Al Mawakeb Al Barsha

Science Department 2023-2024

Name: _______________________________ Grade 11 ____

Chemistry
The periodic Table

Mendeleeve was the first scientitst who arranged the elements using the
current design for the table which is called the modern periodic table. This
design made it easier for scientists to study the properties of these elements.

Mendeleeve arranged the elements according to increasing atomic number

where the elements that belong to certain column share similar properties.

The diagram above represents the modern periodic table arranged according
to increasing atomic number.

As you can observe, most elements that make the periodic table are metals
(blue colored in the table). Metals fill the left side of the stair (red colored
elements in the table), which we call them metalloids. Hydrogen is the only
exception in this table regarding metals and non-metals since it is placed to
the left of the stair but it is non-metal. It is placed there because it has atomic
number one, so the table should starts from it. Non-metals are situated to the
tight side of the stair.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

Metalloids share some properties of metals and other of non-metals. The

following table shows the comparison in properties between metals and non-
metals.

Metals Non-metals
Shiny Dull
Hard to be broken Brittle (easy to be broken)
Malleable (easily hammered) Non-malleable
Ductile (can be drawn into Non-ductile
wires)
Good conductor of heat and Bad conductor of heat and
electricity electricity

Some columns in the periodic table have special name such as:
a- Column 1: Alkali metal
b- Column 2: Alkaline Earth Metal
c- Column 17: Halogen
d- Column 18: Noble Gases

Alkali metal elements are the highest reactive elements since they need to lose
only one electron to obtain octet rule, while halogen elements are the second
reactive elements where they need only one electron to be gained to reach
octet rule. Alkali earth metal elements need to lose two electrons to obtain
octet rule. The column noble gas, contains gases (non-metals) that attain the
octet rule having fully outer energy levels which make the least reactive. Their
electron configuration always have a filly filled s and p sublevels which make
them have valence electron 8.

Elements in columns 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 are called

Representative Elements, because they display a wide range of physical and
chemical properties. Some scientists represent these columns into groups
using letter “A” as follow:
1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, and 8A respectively. And these numbers represent
the valence electron of these columns.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

The elements that belong to columns 3 to 12 are called transition elements,

and their columns are assigned by letter B and numbers 1B, 2B…. There is
two types of transition elements:

a- Transition Metals: Elements that are displayed in the main body of the
table. The highest occupied (s) sublevel and nearby (d) sublevel contains
electrons. They are characterized by the occupation of electrons in the (d)
block.

b- Inner Transition Metals: Elements that are displayed below the main
body of the periodic table. The highest occupied (s) sublevel and nearby
(f) sublevel contains electrons. They are characterized by the occupation
of electrons in the (f) block.

The table below classifies elements into blocks according to sublevel filled
by electrons.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

There are some trends in the periodic table which repeats itself in each
column and row. These trends are represented by:

a- Atomic Radius: is one half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms
of the same element when the atoms are joined.
The atomic size increases from top to bottom within a group, column and
decreases from left to right across a period
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

Group trends in the atomic size: As we go from level to other, the number of
occupied energy levels increases, so the distance between the electrons
(negative particles) and the nucleus (positive particles) which is considered as
shield effect increases, so the attraction force decreases between different
charges which make the distance increases. So atomic radius increases from
top to bottom of column.
Periodic trends in atomic size: As we go across the level from left to right,
the shield effect is the same, but the number of electrons in this level
increases, which make the attraction between the negative and positive
particles increases so distance decreases. So atomic radius decreases from left
to right of a period.
Note: As shield effect increases, the attraction between different charges
decreases and vice versa.

The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, is the net positive nuclear charge
experienced by an electron in an atom. The charge is usually not the full
nuclear charge because of the shielding effect. The formula used to calculate
the effective nuclear is charge is as follow:

Zeff = Z – S, where Z is the atomic number, or the proton number and S is the
shielding constant. S can be calculated by counting the number of electrons in
the shield layers.

