Sustainability 16 01253 v2

sustainability
Article
Research on Efficiency of Permanent‑Magnet Synchronous
Motor Based on Adaptive Algorithm of Fuzzy Control
Wangsheng Sun 1,2 , Haiqing Si 1, *, Jingxuan Qiu 1, * and Jiayi Li 1
1 College of General Aviation and Flight, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Nanjing 210016, China; sws0824@fastechcn.com (W.S.); nuaa_ljy2022@nuaa.edu.cn (J.L.)
2 Nanjing Watt Electric Motors Corporation, Nanjing 211200, China
* Correspondence: sihaiqing@126.com (H.S.); qjingxuan@nuaa.edu.cn (J.Q.)
Abstract: In today’s world, energy is undoubtedly one of the most significant problems. As the
global electricity consumption continues to increase, electric motors, which are widely used as power
devices, account for an increasingly prominent proportion of the energy consumed. Motors now
consume about 45% of the total electricity in the world (60% in China); therefore, improving motor
efficiency has become an important way to achieve carbon emission reduction and sustainable devel‑
opment. The aim of this research was to devise a new strategy to reduce CO2 emissions other than by
building green power factories, because even the building of green power factories produces a great
deal of CO2 emissions, and improving motor efficiency to reduce CO2 emissions could contribute
to sustainable development worldwide. However, the improvement of motor efficiency encounters
challenges, such as nonlinearity and disturbances, which affect the motor performance and energy
efficiency. To address this issue, this paper proposes a control algorithm for permanent‑magnet syn‑
chronous motors (PMSMs) that is highly efficient and would be most widely used based on a fuzzy
control adaptive forgetting factor. It aims to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of the online pa‑
rameter estimation for the PMSM flux linkage, thereby achieving more precise and energy‑efficient
motor control. Firstly, the recursive least‑squares parameter estimation algorithm is used to identify
the parameters of the PMSM. This ensures that the parameter estimation values can be dynamically
updated with data changes, adapting to the time‑varying parameters. Secondly, the Padé approxima‑
tion method is adopted, which is a method that does not depend on the motor hardware, to improve
Citation: Sun, W.; Si, H.; Qiu, J.; Li, J.
the accuracy of the linearized model of the motor. Finally, a control algorithm based on the fuzzy
Research on Efficiency of
control adaptive forgetting factor algorithm is constructed on a physical experimental platform. A
Permanent‑Magnet Synchronous
comparison of these results proves that the control technology under this algorithm provides a new
Motor Based on Adaptive Algorithm
energy‑saving control strategy that can estimate the motor flux linkage parameters more accurately,
of Fuzzy Control. Sustainability 2024,
16, 1253. https://doi.org/10.3390/
help to reduce energy consumption, promote the use of clean energy, and achieve sustainable per‑
su16031253 formance optimization.
Academic Editor: Shuhua Fang

Keywords: fuzzy self‑adaption algorithm; permanent‑magnet motor; magnet chain factors; motor
Received: 4 December 2023 efficiency; forgetting factor
Revised: 18 January 2024
Accepted: 25 January 2024
Published: 1 February 2024
1. Introduction
Permanent‑magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) have the advantages of high power
efficiency, a small size, reliable performance, and a wide working speed range, which
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
make them the first choice in many applications, not only in the fields of electric vehicles,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
unmanned aerial vehicles, precision machine tools, and industrial robots, but also in the
distributed under the terms and
fields of home electric appliances, air conditioners, building ventilation, and pumps and
conditions of the Creative Commons fans. PMSMs are widely used in almost every field of electrics. Due to their widespread
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// use in every domain, research on the energy‑saving control technology of PMSMs is of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ very high commercial and societal value.
4.0/).
Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031253 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253 2 of 23
There have been many studies on motor energy‑saving technologies, with some aim‑
ing to improve the motor efficiency through motor hardware design changes and others
aiming to improve the motor efficiency through motor control technology. The methods of
hardware optimization are very clear: better winding materials, better motor ventilation
structure designs, and the use of rare‑earth materials, like neodymium iron boron (NdFeB),
to increase the magnetic flux density. There are two main energy‑saving control strategies
to improve the PMSM efficiency from the controlling point: the motor loss model and the
input‑power‑searching model [1–9]. The loss model controls the motor through the opti‑
mization of the set values of the magnetic flux (or winding current and other electric data),
which are calculated through mathematical methods. It has the advantages of a clear math‑
ematical concept, clear physical sense, and fast response speed. However, it also has some
disadvantages, like the difficulty in building the appropriate objective function. It is also
limited by the building of an appropriate loss model and the obtainment of the on‑time pa‑
rameters, as these parameters change very quickly when the motor’s winding temperature,
current, speed, on‑load torque, or working environment change. If the tracking, measure‑
ment, and obtainment of the parameters are not performed on time, the control effective‑
ness of the loss model will be reduced, which will cause the motor to work at sub‑optimal
efficiency. In addition, the building of an accurate mathematical model will make the ob‑
jective function very complex, the difficulty of the calculation will become much larger,
and the final control effectiveness will be weakened. Ma [10] conducted research on an
energy‑saving control strategy for induction motors. This method was based on a genetic
algorithm and compensated for equal iron losses at different speeds. Additionally, they
analyzed and presented strategies to ensure the effectiveness of the efficiency‑optimizing
control regarding the motor’s dynamic responses. Sun [11] proposed different optimiza‑
tion processes to meet multiple optimization objectives simultaneously. The effectiveness
of the optimization of the core loss and PM eddy loss was validated and the temperature
rise was suppressed effectively. Zhang [12] proved the motor control system’s convex
property based on a PMSM loss model through a multi‑objective optimization algorithm.
The author also proved that the electric vehicle’s efficiency could be improved via the op‑
timization of the time torque distribution.
The input‑power‑search‑based control strategy is an optimization technique that does
not require motor parameters and models, in contrast to loss models. The control system
monitors the motor input power in real time according to the motor operation status, and it
adjusts the motor stator’s magnetic chain synchronously so that the motor control system
operates at the lowest loss operating point. The search method control strategy is in fact an
optimization process, and it monitors the motor input power at the DC side of the inverter
and eventually reaches convergence through a continuous optimization search. However,
the input power search technique requires highly accurate input power monitoring, espe‑
cially in the case of light‑load motors with very low motor excitation fluxes and flat power
changes near the optimal efficiency operating point. This places high demands on the ac‑
curacy of the motor power detection and on noise suppression (permanent‑magnet motors
have high electromagnetic noise at low speeds). The input power search control strategy
has a long convergence time and is not suitable for applications involving frequent start‑
ing and braking. The algorithm causes torque pulsations during the search process, espe‑
cially when the input power function is smooth near the minimum value, which can easily
cause system oscillations and instability. In addition, the search method needs to detect
the power accurately, which imposes substantial hardware requirements for the system,
and the realization of the system has some difficulties. In recent years, the rapid devel‑
opment of intelligent control algorithms has provided new ideas for energy‑saving motor
control. Some scholars have proposed the optimization of the input power search algo‑
rithm based on fuzzy control when the motor is running under light loads, and the use
of fuzzy controllers to dynamically adjust the excitation component of the stator current
can expedite the convergence speed of the search method. Gautam [13] studied the opti‑
mal power management strategy to improve the motor efficiency. A novel hybrid online
DC minimum power fuzzy search efficiency optimization control algorithm was proposed
by Zhang [14], which contains a novel proportional factor extraction strategy. Compared
with other fuzzy search controls, this strategy can obtain the corresponding proportional‑
ity factors of input and output variables for each steady state condition of the motor online,
without simulation calculation, solving the problem of the system oscillating at the optimal
point of efficiency. Sheng [15] improved the operating efficiency of a permanent‑magnet
motor motion system in an urban rail system by means of an optimal magnetic chain/speed
control strategy and an efficiency‑optimized instantaneous power control strategy, as well
as harmonic suppression techniques.
These previous studies have demonstrated effectiveness in improving the motor effi‑
ciency, but the motor in any system does not work at a constant speed. With a constant
working temperature, its working process is a nonlinear process; during this process, the
motor’s speed, input power, resistance, and output torques are always changing. There‑
fore, the online parameters are always changing. Most previous researches has utilized ei‑
ther the “loss model” or the “input‑power‑searching model”. Some have focused on mixed
or combined applications. While these works are very helpful in the study of motor effi‑
ciency improvement, but they do not consider motor efficiency improvement through the
more accurate control of magnet chains’ nonlinear parameters. They also have in common
that any efficiency improvement can be treated as a method of loss reduction, and the best
way to improve the motor’s working efficiency is to implement loss reduction throughout
the whole motor operation process [16–19]. This necessitates the consideration of not only
one working point—for example, the rated power point—but all points, from the start to
the end. It also requires that the motor control algorithm can change its control strategy
according to the online parameter changes. The issue of how to make control algorithms
adaptable to a motor’s different working conditions, with better working efficiency at each
condition, has become an important research direction in motor control technology.
Compared to the existing literature, the main contributions of this paper are as follows:
(1) An algorithm is proposed to improve the PMSM’s online magnet chain values by
adjusting the forgetting factors based on fuzzy self‑adaption;
(2) The recursive least‑squares parameter estimation algorithm is adopted to identify the
parameters of the PMSM; this ensures that the parameter estimation values can be
dynamically updated with data changes, adapting to the time‑varying parameters;
(3) A control algorithm based on the fuzzy control adaptive forgetting factor algorithm
is constructed on a physical experimental platform.
2. PMSM Control Model Building

