between-run.
41S rule reject when 4 consecutive
control measurements
exceed the same mean
plus 1s or the same mean
minus 1s control limit.
10x reject when 10
rule consecutive control
measurements fall on one
side
of the mean.
Reject • Some things that could cause random errors-
bubbles in reagents or reagent lines,
instrument instability, temperature
variations, operator variability (e.g. Variation
in pipetting)
2. Systematic error- error that influences observations
consistently in one direction, affects the ACCURACY of
the test, causes inaccurate results that are
Reject
consistently low or high.
• Some things that could cause systematic
errors- change in reagent lot, change in
calibration, assigning the wrong calibrator
reject values, reagents that were improperly
prepared or are deteriorating, pipettor
maintenance error (not adjusted correctly or
misaligned), deteriorating photometric light
source in the instrument

ERRORS WHICH CAN BE OBSERVED ON LJ CHART

1. Trend- formed by control values that either

increase or decrease for 6 consecutive days, main
cause is deterioration of reagents

2. Shift- formed by control values that distribute

QUALITY CONTROL STATISTICS
themselves on one side or either side of the mean for
1. Mean- statistical tool used to measure systematic 6 consecutive days, main cause is improper calibration
error/accuracy, the value of observation that divides of the instrument
the observation into 2 groups, the midpoint of the
distribution

2. Standard Deviation (SD)- statistical tool used to

measure precision or the dispersion of values around
the mean, statement of the extent of the variation in
any series of measurements, measure of distribution
of the range of values around the mean value or
PHASES OF THE TESTING PROCESS
average, to measure the dispersion of values,
inversely related to precision, measures Random error 1. Pre-analysis (Pre-analytical)- refers to all the
activities that take place before testing, such as test
3. Coefficient of Variation (CV)- statistical tool that
ordering & sample collection
allows comparison and check on the precision &
variability of each method, index of precision, 2. Analysis stage (Analytical)- consists of the
percentile expression of the mean which is measured laboratory activities that actually produce a result,
of the relative magnitude of variability such as running a sample on an automated analyzer
VARIATIONS 3. Post-analysis (Post-analytical)- comprises patient
reporting & result interpretation ̶ collectively, all of
1. Random error- may occur by chance at any time &
the interrelated laboratory steps in the testing process
place within the testing or service process, affects the
describe its workflow
precision of the test
 Biosafety level 2

LABORATORY DESIGN

1. the guidance & recommendations given as

minimum requirements pertaining to laboratories of Biosafety level 3
all biosafety levels are directed at microorganisms in
Risk Groups 1–4

2. Diagnostic & health-care laboratories (Public health,

Clinical or Hospital-based) must all be designed for
Biosafety Level 2 or above- as no laboratory has
complete control over the specimens it receives,
laboratory workers may be exposed to organisms in
higher risk groups than anticipated

Biosafety level 1- in designing a laboratory &

assigning certain types of work to it, special attention
should be paid to conditions that are known to pose
safety problems Biosafety level 4
• Formation of aerosols
• Work with large volumes and/or high
concentrations of microorganisms
• Overcrowding & too much equipment
• Infestation with rodents & arthropods
• Unauthorized entrance
• Workflow- Use of specific samples & reagent

BSL 1- no containment, defined organisms, unlikely to

cause disease

• Sample organisms- E. coli

• Pathogen type- agents that presents minimal
potential hazard to personnel and
environment
• Autoclave requirement- none
BSL 2- containment, moderate risk, disease of varying responsibility of the state licensing board in
severity the country > Professional Regulation
Committee (PRC)
• Sample organisms- influenza, HIV, lyme
disease 5. Professional liability insurance for laboratories
• Pathogen type- agents associated with
Clinical laboratories- refers to a facility subdivided
human disease and pose moderate hazard to
into different sections where common diagnostic
personnel and environment
procedures are done by specialized health
• Autoclave requirement- none
professionals
BSL 3- high containment, aerosol transmission,
• R.A. 4688/The Clinical Laboratory Law of
serious/potentially lethal disease
1966- June 18, 1966, significance: R.A. 4688,
• Sample organisms- tuberculosis regulates the Clinical Laboratories in the
• Pathogen type- indigenous or exotic agents, Philippines, aims to ensure the health of the
agents that present potential for aerosol general public by preventing the operation of
transmission and agents causing serious or substandard laboratories
potentially lethal disease
CLASSIFICATION OF CLINICAL LABORATORIES
• Autoclave requirement- pass through
autoclave with bioseal required in laboratory (BASED ON AO 59 S. 2001)
room
1. According to function
BSL 4- max containment, “exotic”, high risk agents, life
threatening disease CLINICAL PATHOLOGY ANATOMIC
PATHOLOGY
• Sample organisms- ebola virus Hematology Surgical Pathology
• Pathogen type- dangerous and exotic agents Clinical Chemistry Immunohistopathology
that pose high risk of aerosol transmitted Microbiology Cytology
laboratory infections and life threatening Parasitology Autopsy
disease Mycology Forensic Pathology
• Autoclave requirement- pass through Clinical Microscopy
autoclave with bioseal required in laboratory Immunohematology
room Blood Banking
Laboratory
LEC 5: REGULATORY AND PROFESSIONAL OVERSIGHT Endocrinology
Toxicology and
WORKPLACE LEGAL ISSUES
Therapeutic Drugs
1. Records & documentation Monitoring