For example, in the given Bohr diagram:

For the electrons in the outermost layer, there are

three layers before the outermost that form a shield
from the nucleus. So, S can be calculated by
counting the number of electrons in these 3 layers.

Zeff = Z – S
Zeff = 20 – 18
Zeff = 2

Moving from left to right in a row, the shield layers doesn’t change, so S will be
the same. But since the number of electrons in the outermost will increase,
thus the effective nuclear charge will increase from left to right, and this is the
reason behind the increase in attraction which results in decreasing the
atomic radius of the elements in the same period from left to right.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

Moving from top to down in a given column, we are adding new layer or level
so S will increase, and this effective nuclear charge will decrease. This
decrease results in decrease attraction and thus atomic size increases.

The diagram below represents the atomic size radius:

Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

b- Ionization Energy: the energy required to remove an electron from an

atom.
.
Group or column trends in the ionization energy: As we go from level to
other, the number of occupied energy levels increases, so the shield effect
increases, and the attraction force decreases between different charges. So
energy needed to remove and electron from an atom decreases from top to
bottom of column.
Periodic or row trends in ionization energy: As we go across the level from
left to right, the shield effect is the same, but the number of electrons in this
level increases, which make the attraction between the negative and positive
particles increases. So energy needed to remove and electron from an atom
increases from left to right of a period.
Moreover, metals tend to lose electron while non-metals tend to gain electron.
So as we move through a period from metals to non-metals the ionization
energy should be increased.
When electron is removed, the attraction force between the positive charges in
the nucleus and the remaining electrons will increase so the second ionization
energy is higher than the first one, and the third is higher than the second one
etc…

Ionization Energy increases in this direction

Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

The graph above represents the ionization energy of the elements in the first 3
rows. As you know, the trend across a row is increasing ionization energy.
Trend means that most elements will follow. But if you check the trend in row
2 and row 3 you will find some exceptions such as Boron and Oxygen in row
#2 and Aluminum and Sulfur in row #3.

Let us consider the example of Nitrogen and Oxygen. Based on the trend,
Oxygen should have higher ionization energy.

Check the electron configuration as well as the orbital diagram representation

of Nitrogen and Oxygen elements shown below.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

As shown above, the 2p sublevel in Nitrogen has a half full “Stable condition”
while the 2p sublevel in oxygen is not half full and not full “non-stable
condition”.
Since ionization energy is the energy to remove an electron. When you remove
an electron from Nitrogen you move from stable to non-stable condition while
in oxygen it moves from non-stable to stable condition. Since elements tend to
have stable condition, there is an exception here where Oxygen will have lower
ionization energy than oxygen.

c- Ionic size: is the distance between the nucleuses of the ions. This trend is
similar to that of the atomic radius, but its related to ions rather than atoms.

Group trends in the ionic size: same as the atomic size, the ionic size will
increases as we go from top to bottom since we have higher occupied energy
level so the shield effect increases so the attraction between the negative and
positive charges decreases so the distance increases.
Periodic trends in cation’s ionic size: When an atom that forms loses its
electrons or when an atom that forms anion gains electrons, the relative
number of protons related to that of the electrons is not balanced so the
attraction force will increase so the distance will decrease.

Ionic size increases in this direction

Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

Note: When two ions or atoms have same electron configuration (same number
of electrons), the one with higher atomic number will have smaller ionic size.

For example, O2-, F1-, Ne, Na1+ and Mg2+ all have 10e- but the atomic number
are 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 respectively. So Mg2+ with the higher atomic number
has the least ionic size and O2- with the least atomic number has the highest
ionic size.

Note: When an atom forms a cation by losing electrons, its size decreases,
because the shield effect is decreased since one energy level is removed, so
attraction force between electron and proton increases. When an atom forms
an anion by gaining electron, its size increases, because the repulsion force
between electrons increases.

d- Electro-negativity: is the ability of an atom of an element to attract

electrons when the atom is in a compound. This trend is similar to that of
ionization energy through the groups and periods. It is a property that can be
used to predict the type of bond that will be form during a reaction.