2.1. Building Field‑Oriented Control (FOC) for PMSM
In order to control the PMSM, we need to build field‑oriented control (FOC) into the
PMSM; before we build FOC, it is necessary to build the PMSM’s d–q synchronous rotation
coordinate system, as shown in Figure 1.
The shaft whose direction is the same as the motor rotor’s running direction is defined
as shaft d, the shaft that is in an orthogonal direction is defined as shaft q, and the coordinate
system that consists of shafts d–q is the PMSM’s synchronous rotation coordinate system.
Through building a dq rotating rectangular coordinate system on the rotor magnet,
the PMSM’s voltage vector equation is obtained:

 Vq = R1 iq + pLq iq + ωr Ld id + ψ f
(1)
 Vd = R1 id + p Ld id + ψ f − ωr Lq iq
where Vq , Vd are the PMSM’s dq axis voltage component; id , iq are the dq axis current com‑
ponent; Ld , Lq are the PMSM’s dq axis inductance; R1 is the phase resistance of the stator
winding; ψ f is the permanent magnet flux linkage; and ωr is the angle speed of the rotor.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253 The magnet torque produced by the PMSM is

Te = p p ψ f iq + Ld − Lq id iq (2)
Figure
Figure 1.1.PMSM’s
PMSM’sd–qd–q synchronous
synchronous rotation
rotation coordinate
coordinate system. system.
Here, p p is the motor pole pair. As we use a surface‑mounted magnet motor [11],
The shaft whose direction is the same as the motor rotor’s running direction
there is no salient effect, so we can control the exciting current with the above equation = 0,
fined
and theasmagnet
shaft torque
d, the canshaft that is intoan
be simplified be orthogonal direction is defined as shaft q, a
coordinate system that consists of shafts d–q is the PMSM’s synchronous rotation
Te = p p ψ f iq (3)
nate system.
Through
As building
one of the a dq rotating
normal control rectangular
methods for PMSMs, thecoordinate
basic conceptsystem on the rotor m
of field‑oriented
the PMSM’s
control (FOC) isvoltage vector
to address equationofisthe
the resolution obtained:
motor’s 3‑phase alternating current (AC)
voltage to Vd and Vq , and to address the resolution of the AC current to direct current (DC)
components id and iq . iq correspondsVqto=the
 R1imotor’s (
q + pLq iq + ωr Ld id +ψ f )
torque current, and id corresponds

to the excitation current. Thus, the motor’s magnet torque can be controlled through the
V
 d
independent control of the torque current,
led to the rapid development of AC motors’
= R
which ( )
1id + p Ld id +ψ f − ωr Lq iq
is simple and quick. The FOC theory has
control technology [20]. In the constant air flow
control system, FOC is implemented in the bottom control unit and is an indispensable part
where Vq, Vd are the PMSM’s dq axis voltage component; id, iq are the dq axis
of the framework. The concrete details are shown in Figure 2.
curren
ponent; Ld, Lq are the PMSM’s dq axis inductance; R1 is the phase resistance of th
2.2. ImprovedψPMSM
winding; f
Control
is the permanent magnet flux linkage; and ω r is the angle speed
Model’s Linearization
There are two types of motor parameter identification models: one model is identified
rotor. The magnet torque produced by the PMSM is
when the motor is in a stable working condition (stable model), and the other model is
model can identify the motor’s multi‑parameters,( ( ) )

