B1.

1 - The World of the Microscope

● Living things are made up of cells, but most cells are exceedingly small you need a microscope to see
them.
Important Units
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
1 meter = 100 cm
1 cm = 10 mm
1 mm = 1000 um (micrometers)
1 um = 1000 nm (nanometers)
● There are two types of microscopes.
● The first microscope is a light microscope which was developed in the mid 17th century. Their
development has continued ever since and are still widely used to look at cells. Light
microscopes use a beam of light to form an image and can magnify around 2000 times (X
2000). Light microscopes are cheap and can be used anywhere.
● The second type of microscope is the electron microscope. This invention was made in the
1930s and has allowed biologists to see and understand more about the sub-cellular
structures inside cells. Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons to form an image and
can magnify 2,000,000 times (X 2,000,000). Transmission electron microscopes give 2D
images with extremely high magnification and resolution. Electron microscopes are large,
expensive and must be kept in special conditions.

● Magnification is the how much bigger a sample is under the microscope that is in real life.
● Magnification can be calculated with this equation:
Total Magnification = Objective Lens Magnification × Eyepiece Lens Magnification
● Resolution is the ability is distinguished between two point of an image – the amount of detail.

B1.2 - Animals and Plant Cells

● The cells that make up your body are animal cells. All cells have some features in common.
Animal Cells
● An average animal cell is 10 - 30 um (micrometers) long. Human beings are also animals so human
cells are just like most other animal cells, and you will see the exactly same structure in them.
Plant Cells
● Plants are different organisms from animals. They make their own food by photosynthesis. They do
not move their whole bodies about one place to another. Plant cells are often bigger than an animal
cell – they range from 10 to 100um (micrometers) in length. Plant cells have all the features of a
typical animal cells; however, they contain additional features which are needed for distinct functions.

Organelles Function
Cytoplasm This is a jelly-like substance where chemical reactions
happen.
Nucleus This contains genetic information, like DNA, which
controls what happens inside the cell.
Cell Membrane This controls what substances move in and out of the
cells.
Cell Wall t is made from cellulose, which supports the cell and
strengthens the plant.
Ribosome They are found in the cytoplasm and is where protein
synthesis (where protein is made) occurs.
Mitochondria They are found in the cytoplasm and is where respiration
happens.
Vacuole t is filled with sap, which keeps the cell rigid.
Chloroplast t is where photosynthesis occurs and chloroplasts
contain a green pigment chlorophyll.

●
Animal cells do not have chloroplast, vacuoles, or a cell wall. These are all in plant cells. Animal cells
may also have vacuoles, but they are small and temporary. In animals, they are commonly used to
store or transport substances.
B1.3 - Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
 ● Animal and plant cells are an example of eukaryotic cells. All animals (including humans), plants, fungi
and Protista are eukaryotes.
● All eukaryotic cell has cell membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material which is enclosed in a nucleus.

Prokaryotic Cells
● Cells of bacteria are called prokaryotic cells. Bacteria are single-celled living organisms. They are 0.2
to 2.0 um (micrometres) in length and are one to two orders of magnitude smaller than eukaryotes.
● When you culture bacteria on an agar plate, you grow many millions of bacteria. This enables you to
see the bacterial colony with your naked eye.
● Bacteria has cytoplasm and a cell membrane surrounded by the cell wall; however, the cell wall does
not contain cellulose. In prokaryotic cells the genetic material is not enclosed in a nucleus. The
bacterial chromosome is a single DNA loop found free in the cytoplasm. They are called plasmid.

● Some bacteria have a protective coating slime capsule around the cell wall. Some types of bacteria
have a least one flagellum, a long protein tail that prokaryotes use to move around.
Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells Both
Has a nucleus Has no nucleus Contains DNA
Can contain chloroplasts s small (1-10µm) Has a cell membrane
s large (10-100µm) Has flagellum Contains ribosomes
e.g., plant and animal cells e.g., bacteria Has a cell wall
Contains mitochondria Contains chromosomes and plasmids

Organelles Animal Cell Plant Cell Prokaryotic Cell

Nucleus ✓ ✓ ✘
Cell Membrane ✓ ✓ ✓
Cytoplasm ✓ ✓ ✓
Cell Wall ✘ ✓ ✓
Vacuole ✘ ✓ ✘
Chloroplasts ✘ ✓ ✘
Plasmids ✘ ✘ ✓
DNA free in Cytoplasm ✘ ✘ ✓

B1.4 - Specialisation in Animal Cells

● Although the smallest living organisms are only single cells, they can carry out the functions of life.
Most organisms are bigger and are made up of lots of cells. Some of these cells can become
specialised to carry out jobs.
● As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form several types of specialised cells. Most types of
animal cells differentiate at an early stage of development, whereas many types of plants cells retain
the ability to differentiate throughout life.
● As a cell differentiates, it gets different sub-cellular structures that enable it to carry out a particular
function. It has a become a specialised cell. Some specialised cells, for example an egg and a sperm
cell, work individually. Other are adapted to work as part of a tissue, an organ, or a whole organism.
Specialised – Designed for a specific activity, job, or function.
Adapted – Cells have special shapes that help with their functions. We say that cells are adapted to do their work.