2. Professional standards
2. According to institutional character
3. Properly qualified & trained personnel
• Hospital-based (HB)/Institution-based- within
4. Malpractice- refers to incorrect performance or a hospital
improper conduct on the part of a purveyor, especially • Non-hospital-based (NHM)/Freestanding-
professionals, either through negligence or by operates on its own
violation of ethical standards for the business or
profession 3. According to service capability (examination
performed)
• based on the idea that people are liable for
the consequences of their actions, whether PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY
they are intentional or (10 SQ.M) (20 SQ. M) (60 SQ. M)
unintentional/accidental Routine Primary Secondary
• Regulation- a rule or requirement imposed by Hematology laboratory laboratory
a government agency, The Regulation of Routine examination examination
Clinical Laboratories in the Philippines is urinalysis Routine Special
governed by Republic Act 4688 Routine chemistry chemistry
• Licensure- Refers to government permission fecalysis Blood typing Special
to operate or engage in a business practice or Blood typing- and hematology
occupation, usually requiring some type of HB crossmatching Immunology/
formal training & or testing to demonstrate Quantitative – HB Serology
competency, is traditionally has been the platelet Microbiology
 determination • Joint Commission on the Accreditation of
– HB Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO)
• College of American Pathologist (CAP)
• American Association of Blood Banks (AABB)
4. According to service capability (minimum facilities
required) Credentialing- the process of establishing
qualifications to perform a duty or job, usually
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY through the formal recognition of professional or
Clinical Centrifuge Primary Secondary technical competence to an institution or person as
Hemacytometer laboratory laboratory having met certain requirements or standards
Microhematocrit equipment/ equipment/
centrifuge instruments instruments Certification- refers to the process of establishing &
Microscope with Refrigerator Incubator declaring that a person has met the standards
OIO Photometer Trip/ established by a professional organization (Ex:
Hemoglobinometer or its analytical Undergone Proficiency training, After attended
or its equivalent equivalent balance Conferences, Passing of Medtech Board exam)
Differential blood Water bath Rotator
Marketing philosophy- a communication tool,
cell counter or its or its Serofuge or
designed to influence public attitudes toward the
equivalent equivalent its
organization, it focuses on a 2-way communication
Timer or its equivalent
with the customer, a communication tool that defines
equivalent Autoclave
the mission of the company in order for the marketing
Drying oven
department to understand the customer needs more
Biosafety
clearly
cabinet or its
equivalent Market environment- refers to factors such as
patient’s population, purchasing habits & competition,
which determines the opportunities & limitations of a
(BASED ON AO 27 S. 2007)
potential customer base
According to According to According to Customer- a discretionary buyer who selects where a
Ownership Function Institutional laboratory test is performed
Character
Government Clinical Institution- • Captive users- the customers whose test
Private Pathology based must be performed by the hospital
Anatomic Free-standing laboratory (Ex: Patients who are admitted to
Pathology the hospital)
• Discretionary buyers- the entity that decides
which laboratory will perform the test (Ex:
1. According to service capability (examination Outpatients who have the freedom where
performed) their test(s) may be performed)
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY FOUR P’S OF MARKETING
Routine Primary Secondary
Hematology laboratory laboratory 1. Product- what you sell
Routine examination examination
2. Price- how much you charge
urinalysis Routine Special
Routine chemistry chemistry 3. Place- where you promote product or service
fecalysis Quantitative Special
Blood typing- platelet hematology 4. Promotion- how your customers find out about you,
HB determination Immunology/ stategies
Qualitative Crossmatching- Serology
GROUPS OF PROMOTIONAL TOOLS
platelet HB Microbiology
determination Gram staining / 1. Advertising
KOH - HB
2. Sales promotion

Accreditation- a certification, usually by professional 3. Personal selling

organizations, that designated standards have been
4. Publicity through non-commercial informational
achieved
presentations
Marketing plan- a formal strategy for maintaining,
identifying & attracting customers by incorporating all
the concepts & ideas discussed, an operational
document that outlines advertising strategies, such as
concepts & ideas, that an organization will implement
in order to generate leads & reach their target market
by maintaining & attracting customers

STEPS IN MAKING A MARKETING PLAN

1. Evaluation of the laboratory service area

2. Determination of test demand

3. Development of the appropriate test mix

4. Development of the market through concerted

efforts

5. Systematic evaluation of all test & service

Marketing system- a system wherein marketing data

is formally gathered, stored, analyzed, & distributed
to managers in accordance to their informational
needs on a regular basis, made up of different
records/intelligence systems

• Internal record system- in which medical,

financial, & operational parameters are
monitored for marketing information
• Marketing intelligence system- which obtain
everyday information about the development
in the marketplace
• Marketing research system- which is
organized to systematically collect, study &
report findings about specific marketing
opportunities
• Analytical marketing system- which uses
statistical & marketing model techniques to
evaluate the data obtained from these
systems