identified when the motor is in a dynamic working condition (dynamic model). The stable
Te = p p ψ but
f iq + Ld − Lthe
it needs q imotor
d iq to be in a stable
working condition, and the identification process needs to be performed in several steps.
The dynamic p p isdoes
Here, model the not
motor pole
require the pair.
motorAs
to bewe in ause a surface-mounted
stable magnet mot
condition when it identifies
the online motor parameters, but it is not easy to identify several parameters together. This
there is no salient effect, so we can control the exciting current with the above equ
paper will use the dynamic model to identify the online motor resistance, inductance, and
0, andparameters.
other the magnet torque can be simplified to be
The first step in a motor’s parameter identification
Te = p is to transform the motor’s nonlin‑
pψ f iq
ear dynamic model into a linear regression model; the accuracy of the linear model will
affect the final parameter identification.
As one of the normal control methods for PMSMs, the basic concept of field-o
control (FOC) is to address the resolution of the motor’s 3-phase alternating curre
voltage to Vd and Vq, and to address the resolution of the AC current to direct curre
components id and iq. iq corresponds to the motor’s torque current, and id corresp
the excitation current. Thus, the motor’s magnet torque can be controlled through
Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253 5
Figure
Figure2.2.PMSM
PMSMFOC system
FOC schematics.
system schematics.
By inserting the PMSM’s magnet chain equation under the synchronous rotation co‑
2.2. Improved
ordinate systemPMSM
into the Control Model’sequation,
motor’s voltage Linearization
we obtain
There are two types of motor parameter identification models: one model is id
u = Rs id + Lsd ρid − ω1 Lsq iq (4)
fied when the motor is in adstable working condition (stable model), and the other m
is identified when the umotor q = Rs iis
q +in
Lsqaρidynamic
q + ω1 Lsd idworking
+ ωψr condition (dynamic (5)model).
stable model can identify the motor’s multi-parameters, but it needs the motor to be
All the values are momentary; ud , uq , iq , id are the voltage and current of the motor’s
stablewinding
stator working condition,
coordinate andd–q;
system theωidentification process needs to be performed in sev
1 is the angle speed of electricity; Lsd , Lsq are the
steps. Theofdynamic
inductance the statormodel
winding’s does notd–q;
shafts require thephase
Rs is the motorresistance;
to be in ψar stable condition wh
is the magnet
identifies
chain createdtheby online motor magnet;
the permanent and ρ is
parameters, but
theitdifferential
is not easy of ρ =several
to identify
expression d/dt. param
The process of linearizing the dynamic mathematical model of a permanent‑magnet
together. This paper will use the dynamic model to identify the online motor resista
synchronous
inductance,motor is as follows.
and other The permanent‑magnet synchronous motor voltage equa‑
parameters.
tion includes the current and time of the differential operation; the differential operator
The first step in a motor’s parameter identification is to transform the motor’s
reflects the current and time function curve on the tangent slope of the point. First of all,
linear
the dynamic
continuous model
voltage into aislinear
equation regression
discretized. model;
The current the is
curve accuracy of the linear
evenly divided into a model
affect the
number final parameter
of points. We take a pointidentification.
k on the curve, and the voltage–current relationship can
By inserting
be obtained the in
at this point PMSM’s magnet chain equation under the synchronous rotatio
the equation:
ordinate system into the motor’s voltage equation, we obtain
ud (k) = Rs id (k) − ω1 (k) Lsq iq (k) + ρid (k) Lsd (6)
u d = R s i d + L sd ρ i d − ω 1 L sq i q
uq (k ) = Rs iq (k) + ρid (k ) Lsq + ω1 (k) Lsd id (k) + ω1 (k)ψr (7)
In the expression, ρid (k ) Lsq is the q + L sq ρ i q + ω 1 L sd i d + ω ψ r
= R s iof
u q slope the point k’s tangent, from the principle of
calculus; the slope of point k’s tangent approximates the slope of the second line formed
by point
Allk the
andvalues
its critical
arepoint. Moreover, uthe
momentary; slope of the adjacent point k is closer to the
d , u q , iq , id are the voltage and current of the
slope of the obtained tangent line. When the point is infinitely close to point k, the slope of
tor’s stator winding coordinate system d–q; ω 1 is the
the tangent line can be considered to be equal. The shorter
angle speed of electricity; Lsd
the sampling time (the higher
aresampling
the the inductance
frequency), of the
themore
stator winding’s
accurate shafts
the linear modeld–q; R s is the phase resistance; ψ
[21–23].
the magnet chain created by the permanent magnet; and ρ is the
As mentioned above, the linear model of the PMSM in the synchronous rotation frame expres
differential
is given by Equation (8), where Ts is the sampling period.
of ρ = d / dt .
The process id (k) − id (k − 1)model of a permanent-ma
ud (of
k) linearizing
= Rs id (k) − ωthe dynamic mathematical
1 ( k ) Lsq iq ( k ) + Lsd (8)
synchronous motor is as follows. The permanent-magnet Ts synchronous motor vo
equation includes the current and time of theiddifferential (k) − id (k − 1operation;
) the differential o
ud (k) = Rs id (k) − ω1 (k) Lsq iq (k) + Lsd (9)
ator reflects the current and time function curve onTthe s tangent slope of the point. Fir
all, the continuous voltage equation is discretized. The current curve is evenly div
into a number of points. We take a point k on the curve, and the voltage–current rela
ship can be obtained at this point in the equation:
u d ( k ) = R s i d ( k ) − ω 1 ( k ) L sq i q ( k ) + ρ i d ( k ) L sd
The above is the general method of linearizing the dynamic mathematical model of
the permanent‑magnet synchronous motor in the synchronous rotating coordinate system
on the d–q axis. The traditional linearized motor method has a relatively low utilization
rate of the motor sensor data.
This paper proposes a method to improve the accuracy of the PMSM control model’s
linearization without changing the motor hardware. Similarly, the current curve is evenly
divided into several points. When taking point k from the curve, the tangent slope of point
k is approximated by a secant line composed of adjacent points. Different from the tradi‑
tional linearization method, Pard linearization not only takes point k before the k − 1 secant
line, but also takes point k + 1 of the second secant line. Through the two secant lines from
the three points, an approximation of the slope of the k tangent is obtained as the average
of the slope of the two secant lines.
This paper applies the fuzzy control’s self‑adaptive algorithm to adjust the motor’s
magnetic chain control parameters, so that the adjustment of the magnetic chain control
parameters of the motor can be quickly adapted to the motor winding temperature rise
brought about by changes in the resistance, current, and magnetic chain, to achieve higher
efficiency in the output. The method theoretically has higher approximate accuracy. There‑
fore, it results in a more accurate linear regression model under the same sampling frequency.
The sampling period is set as Ts , and the Pard linear model on the d–q axis of the
synchronous rotation frame of the permanent‑magnet synchronous motor is as follows:

id (k) = ad id (k − 1) + bd wr (k)iq (k) + wr (k − 1)iq (k − 1) + cd [ud (k) + ud (k − 1)] (10)
2Lsd − Ts Rs
ad = (11)
2Lsd + Ts Rs
Lsq Ts
bd = (12)
2Lsd + Ts Rs
Ts
cd = (13)
2Lsd + Ts Rs
ψr Ts
dq = − (14)
2Lsd + Ts Rs

iq (k) = aq iq (k − 1) + bq [wr (k)id (k ) + wr (k − 1)id (k − 1)] + cq uq (k) + uq (k − 1) + dq wr k + wr k − 1 (15)
To identify the motor parameters, it is necessary to transform the above linear model
into the linear regression model required for the identification algorithm [21]:
y(t) = φT (t)θ + ν(t) (16)

 
ad
θ =  bd  (17)
cd
Only the d‑axis formula in the motor’s linear model is needed to complete the identi‑
fication of the motor’s resistance, inductance, and other parameters, as shown below:

y t = id k (18)
 
i d ( k − 1)
φ ( t ) =  wr ( k ) i q ( k ) + wr ( k − 1 ) i q ( k − 1 )  (19)
u d ( k ) + u d ( k − 1)
At this point, the dynamic motor equation is transformed into the linear regression
model required by the identification algorithm, and the values of ad , bd , cd are estimated
through the recurrent least‑squares algorithm with the forgetting factors, and finally the
motor’s parameters of Rs , Lsd , Lsq are calculated indirectly:
1 − ad
Rs = (20)
2cd
bd
Lsd = (21)
2cd
1 + ad
Lsq = Ts (22)
4cd
2.3. The Influence of the PMSM’s Winding Temperature Changes

2.3.1. Motor Stator Resistance and Motor Winding Temperature Changes
Based on the nature of the material, it is known that when the PMSM operates, the
temperature of the electronic windings will rise continuously, and its resistance will also
change to a certain extent, which will then cause a number of unfavorable effects on the
control system. We assume that the standard ambient temperature of the motor is 25 ◦ C
and the rated temperature rises to 85 ◦ C. The relationship between the resistance and tem‑
perature according to the relevant technical regulations can be expressed as follows:
234.5 + T
Rs = Rs0 (23)
234.5 + T0
where T0 has a fixed value of 25 ◦ C, namely the ambient temperature of the motor; Rs0 is
the stator resistance value at room temperature, i.e., 25 ◦ C; T = T0 + ∆T is the temperature
after the motor is heated; ∆T is the temperature rise after the motor’s operation; Rs is the
stator resistance value after the temperature increases due to the motor’s operation. Ac‑
cording to Equation (21), the stator resistance change depends linearly on the temperature
change. Here, if we set the stator resistance to 2.875 Ω at room temperature (25 ◦ C), the
stator resistance is 3.706 Ω at 100 ◦ C, in accordance with Equation (20). Of course, the tem‑
perature of the motor may be affected by other factors (such as air conditioning or changes
in ambient temperature or weather) in actual operation, so the temperature may not rise
linearly over time, and the resistance may not increase linearly.
2.3.2. Magnetic Chain Observation and Temperature Changes