Nerve Cells
● Nerve cells are specialised to carry electrical impulses around the body of an animal. They transmit
messages from one part of the body to another. They provide a rapid communication system between
various parts of the body.
● Some adaptions of nerve cells are:
○ They have a long axon so it is easier to communicate over further distances.
○ They have many dendrites to make connection to other nerve cells.
○ The nerve endings or synapses contain lots of mitochondria to provide energy to make
transmitter chemicals.

Muscle Cells
● Muscle cells are specialised cells that can contract and relax. Muscle cells work together in tissues
called muscles. The muscles contract and relax in pairs to move the bone of the skeleton. Smooth
muscle cells form one layer of the layers of tissue in your digestive system and they contract to
squeeze the food through your gut.
● Some adaptions of muscle cells are:
○ They contain special proteins that slide over each other making the fibres contract.
○ They contain many mitochondria to transfer the energy needed.
○ They can store glycogen which can be used in cellular respiration to transfer the energy
needed.
Sperm Cells
● Sperm cells are usually released a long way from the egg they are going to fertilise. They contain
genetic information from the male parent. Sperm cells need to swim in order to fertilise an egg.
● Some adaptions of a sperm cell are:
○ They have a long tail which whips side to side so that it can move the sperm.
○ They have a large nucleus contains that genetic information to be passed on.
○ The acrosome (head) stores digestive enzymes for breaking down outer layers of egg.
○ They have lots of mitochondria in the middle section which provides energy to the tail.

B1.5 - Specialisation in Plant Cells

● Animals are not the only organisms to have cells specialised for a specific function within a tissue or
organ. Plants also have very specialised cells with clear adaptions for the job they carry out.
Root Hair Cells
● You find root hair cells close to the tips of growing roots. Plants need to take in lots of water (and
dissolved mineral ions). The root hair cells help them to take up water and mineral ions more
efficiently. They absorb minerals and nutrients form the soil.
● Some adaptions of root hair cells are:
○ They have an increased and large surface area for water to move into the cell.
○ They have a large permanent vacuole which speeds up the movement of water by osmosis.
○ They have many mitochondria to transfer the energy needed for active transport.
Photosynthetic Cells
● One of the ways plants differ from animals is that plants can make their own food by photosynthesis,
there are lots of plants cells that can carry out photosynthesis – and lots that cannot.
● Some adaptions of photosynthetic cells are:
○ They have chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll that traps the light needed for
photosynthesis.
○ They usually have continuous layers in leaves and outer layers of the stem of a plant in order
to absorb as much light as possible.
○ They also keep the leaf spread out so it can capture as much light as possible.

Xylem Cells
● Xylem is the transport tissue in plants that carrier's water and mineral ions from the roots to the
leaves and shoots and the rest of the plant.
● Some adaptions of xylem cells are:
○ The xylem cells are alive when they are first formed however when a chemical called lignin
build up in spirals in the cell walls. The cell then dies and forms a long hollow tub that allows
water and mineral ions to move easily through them.
○ The spiral of lignin makes them very strong to help them withstand the water pressure of
water moving up the plant and they also help support the plant stem.

Phloem Cells
● Phloem is the specialised transport tissue that carries the food made by photosynthesis around the
body of the plant. They transport sugar from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
● Some adaptions of phloem cells are:
○ The cells walls between the cells form sieve plates which allow dissolved food to move freely
up and down the tubes.
 ○ Phloem cells lose a lot of internal structures however they are supported by companion cells
which help to keep them alive. The mitochondria of the companion cells transfer the energy
for translocation – to move dissolved food up and down the plant in phloem.