Non-metals that form negative ions by gaining electrons, have higher electro-
negativity opposite to the metals that form positive ions by losing electrons.
The following table shows the electronegativity of elements where fluorine
element has highest value. Since noble gas has full valence so they don’t have
electronegativity. Since noble gas has full valence so they don’t have
electronegativity.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

To identify the type of bond, you must subtract the electronegativity of these
two elements. Then follow the ranges below as follow:

If the difference is between 0 & 0.4  Nonpolar “Covalent bond” where the
electrons are shared equally. This is strong force that requires high force to
destroy it.

If the difference is between 0.5 & 1.5  Polar bond, is when the sharing of
electrons take place between two elements in which the electrons are shared
unequally.
The one with higher electro-negativity attracts more strongly and gains slightly
negative charge and is called partially negative. The one with less electro-
negativity less attracts the electrons and gains positive charge and is called
partially positive.

In case of H2O, Hydrogen has electronegativity 2.1 and Oxygen has

electronegativity 3.5. The difference between the two elements is:
(3.5 – 2.1 = 1.4)  Polar covalent bond

Since the electro-negativity of oxygen is more than that of hydrogen, so oxygen

is considered to be partially negative and hydrogen will be partially positive.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

If the difference is between 1.6 & 2  Polar covalent or ionic. If the two
elements are non-metals then it is polar covalent. If the two elements are
metal and non-metal then it is ionic bond where metals lose electrons to form
cations and non-metals gain electrons to form anions.

If the difference is more than 2  Ionic bond

The below table shows a summary to all trends in periodic table

Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

Ions are atoms that have positive charge (cations) or negative charges
(anions).
As mentioned in previous lesson, Electron dot structure is a diagram that
shows valence electrons in the atoms of an elements as a dots. Example:

Octet rule: states that in forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve the
electrons configuration of a noble gas. An octet is a set of eight, and that is
why the rule took its name because noble gases have 8 maximum valence
electrons except for helium, has only 2 maximum valence electrons.
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

All representative elements achieve octet rule.

Columns 1,2 and 13 elements lose 1,2 and 3 electrons respectively to form
cations with charges +1, +2 and +3 respectively.

Columns 15, 16, and 17 elements gain 3, 2, and 1 electrons respectively to

form anions with charges -3, -2 and -1 respectively.

To understand why the above trend is followed, use the valence electron of
each column. For example, column 1 has 1 valence electron.
So, the element can either gain 7 electrons to reach 8 in the same level or lose
1 electron to make the previous energy level full.

Sodium has 1 valence electron in energy level #3. It can gain 7 electrons to
make it full, or if it loses 1 electron the previous level, energy level #2, will be
full. Since losing 1 electron is easier in this case, then elements in column 1
will lose 1 electron to attain octet rule.

Originally, Sodium has 11 protons and 11 electrons as neutral atom.

+11 – 11 = 0 Charge
After losing 1 electron:
+ 11 – 10 = +1 Charge
Al Mawakeb Al Barsha
Science Department 2023-2024

Elements in column 17 can either gain 1 electron to reach 8 in the same level
or lose 7 electrons to make the previous energy level full.

Chlorine has 7 valence electrons in energy level #3. It can gain 1 electron to
make it full, or if it loses 7 electrons the previous level, energy level #2, will be
full. Since gaining 1 electron is easier in this case, then elements in column 1
will gain 1 electron to attain octet rule.

Originally, Chlorine has 17 protons and 17 electrons

as neutral atom.
+17 – 17 = 0 Charge
After losing 1 electron:
+ 17 – 18 = -1 Charge

The below diagram shows the configuration of oxygen element and the
diagram representing its electrons. When an ion is formed, electrons are either
added or removed from this diagram. For example, oxygen will gain 2 electrons
so the diagram will include two extra electrons.