In the u‑i magnetic chain observation model, Formula (2) represents the relation equa‑
tion of the stator resistance, voltage, current, and magnetic chain. Since the starting posi‑
tion is determined, only the stator resistance affects the model, i.e., the accuracy of the
chain observation depends on the accurate estimation of the stator resistance. In order to
simplify the study of the effect of the temperature on the PMSM control system, assuming
that the temperature only has a large effect on the stator resistance (ignoring the effect of
the temperature on other properties of the motor), the actual stator magnetic chain of the
PMSM can be obtained, expressed as follows:
Z Z
ψs = us − ( Rs0 + ∆Rs )is dt + ψ0 = ψs0 − ∆Rs is dt (24)
where Rs0 is the stator resistance at room temperature (25 ◦ C); ψs0 is the stator’s magnetic
chain; and ∆Rs is the value of the stator resistance change. In the mathematical models of
the joint Formula (23) and the PMSM, the magnetic chain’s deviation due to the tempera‑
ture change is expressed as
Z Z
∆TRs0
∆ψs = ψs0 − ψs = ∆Rs js dt = is dt (25)
234.5 + T0
As can be seen from Equation (25), if the value of the temperature change ∆T is known,
then the size of the magnetic chain can be calculated. The value of ∆T can be obtained by a
temperature sensor, and then we can simulate the PMSM control strategy according to the
temperature change. When the system reaches the steady state, T 0 , and the thermal inertia
coefficient is large, i.e., the change in ∆Rs0 can be ignored in the integration time from T 0
to t, and |is | does not change, the error vector is expressed as
∆T0 Rρρ is e jθ
∆ψs (t) = − Ce jθs (26)
234.5 + T0 jω1
where ω1 is the power angle frequency; it is easy to see from the above formula that the
temperature change and speed ω1 will affect the steady‑state error, and the lower the speed
ω1 , the greater the effect of the temperature difference and current; otherwise, the greater
the speed ω1 , the smaller the impact.
2.3.3. Electromagnetic Torque and Temperature Change

For the convenience of analysis, only the effect of the temperature on the stator resis‑
tance is considered. Rs0 is the motor stator resistance value at room temperature (25 ◦ C).
∆Rs is the size of the change in the stator resistance value. ∆is is the final current change value.
We can obtain the actual torque of the permanent‑magnet synchronous motor as follows:
Z
3 ∆TRsϕ
T= ps { [us − ( Rs0 + )(is + ∆is )]dt}(is + ∆is ) (27)
2 234.5 + T0
The observed torque values are expressed as

Z
3
T′ = ps { [us − Rs0 (is + ∆is ))dt)}(is + ∆is ) (28)
2
Then, ∆T, namely the difference between the actual torque and the observed torque,
can be obtained:
∆T ′ = T − T ′ ̸= 0 (29)
In conclusion, according to ∆T ̸= 0, the deviation between the estimated and the
actual value, the temperature change does cause a change in the stator’s magnetic chain
but it affects the estimation of the electromagnetic torque. The error affects the precise
positioning of the magnetic chain and the choice of the switch table, and it even affects the
stability of the system.
3. Design of the Fuzzy Controller

As shown in Figure 3, the structure of the digital control fuzzy control system is sim‑
ilar to that of the conventional digital control system [24–28]. The system mainly includes
five parts: digital‑to‑analog conversion, a fuzzy controller, analog‑to‑digital conversion,
an actuator, and a sensor. In the system’s workflow, the goal is to first obtain the analog
quantity of the charged object from the input interface, convert the analog quantity into a
digital quantity through analog A/D, and then send it to the fuzzy controller. The fuzzy
controller outputs the digital signal after processing; after digital analog D/A conversion,
it is sent to the actuator for the charged object, such as the motor voltage and current. The
output signal after the controlled object passes through the sensor to output the electrical
signal is needed for convenient processing by the system. The system’s performance is
closely related to the accuracy and stability of the sensor; it plays an irreplaceable role in
the system. Now, we explain the most important part of the whole system: the fuzzy con‑
troller. This algorithm chooses to construct different types of controllers, such as robust
and sliding mode controllers, according to the specific application, the static response, the
control rules, and other factors.
and sliding
signal is neededmode controllers,
for convenient according
processing to system.
by the the specific application,
The system’s the static
performance is respo
control
closely rules,
related toand other factors.
the accuracy and stability of the sensor; it plays an irreplaceable role in
the system. Now, we explain the most important part of the whole system: the fuzzy con-
troller. This algorithm chooses to construct different types of controllers, such as robust
and sliding mode controllers, according to the specific application, the static response, the
control rules, and other factors.
Figure 3. Fuzzy control system structure.

Figure 4 is the structure diagram of the general fuzzy control system, which i
composed
Figure
Figure 44 isofthe
is four
the parts:diagram
structure
structure a knowledge
diagram of
of the base fuzzy
the general
general (rulecontrol
fuzzy base and
control database),
system,
system, which
which is a fuzzy unit,
is mainly
mainly
composed
ification,of
composed ofand
fouraparts:
four parts:
single aa knowledge
inferencebase
knowledge base (rule The
engine.
(rule base and
base and database),
fuzzydatabase), aa fuzzy
controller fuzzy unit,most
is the
unit, defuzz-
importan
defuzzi‑
ification,
fication, andaasingle
single inference
inference engine.
engine. The
The fuzzy
fuzzy controller
controller isis the
the most important part of
the fuzzy control system, and the structure of the fuzzy controller and of
and most important part the appr
the fuzzy control system, and the structure of the fuzzy controller and the approximate
inference
inference algorithm
algorithm are suitable
are suitable the for
for the theof
design
design ofdesign
fuzzyof
aa fuzzy
a fuzzyAmong
controller.
controller.
controller.
them, Among
the th
mostimportant
most important aspect
aspect is theis the rule,
fuzzy fuzzy rule, established
established based on the based on the
experience of experience
experts or of ex
Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253 manual
manual statistics,
statistics, and and it isthe
it is also also
mostthe most
basic basic condition
condition in the fuzzyin the fuzzy
control system.control syste
Figure 4. Fuzzy controller structure.
3.1. Structure of the Fuzzy Controller

Figure 5 shows the fuzzy controller structure, and its working processes ar
lows. First, we input the digital signal, which is processed via A/D conversion and
ferred to a fuzzy quality after fuzzification in the fuzzy inference engine. The fuz
ence engine includes fuzzy rules and databases; after the inference processing, it
the conclusion.
Figure Thestructure.
4. Fuzzy controller fuzzy conclusion is directly output after the signal is processe
expert
3.1. experience.
Structure of the FuzzyAtController
the same time, the conclusions are also fuzzy sets, and the
input to the
Figure nextthe
5 shows level
fuzzy ofcontroller
processing as clear
structure, values
and its workingafter defuzzification.
processes are as follows.
Usually,
First, we input thethe input
digital variable
signal, which isisprocessed
regarded viaas
A/Da conversion
vector, andandthe dimension of th
is transferred
to a fuzzy quality
controller refersafter fuzzification
to the numberinofthe fuzzycomponents.
vector inference engine. The the
Thus, fuzzy inference
larger the dimen
engine includes fuzzy rules and databases; after the inference processing, it outputs the
higher the control accuracy, but the subsequent control rules, operation amount
conclusion. The fuzzy conclusion is directly output after the signal is processed by the
ference
expert time increase
experience. sharply,
At the same so this
time, the paper are
conclusions uses the
also two-dimensional
fuzzy sets, and they willfuzzy
be cont
compensate
input to the nextfor the
level of nonlinear
processing aschange brought
clear values after about by the temperature changes.
defuzzification.
Figure
Figure5. 5. Two-dimensional
Two‑dimensional fuzzy
fuzzy controller controller
structure. structure.
Usually, the input variable is regarded as a vector, and the dimension of the fuzzy
Therefers
controller output
to theunumber
of the of
two-dimensional
vector components. fuzzy controller
Thus, the is the sizethe
larger the dimension, of the fo
factor, which is directly controlled by the output control of the fuzzy contro
higher the control accuracy, but the subsequent control rules, operation amount, and in‑
domain of the fuzzy controller input signal e (subset of error e) is e = {negativ
negative small, zero, positive small, increased} = {NB, NS, ZO, PS, PB}. The u
of the fuzzy controller output signal is u = {positive small, median, positive
{PS, PM, PB}. The relationship between input error e and output u is negat
ference time increase sharply, so this paper uses the two‑dimensional fuzzy controller to
compensate for the nonlinear change brought about by the temperature changes.
The output u of the two‑dimensional fuzzy controller is the size of the forgetting factor,
which is directly controlled by the output control of the fuzzy controller. The domain of
the fuzzy controller input signal e (subset of error e) is e = {negative large, negative small,
zero, positive small, increased} = {NB, NS, ZO, PS, PB}. The universe of the fuzzy controller
output signal is u = {positive small, median, positive large} = {PS, PM, PB}. The relationship
between input error e and output u is negative. The forgetting factor u’s value ranges from
0.8 to 1. The maximum affiliation method is used for defuzzification, i.e.,
ν0 = maxµν (ν), ν ∈ V (30)
where v is the variable value input to the fuzzy controller, which has a domain V. Then,
the fuzzy variable value’s tolerance e and tolerance change ec are determined. After the
fuzzy controller output u’ fuzzy sets and domains are determined, the subordination de‑
gree function and fuzzy language variable values need to be confirmed. Based on the ec,
u fuzzy sets, and domains, the fuzzy rules can be built with the fuzzy table as u1 , u2 , u3 …,
so the control value fuzzy set Uy is represented as u = u1 + u2 + u3 …+ uy .
The input and output membership function selects the triangle membership function