B1.6 - Diffusion
● Diffusion is the spreading out of particles of any substance, in a solid or a gas, resulting in a net
movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration due to the random
movement of particles. Diffusion is a passive process which means that no energy is required.
Diffusion moves down a concentration gradient.
● Cells can use diffusion as a way of getting important particles in and out. Diffusion is particularly
useful as it does not use any energy. To get into a cell, particles have to pass through a
selectively-permeable membrane. This is only good for small molecules – like oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Factors affecting Diffusion
The rate of diffusion depends on four factors:
○ Concentration Gradient – The greater the difference in concentration, the faster the rate of
diffusion. This difference between two areas of concentration is called the concentration
gradient. The bigger the difference, the steeper the concentration gradient and the faster the
rate of diffusion.
○ Temperature – An increase in temperature means the particles in a gas or a solution move
around more quickly. When this happens, diffusion takes place more rapidly as the random
movement of the particles speeds up.
○ Distance – If the diffusion distance is small, diffusion happens faster because the particles do
not have as far to travel.
○ Surface Area – The larger the surface area the higher number of particles that will be able to
move in a given time so there will be a faster the rate of diffusion.

Why is diffusion an important biological process?

All living cells rely on diffusion to live. They use it for:
○ Getting raw materials for respiration (dissolved substances and gases)
○ Removing waste products (e.g., from respiration)
○ Plants use of photosynthesis (raw materials in, waste products out)

Diffusion in Living Organisms

1. Diffusion and Breathing
Oxygen is inhaled air diffuses through the lungs and into the bloodstream. The oxygen is then transported
throughout the body. Carbon dioxide is the waste gas produced by respiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses
from body tissues into the bloodstream and is exhaled via the lungs.
Alveoli
Alveoli are tiny sacs at the end of the bronchioles, in which gas exchange occurs.
How are alveoli adapted?
■ They are very thin – one cell thick.
■ They are covered by a network of fine capillaries, enabling gases to pass almost
directly between the lungs and bloodstream.
■ They are moist, encouraging gas molecules to easily dissolve.
■ They have a large combined surface area, allowing large amounts of gases to be
exchanged with each breath.

2. Diffusion and Digestion

Digestion breaks down large food molecules into small molecules such as glucose, amino acids and fatty
acids that can be easily absorbed. Small food molecules are usually absorbed in the small intestine,
diffusing against the intestine wall and into the bloodstream.
How is the small intestine adapted?
■ They are covered by a network of fine capillaries, enabling gases to pass almost
directly between the intestine and bloodstream.
■ Lots of villi create a large combine surface area, allowing large amounts of food
molecules to diffuse into the bloodstream.
■ They provide a short diffusion paths and rich blood supply.
B1.7 - Osmosis
● Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration of water
(dilute solution) to an area of lower concentration of water (concentrated solution) across a partially
permeable membrane.
● A partially permeable membrane is a membrane that has tiny holes in it which allows small molecules
to pass through it but not large molecules. An example of this is a cell membrane.
Osmosis in Cells
● Osmosis in plant and animal cells is different because of their different structures.
● Plant cells can take on lots of water because of the tough cell wall which resists bursting.
● Animal cells can burst if they take in too much water because they do not have a cell wall.
● If animal cells lose lots of water they shrink.
● When plant cells lose a lot of water, they become plasmolysis – the vacuole pulls away from the cell
membrane. This does not shrink the overall cell.

Solutions and Osmosis

Isotonic Solution – If the concentration of solutes in the solution outside the cell is the same as the internal
concentration, the solution is then isotonic to the cell.
Hypertonic Solution - If the concentration of solutes in the solution outside the cell is higher than the internal
concentration, the solution is then hypertonic to the cell.
Hypotonic Solution - If the concentration of solutes in the solution outside the cell is lower than the internal
concentration, the solution is then hypotonic to the cell.
Osmosis in Animals
● If a cell uses up water in its chemical reaction, the cytoplasm becomes more concentrate. The
surrounding fluid becomes hypotonic to the cell and more water immediately moves in by osmosis.
● If the cytoplasm becomes too dilute because more water is made in chemical reactions, the
surrounding fluid becomes hypertonic to the cell and water leaves the cell by osmosis. Osmosis
restores the balance in both cases.
● However, osmosis can also cause big problems. If the solution outside the cell becomes much more
dilute (hypotonic) than the cell contents, water will move in by osmosis. The cell will swell and may
potentially burst.
● If the solution outside the cell becomes much more concentrated and the cell will shrivel up and can
no longer survive. Once you understand the effect osmosis can have on cell, the importance of
maintaining constant internal conditions becomes clear.