 0 x≤a


 x−a a ≤ x ≤ b
f ( x, a, b, c) = cb−−a (31)


x
b≤x≤c

 c − b
0 c≤x
The fuzzy forgetting factor least‑squares algorithm takes into account the influence of
the forgetting factor on the stability of the results and the convergence speed. In addition,
the algorithm changes the size of the forgetting factor through the error between the current
estimate and the real value, thus improving the stability and convergence speed of the
identification results.
3.2. Establishment of Fuzzy Control Rules

The fuzzy rule table is converted from the voice control rule table, usually summariz‑
ing the operation experience in the form of “if…then…”, namely the linguistic fuzzy rule.
Taking dual‑input–single‑output system as an example, the input quantities are set as the
error e and the error variation ec, and the output quantity is u. The first step is to determine
the fuzzy domain of the input variable, which can be based on the actual measurement of
the data or theoretical derivation; the second step is to determine the fuzzy subset cover‑
ing the fuzzy theory domain and its membership function; the third step is to form a fuzzy
rule, where the method is to find the membership of the corresponding subset based on
each set of data. Finally, each rule is given a strength according to the situation. If there is
a contradiction in the rules, they will be discarded based on the principle of “leaving the
big ones behind the small ones” [29–32]. In this way, the fuzzy rule table is formed. Due
to space limitations, this paper summarizes the rules in Table 1.
3.3. Algorithm Design of the Fuzzy PID Controller

The principle of the fuzzy PID controller algorithm is shown in Figure 6: the given
value and feedback value of the deviation inputs, namely the Proportion (P), Integral (I),
and Differential (D), are added to compose the control value, in order to achieve the pur‑
pose of controlling the controlled object. The specific algorithm design is shown in the
flow chart in Figure 5, which includes the Proportion (P), Integral (I), and Differential (D)
processes. Each process is explained as follows.
The control law is written as a representation of the transfer function as
ki
G(s) = kp + + kd s (33)
s
Among them, k p is the proportion coefficient, k i is the integral coefficient, and
k d is the differential coefficient.
1. Fuzzy
Table In rule table.
the actual operation, the PMSM’s load torques and winding temperatures change
U constantly,
EC and the motor’s online characteristic parameters also change. Thus, the
PMSM’s working
NB system
NM is nonlinear.
NS The normalZO PID control
PS cannot
PMmeet the require-
PB
E ments of the precision control of the system. Fuzzy self-adaptive PID control is a type of
NB intelligentPBcontrol method
PB according PB to the theory
PB and method
PM of fuzzyPMmathematics.
PS The
NM experiences PB and operations
PB in the fuzzy
PB set, and
PM the related
PM information,
PS are input
ZO into
NS the computation, and the computation will finally realize the parameter adjustments
PM PM PM PS PS ZO NS ac-
ZO PM PM PS ZO NS NM
cording to the actual operation conditions, fuzzy referencing, and online PID parameterNM
PS set [33–38].PSThe input amount
PS ZOfuzzy controller
of the NS NSpaper is determined
in this NM NBdevi-
by
PM ZO ZO NS NM NM NB NB
ation e and deviation e change ec, so k p , k i , k d are adjusted in real time according to
PB ZO ZO NM NB NB NB NB
the actual operation situation. Figure 7 is the block diagram of the fuzzy PID system.
Figure6.
Figure Fuzzycontroller
6. Fuzzy controllerPIDPID algorithm
algorithm designdesign
process.process.
Proportion Process (P): The deviation signal e(t) changes proportionally, and the con‑
trol effect is the most obvious; it reflects the system in the “current” status. When the
system runs, once a deviation occurs, the proportion regulation immediately acts to re‑
duce the deviation. Thus, the larger the proportional coefficient kp , the faster the system’s
response speed, but the greater the overregulation. Conversely, the response is slow and
does not meet the regulation requirements.
Integral Process (I): This has the effect of reducing and eliminating static errors, which
adjusts the signal of the past. The larger the system, the faster the static error of the system,
and the smaller the system, the slower the static error of the system. However, if it is too
large, the system response will experience oversaturation in the early stage, which can
cause
Figurethe system
7. Fuzzy response
PID todiagram.
schematic be over‑regulated. If it is too small, it is difficult to eliminate
the static error, and the adjustment accuracy is affected.
Differential Process
In this paper, (D): Thisand
the deviation hasdeviation
the role ofchange
improving
of thethe dynamic
motor speedcharacteristics of
are taken as the
the system,
input of thewhich
fuzzy includes
controllerthe
to debugging of future
correct the system insignals.
real time.It The
aimscorrection
mainly toformula
suppress is
the change in deviation to any direction and predict the change in deviation in advance.
as follows:
If it is too large, the response will be known in advance and the adjustment time will be
kp = kp0 + Δkp (34)
extended, thus reducing the anti‑interference ability of the system.
The normal PID control is linear, and the deviation e(t) is obtained from the given
value yd (t) and the actual output value yT(it)=: Ti 0 + Δ Ti (35)
e(t) = yd (t) − y(t) (32)
The control law is written as a representation of the transfer function as
ki
G (s) = k p + + kd s (33)
s
Among them, k p is the proportion coefficient, k i is the integral coefficient, and kd is
the differential coefficient.
cording to the actual operation conditions, fuzzy referencing, and online PID parameter
set [33–38]. The input amount of the fuzzy controller in this paper is determined by devi-
ation e and deviation e change ec, so k p , k i , k d are adjusted in real time according to
the actual operation situation. Figure 7 is the block diagram of the fuzzy PID system.
In the actual operation, the PMSM’s load torques and winding temperatures change
constantly, and the motor’s online characteristic parameters also change. Thus, the PMSM’s
working system is nonlinear. The normal PID control cannot meet the requirements of the
precision control of the system. Fuzzy self‑adaptive PID control is a type of intelligent con‑
trol method according to the theory and method of fuzzy mathematics. The experiences
and operations in the fuzzy set, and the related information, are input into the computa‑
tion, and the computation will finally realize the parameter adjustments according to the
actual operation conditions, fuzzy referencing, and online PID parameter set [33–38]. The
input amount of the fuzzy controller in this paper is determined by deviation e and devi‑
ation e change ec, so k p , k i , kd are adjusted in real time according to the actual operation
Figure 6. Fuzzy controller PID algorithm design process.
situation. Figure 7 is the block diagram of the fuzzy PID system.
Figure7.7.Fuzzy
Figure FuzzyPID
PIDschematic
schematicdiagram.
diagram.
Inthis
In thispaper,
paper,the
thedeviation
deviationand
anddeviation
deviationchange
changeof ofthe
themotor
motorspeed
speedare
aretaken
takenas
asthe
the
inputof
input ofthe
thefuzzy
fuzzycontroller
controllerto
tocorrect
correctthe
thesystem
systemininreal realtime.
time.The
Thecorrection
correctionformula
formulaisis
asfollows:
as follows:
k p =k k=p0k+ +∆kΔ pk (34)
p p0 p (34)
Ti = Ti0 + ∆Ti (35)
Ti = Ti 0 + Δ Ti (35)
k
ki = P (36)
Ti
Td = Td0 + ∆Td (37)
kP
kd = (38)
Td
where k p0 , Ti0 , Td0 are the initial values of the operating parameters of the motor
control system.
The fuzzy algorithm’s motor controller overcomes the influence on the motor’s online
parameters, which is caused by the motor’s working temperature changes; it improves
the efficiency and accuracy of the motor’s magnetic chain online parameter estimation,
reduces the interference of the motor parameter change on the motor control, enhances
the robustness of the control algorithm, realizes the more efficient operation of the motor
control system, and achieves an energy‑saving effect.
4. Design of the Experimental Set‑Up

4.1. PMSM Experimental Sample Preparation
For the purpose of verifying the energy‑saving effect of the fuzzy control adaptive
algorithm modified in this study, a PMSM motor was constructed, and the specifications
are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Specifications of the PMSM for experiment.
Variable Parameter
Number of phases 3
Number of poles 8
Rated voltage (VDC) 300
No load speed (rpm) 2850
No load current (a) 0.63
Rated speed (rpm) 2850
Rated torque (N·m) 2.5
Rated power (W) 750
Rated current (A) 3.8
Max peak torque (N·m) 2.9
4.2. Production of the Motor Drive Circuit Board and Control Circuit Board with the Fuzzy
Adaptive Algorithm
In this experiment, the control motor drive’s PCB and the operation control circuit’s
PCB were constructed. The driver hardware system includes the front‑stage power in‑
put and noise filtering circuit; the intermediate stage includes the single‑phase full‑wave
rectification and power factor correction (PFC) circuit, and the rear stage is the core DC‑
AC inverter circuit. The noise filtering is mainly composed of a nanocrystalline inductor,
which is used to eliminate the conduction emission and radiation emission noise caused
by the switching action in the drive operation and meet the requirements of IEC61000‑3‑2
for electromagnetic compatibility. The full‑wave rectification adopts a 25 A/1000 V glass
passivation chip. The PFC adopts an independent PFC control chip ICE2PCS03 from the In‑
fineon Company, which has protection functions, a wide input voltage, fast starts, and an
over‑voltage, over‑current, and‑over temperature. Moreover, the maximum power factor
is close to 1. The DC‑AC inverter circuit mainly uses the Intelligent Power Module (IPM)
FNB41560, 15 A/600 V, which is used to convert the DC into an AC output with a variable
voltage frequency and send it to the DC brushless motor, so as to control the speed and
power of the motor. The core of the drive is a set of high‑performance sine wave vector
control algorithms (FOC). variableThe
voltageTMS320F28027
frequency and send is ita to
motor‑controlled 32‑bit
the DC brushless motor, digital
so as micro‑
to control the
processor developed speed by theandTexas
power Instrument
of the motor. The core of the drive
Corporation, withis a an
set instruction
of high-performance
periodsineof
wave vector control algorithms (FOC). The TMS320F28027 is a motor-controlled 32-bit
16.67 ns (60 MHz). The efficient code of the Harvard Bus Architecture is adopted with
digital microprocessor developed by the Texas Instrument Corporation, with an instruc-
both the C/C++ and assembly tion period oflanguage. The configuration
16.67 ns (60 MHz). The efficient code includes
of the Harvard32 kBusonArchitecture
Flash, with is
an 8‑way enhanced complementary output PWM control peripheral, a 13‑way 12‑bit32ADC
adopted with both the C/C++ and assembly language. The configuration includes k on
Flash, with an 8-way enhanced complementary output PWM control peripheral, a 13-way
port, and up to 22 universal GPIO control ports. There is also an integrated timer, serial
12-bit ADC port, and up to 22 universal GPIO control ports. There is also an integrated
communication, and timer, comparators.
serial communication, and comparators.
The PMSM driver and The control
PMSM driverPCB design
and control schematic diagram
PCB design schematic is shown
diagram is shownininFigure 8.
Figure 8.
Figure 8. PCB design schematic diagram.

Figure 8. PCB (‘×’ indicates
design schematic diagram.that there are
(‘×’ indicates 2 or
that more
there are 2wires connected
or more here).
wires connected
here).
4.3. Comparison of the Test with the Inverter Used in the Experiment
The comparison and testing is implemented with one standard universal frequency
inverter controller for PMSMs from the Delta Control company. The model number is
MS300, the specification is rated as input voltage AC200–240 V (−15%~+10%), 50/60 Hz,
with an output rated current of 5 A and a carrier frequency of 2–15 kHz. Delta is a well-
4.3. Comparison of the Test with the Inverter Used in the Experiment
The comparison and testing is implemented with one standard universal frequency
inverter controller for PMSMs from the Delta Control company. The model number is
MS300, the specification is rated as input voltage AC200–240 V (−15%~+10%), 50/60 Hz,
with an output rated current of 5 A and a carrier frequency of 2–15 kHz. Delta is a well‑
known inverter manufacturing brand with a full range of AC and DC motor frequency
conversion controller products. The device’s working principle is to transfer the input
power of 220 V 50 HZ to 310 VDC with a frequency of 2–15 kHz input to each phase of
the PMSM; the motor speed is determined by the frequency input into the motor winding
phase. With an inverter controller, the PMSM can constantly output a certain power at
a certain speed. With one motor controller, which is built with a fuzzy algorithm, this
controller can perform online analysis on the motor’s magnet chain parameters and control
the motor’s magnet strength in the conversion direction, which allows the input power to
Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253
be precisely input to the point to precisely output a certain power at a certain speed.
15 of 24
4.4. Testing of the Equipment

In Figure
4.4. Testing 9, the dynameter testing equipment is presented. Its input voltage is 230 V,
of the Equipment
50 Hz. It has9,the
In Figure the ability to testing
dynameter sustain a 5 N·mis load
equipment test,Its
presented. with
input50 groups
voltage ofV,
is 230 data per second at
50 fastest
its Hz. It has the ability
stable to sustain
function whena 5 N·m load test, with
performing 50 groups
on‑load of data per second at
testing.
its fastest stable function when performing on-load testing.
Figure 9. On-load magnetic powder dynamo testing meter.