B1.8 - Osmosis in Plants

Turgor
● Plants rely on osmosis to support their stems and leaves.
● Water moves into the plant cells by osmosis. This causes the vacuole to swell, which presses the
cytoplasm against the plant cell wall.
● The pressure builds up until no more water can physically enter the cell – this pressure is called
turgor. The cells do not burst when water moves in by osmosis because of the cell wall.
● Turgor pressure makes the cells hard and rigid, which in turn keeps the leaves and stem of the plant
firm and rigid.
● When a cell is turgid it is in water with a higher water concentration than its vacuole (hypotonic
solution). Water flows in by osmosis and the cell swells. It cannot burst because of the cell wall.
Flaccid
● If the solution surrounding the plant cells is hypertonic to (more concentrates than) the cells contents,
water will leave the cells by osmosis. The cells will no longer be firm and swollen – they become
flaccid (soft) as there is no pressure on the cell walls.
● At this point, the plants wilt as turgor no longer supports the plant tissues.
● If the cell is in an isotonic solution. It is neither plasmolysed or turgid. Water is moving in and out of
the cell at the same rate.
Plasmolysis
● If more water is lost by osmosis, the vacuole and cytoplasm shrink. And eventually the cell membrane
pulls away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis.
● Plasmolysis is usually only seen in laboratory experiments.
● Plasmolysed cells die quickly unless the osmotic balance is restored.
● If a cell is plasmolysed it is water with lower water concentration than its vacuole (hypertonic
solution). Water flows out by osmosis and the cell shrinks. The cell wall is rigid and does not collapse
like the cell membrane.
Required Practical
Method
1. Cute pieces of potato using a scalpel and ruler. The pieces of potato must all the be the same size.
2. Using a measuring cylinder measure 10ml of distilled water into a test tube. Repeat for 0.1M, 0.3M
and 0.5M glucose solutions.
3. Record the initial mass of the first piece of potato and then drop it into the distilled water.
4. Repeat step 4 for the other 3 solutions.
5. Leave the experiment to run for 40 minutes.
6. Remove each piece of potato and record the final mass. Calculate the change mass of the potato for
each solution.
B1.9 - Active Transport
● Active transport allows cells to move substances from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration. This movement is against the concentration gradient.
● Energy is needed for the active transport system to carry a molecule across the membrane and then
return to its original position. This energy is produced during cell respiration. ATP is the energy used
by active transport.
● The energy is needed to make carrier proteins which move particles the wrong way. For example,
glucose from the intestine into the blood.
● If a cell respires and releases a lot of energy, it can carry out lots of active transport. Examples include
root hair cells in plants and the cells lining your gut. Cells involved in a lot of active transport usually
have many mitochondria to release the energy they need.
● Active transport is widely used in cells. There are some situations where it is particularly important.
For example, mineral ions in the soil, such as nitrate ions, are usually found in very dilute solutions.
These solutions are more dilute than the solution within the plant root hair cells. By using active
transport, plants can absorb these mineral ions, even though it is against a concentration gradient.
● Crocodiles have special salt glands in their tongues which remove excess salt from their body against
the concentration gradient by active transport. This allows crocodiles to live in estuaries and even the
sea.
B1.10 - Exchanging Substances
What substances need to be transported in the human body?
● Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide – Transferred between cells and the environment during gas exchange.
● Urea – Diffuses from cells into the blood and then removed from the body by the kidneys.
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
● A ratio shows how big one value is when compared to another. We use these ratios to show how
easily an organism can exchange substances with its surrounding. The larger the surface area to
volume ratio the better at exchanging substances an organism is.
● In a small object the surface area to volume ratio is large. This means that diffusion distances are
short and simple diffusion is sufficient to exchange materials.

● As organisms get bigger the surface area to volume ratio gets smaller. The distance between the
centre of the organism and the surface area gets bigger so simple diffusion is no longer enough to
exchange materials between cells and the environment.
Surface Area = (Length * Width) * Number of Faces
Volume = Length * Width * Height
● Single Cells organisms have a high surface area to volume ratio so they can absorb enough of
substances they need from their surroundings.
● Multicellular organisms have much smaller surface area to volume ratio and therefore can't absorb
the substances they need from just the environment, so need specialised exchange surfaces to allow
for substance transport.
● Exchange surfaces are tissues specialised for the exchange of substances in the body and are adapted
for this function. These adaptions include:
○ Thin Membranes
○ Large surface areas
○ Lots of blood vessels
○ Ventilation
● Exchange surfaces are adapted in order to carry out their function. They have thin membranes to
make it easier for substances to diffuse across them. They also have large surface areas to allow lots
of a substance to diffuse at the same time. They are also lots of blood vessels to allow substances to
enter and leave the blood quickly. Some exchange surfaces have ventilation which is the movements
of air in and out of the tissue, this can be seen in the lungs.