Figure 9. On‑load magnetic powder dynamo testing meter.
The dynameter’s working principle means that it can output variable damping
The
on the dynameter’s
motor working
shaft to allow principle
the motor to run atmeans that
a certain it can
speed output
when they variable
are con- damping on the
motor
nected,shaft to allow
so, based on thethe motor
motor to function,
power run at a certain speed when they are connected, so, based
on the motor power function, P = T × ω (39)
P = T×ω (39)
where T is the motor output torque with the same value as the damping force, and w
where T is speed
is the angle the motor output
or motor RPM.torque with
Thus, this the can
device same value
easily as the
measure thedamping
motor’s force, and w is
output
the power,
angle torque,
speed and speed.
or motor RPM. Thus, this device can easily measure the motor’s output
power, torque, and speed.
4.5. Comparison of the Experimental Results
Figure 10 below shows the parameters of the PMSM motor with inverter control
during the testing of the dynamometer: the motor speed(转速) is 2751 rpm, the cur-
Figure 10isbelow
rent(励磁电流) 5.95 A,shows thepower(输入功率)
the input parameters of the PMSM
is 876 motor
W, the with
output inverter control during
power(输
出功率)
the testing of the
is 772.7 W,dynamometer: the motor is
and the output torque(转矩) speed
2.683 (转速)
N·m. is 2751 rpm, the current (励磁电流)
is 5.95 A, the input power (输入功率) is 876 W, the output power (输出功率) is 772.7 W, and
the output torque (转矩) is 2.683 N·m.
Figure 10 below shows the parameters of the PMSM motor with inverter control
during the testing of the dynamometer: the motor speed(转速) is 2751 rpm, the cur-
Sustainabilityrent(励磁电流)
2024, 16, 1253 is 5.95 A, the input power(输入功率) is 876 W, the output power(输 15 of 23
出功率) is 772.7 W, and the output torque(转矩) is 2.683 N·m.
4, 16, 1253 16 of 24
(a)
(b)
Figure 10. Inverter-controlled PMSM with loadPMSM
Figure 10. Inverter‑controlled testing. (a)load
with Inverter-controlled PMSM with load
testing. (a) Inverter‑controlled PMSM test-
with load
ing results displayed; (b) results
testing Inverter-controlled PMSM during load
displayed; (b) Inverter‑controlled PMSM testing onload
during thetesting
dynameter.
on the dynameter.
Figure 11 belowFigure
shows11thebelow shows theof
parameters parameters
the PMSM of the PMSM
motor motor
with thewith thecontrol
fuzzy fuzzy control
algorithm on the dynamometer: the motor speed (转速) is 2758 rpm, the current (励磁电流)
algorithm on the dynamometer: the motor speed(转速) is 2758 rpm, the current (励磁电
is 5.8 A, the input power (输入功率) is 865 W, the output power (输出功率) is 738.9 W, and
流)is 5.8 A, the input power
the output (输入功率)
torque is 865
(转矩) is 2.558 m. the output power(输出功率) is 738.9
N·W,
W, and the output torque (转矩) is 2.558 N·m.
The comparison and testing considers the same PMSM motor controlled by a standard
universal inverter and the self‑built fuzzy algorithm controller, each for 5 min and 2 h.
Moreover, we measure the motor’s three‑phase resistance of U, V, W both in 5 min and 2 h,
and the resistance measurement is implemented every 5 min.
Figure 11 below shows the parameters of the PMSM motor with the fuzzy control
algorithm on the dynamometer: the motor speed(转速) is 2758 rpm, the current (励磁电
流)2024,
Sustainability is 5.8 A, the input power(输入功率) is 865 W, the output power(输出功率) is 738.9
16, 1253 16 of 23
W, and the output torque(转矩) is 2.558 N·m.
16, 1253 17 of 24
(a)
(b)
Figure 11. Self-built fuzzy-controller-controlled motor during load
Figure 11. Self‑built fuzzy‑controller‑controlled testing.
motor (a)load
during Fuzzy-controller-con-
testing. (a) Fuzzy‑controller‑
trolled PMSM with load testing
controlled results
PMSM displayed.
with load testing(b) Fuzzy-controller-controlled
results PMSM with load
displayed. (b) Fuzzy‑controller‑controlled PMSM with
testing on the dynameter.
load testing on the dynameter.
Figure 12 below is a complete curve diagram of the change in U, V, W, i.e., the three‑
The comparison and testing considers the same PMSM motor controlled by a stand-
phase resistance value, and the temperature rise of the motor winding when the permanent‑
ard universal inverter
magnetand the self-built
motor + frequencyfuzzy algorithm
converter controller,
is subjected to the 750each for test.
W load 5 minTheand 2 curve
purple
h. Moreover, we measure the motor’s
is the ambient three-phase
temperature, resistance
and the yellow curveofisU,
theV,winding
W bothtemperature.
in 5 min and When the
◦ ◦
2 h, and the resistance measurement
ambient temperature is 26
implemented every 5temperature
C, the final winding min. is stable at 53 C.
Figure 12 below is a complete curve diagram of the change in U, V, W, i.e., the three-
phase resistance value, and the temperature rise of the motor winding when the perma-
nent-magnet motor + frequency converter is subjected to the 750 W load test. The purple
curve is the ambient temperature, and the yellow curve is the winding temperature. When
the ambient temperature is 26 °C, the final winding temperature is stable at 53 °C.
024, 16, 1253 18 of 24
ty 2024, 16, 1253 18 of 24
Figure
Figure12.12.Inverter-controlled
Inverter-controlledmotor
motor winding
winding temperature
Figure 12. Inverter‑controlled temperature
motor winding changes.
changes. (Theyellow
(The
temperature yellowcurve
changes. curve is
thethe
(Theisyellow wind-is the wind‑
wind-
curve
inging
temperature; the
temperature; ing purple curve
the temperature; is
purple curvethe the
is the environment
environment
purple temperature).
temperature).
curve is the environment temperature).
Figure
Figure1313isisaacomplete
Figure 13
complete curve of
of the
the change
is a complete
curve in U,
curve in
change of U,V,
the V, W,i.e.,
change
W, i.e., theV,
in the
U, three-phase resistanceresistance
W, i.e., the resistance
three-phase three‑phase
value, and the value,
change and
in the
the change
motor in the motor
temperature temperature
rise of therise
value, and the change in the motor temperature rise of the permanent-magnet motor of the permanent‑magnet
permanent-magnet motor motor
+ + + fuzzy
fuzzy
fuzzyadaptive adaptive
adaptivecontroller controller
controllerduring
during theduring the
the 750 W load750 W load
load test. test.
test. The The
Thepurple purple
purplecurve curve is
curveisisthe theambient tempera‑
ambient
theambient
temperature,and ture,
andthe and the
theyellow yellow
yellow curve curve
curve is is the winding
is the winding temperature.
winding temperature. When the ambient temperature is
temperature, temperature.When Whenthe theambient
ambient tem-
tem-
26 ◦ C, the final winding temperature is stable at 54 ◦ C.
peratureisis2626°C,
perature °C,the
thefinal
finalwinding
winding temperature
temperature is is stable
stableatat54 54°C.°C.
Figure 13. Fuzzy-controller-controlled motor winding temperature changes. (The yellow curve is
Figure 13. Fuzzy‑controller‑controlled motor winding temperature changes. (The yellow curve is
the winding
Figure temperature; the purple curve
13. Fuzzy-controller-controlled is the
motor environment
winding temperature).
temperature changes. (The yellow curve is
the winding temperature; the purple curve is the environment temperature).
the winding temperature; the purple curve is the environment temperature).
From Figures 12 and 13 and Table 3, it can be found that the motor is operating under
a constant load of12
From Figures 2750
andrpm andTable
13 and 750 W3,output.
it can beWith
foundthethat
extension of the
the motor is operation
operating time
under
(from 5 min to 2 h), the temperature of the coil current and the output torque
a constant load of 2750 rpm and 750 W output. With the extension of the operation time of the motor
will be
(from subjected
5 min to 2 h),tothe
changes in the line
temperature of of
thethe magnetic
coil currentchain of the
and the motor.
output Figure
torque of11 below
the motor
4, 16, 1253Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253 19 of 24
18 of 23
From Figures 12 and 13 and Table 3, it can be found that the motor is operating under
shows the permanent-magnet motor measured after 5 min; the output power is 750 W,
a constant load of 2750 rpm and 750 W output. With the extension of the operation time
with 2.60 N·m torque, andtothe
(from 5 min 2 h),output speed isof2752
the temperature rpm.
the coil Theand
current motor efficiency
the output torquevalue is
of the mo‑
89.2%. tor will be subjected to changes in the line of the magnetic chain of the motor. Figure 11
below shows the permanent‑magnet motor measured after 5 min; the output power is
750 W, with
Table 3. Motor winding’s 3-phase ·m torque, and
2.60 Nresistance the output speed is 2752 rpm. The motor efficiency value
changes.
is 89.2%.
Motor Type U Phase (Ω) V Phase (Ω) W Phase (Ω)
Table 3. Motor winding’s 3‑phase resistance changes.
PMSM + Inverter (in 5 min) 2.347 Ω 2.353 Ω 2.351 Ω
Motor Type
PMSM + Inverter (in 2 h) 2.496UΩPhase (Ω) 2.488VΩ Phase (Ω) 2.47WΩPhase (Ω)
PMSM + Inverter
PMSM + Fuzzy Controller (in 5(inmin)
5 min) Ω Ω
2.3342.347 Ω Ω
2.3342.353 Ω Ω
2.342.351
PMSM + Inverter (in 2 h) 2.496 Ω 2.488 Ω 2.47 Ω
PMSM + Fuzzy Controller
PMSM + Fuzzy (inController
2 h) (in 5 min) 2.5712.334
Ω Ω 2.5762.334
Ω Ω 2.552
2.34ΩΩ
PMSM + Fuzzy Controller (in 2 h) 2.571 Ω 2.576 Ω 2.552 Ω
Figure 13 also shows the tendency of the resistance and winding temperature to be
stable after a periodFigure 13 also shows
of running, whichtheproves
tendency of the
that the resistance and winding
control system will temperature to be
remain stable
stable after a period of running, which proves that the control system will remain stable
too, so the stability of the system is satisfactory [39,40].
too, so the stability of the system is satisfactory [39,40].
Figure 14 shows that14
Figure the value
shows thatofthe
the motor
value of theefficiency is 86.2%
motor efficiency at the
is 86.2% input
at the inputof
of 229.7
229.7 V,
V, 5.895 A and the output
5.895 of 750
A and the W,of2.60
output 750 N·m, N·m,rpm.
W, 2.602751 2751 rpm.
Figure 14. Inverter-controlled PMSM’s efficiency

Figure 14. Inverter‑controlled PMSM’swhen its winding
efficiency is cold is(after
when its winding running
cold (after for for
running 5 min).
5 min).
The comparisonThe of comparison

Figures 14ofandFigures 14 and 15 shows that the temperature and resistance value
15 shows that the temperature and resistance value
of the coil of the motor are different for the same motor for 5 min and 2 h, and a change
of the coil of theinmotor are different
the resistance for cause
value will the same motor
a change forcoil
in the 5 min andwhile
current, 2 h, and
a changea change
in the in
coil
the resistance value will
current cause
will causeaa change
change inin
thethe coil current,
magnetic chain. Ifwhile a change
this change is not in the coilthen
corrected, cur-the
efficiency of the motor will be reduced at 750 W and 2750 rpm under
rent will cause a change in the magnetic chain. If this change is not corrected, then the the same load output
efficiency of the conditions,
motor willfrom 89.3% to 86.2%.
be reduced at 750The following
W and 2750 figure shows the
rpm under theload
same testload
conducted
outputon
the permanent‑magnet motor controlled by the fuzzy adaptive controller. The parameter
conditions, fromvalues
89.3% to 86.2%. The following figure shows the load test conducted on
are measured when the motor runs for 5 min. At the input of 229.8 V, 5.967 A and
the permanent-magnet
output ofmotor
750 W andcontrolled
2749 rpm,bythethe fuzzy efficiency
operation adaptiveofcontroller.
the motor is The
83.9%. parameter
values are measured when the motor runs for 5 min. At the input of 229.8 V, 5.967 A and
output of 750 W and 2749 rpm, the operation efficiency of the motor is 83.9%.
24, 16, 1253 20 of 24
Figure 15. Inverter-controlled PMSM’s efficiency when its winding is hot (after running for 2 h).
Figure 15. Inverter‑controlled PMSM’s efficiency when its winding is hot (after running for 2 h).
Figure 15. Inverter-controlled
As can PMSM’s
be foundefficiency
in Figures when
16 andits winding
17, after isthe hottemperature
(after running for 2motor
of the h). coil rises
after As
2 h can be foundunder
of running, in Figures
the same16 andload 17,ofafter
750 W theandtemperature
the speedof ofthe
2750motor
rpm,coil
the rises
control-
As can be found
after
ler 2 in
with Figures
h fuzzy
of running, 16under
adaptive and 17, same
the
control after thethe
load
adjusts temperature
of magnetic
750 W andchain of the
the speedmotor
of 2750
parameters coil
rpm,
of rises
the the con‑in a
motor
after 2 h of running,
timely under
troller with
manner the and
fuzzysame loadcontrol
adaptive of 750achieves
continuously W andthe
adjusts the speed of
magnetic
convergence 2750
chain rpm, the of
andparameters
optimization, control-
the motor in the
increasing
a timely manner
ler with fuzzy adaptive
efficiency control and
of the motor continuously
adjusts fromthe 83.9% achieves
magnetic
to 87.7%. convergence
chain parameters
Figure and optimization,
14 shows of
thethe increasing
motor
parameter in a the
values meas-
timely manner and efficiency of
uredcontinuously the motor from 83.9%
achieves convergence
for the permanent-magnet to 87.7%.
motor with the Figure
andfuzzy 14 shows
optimization, the parameter
increasing
adaptive controller values
afterthe2 hmea‑
of load
sured for the permanent‑magnet motor with the fuzzy adaptive controller after 2 h of load
efficiency of thetest
motoroperation:
from 83.9%input—230.4
to 87.7%. V, Figure
5.749 A,14output—750 W, 2767 rpm,
shows the parameter efficiency—87.7%.
values meas- It
test operation: input—230.4 V, 5.749 A, output—750 W, 2767 rpm, efficiency—87.7%. It
also proves
ured for the permanent-magnet that the fuzzy
motor adaptive algorithm in the motor controller can monitor the mo-
also proves that the fuzzy with
adaptivethe algorithm
fuzzy adaptive controller
in the motor after
controller can2 monitor
h of load the mo‑
tor’s operationV,
test operation: input—230.4 time andA,
5.749 perceive
output—750any changes W, in therpm,
2767 motor’s magnetic chain. At
efficiency—87.7%. It the same
tor’s operation time and perceive any changes in the motor’s magnetic chain. At the same
also proves that time,
the accordingtotothe
time,fuzzy adaptive
according thechange
change
algorithm in in
the the
in themagnetic
magneticmotor chain,
it canittimely
controller
chain, can timely
canadjust adjust
monitor thethe
the controlmo-control
param‑ pa-
rameters,
eters,and
enable enable the
the motor motor control parameters to achieve better convergence, theenable
more the
tor’s operation time perceive anycontrol
changes parameters to achieve
in the motor’s better convergence,
magnetic chain. At enable
the same
more
accurate matching of the motor and controller, increase the system’s output efficiency, andeffi-
accurate matching of the motor and controller, increase the system’s output
time, according ciency,
to the change in the magnetic chain, it can timely adjust the control pa-
improveand improve
its energy its energy efficiency.
efficiency.
rameters, enable the motor control parameters to achieve better convergence, enable the
more accurate matching of the motor and controller, increase the system’s output effi-
ciency, and improve its energy efficiency.
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Fuzzy-algorithm-controlled
Fuzzy‑algorithm‑controlled PMSM’s
PMSM’sefficiency when
efficiency its its
when winding is cold
winding (after
is cold running
(after running
for 5 min).
for 5 min).
Figure 16. Fuzzy-algorithm-controlled PMSM’s efficiency when its winding is cold (after running
for 5 min).
Figure 17. Fuzzy‑controller‑controlled PMSM’s efficiency when its winding is hot (after running for 2 h).
Figure 17. Fuzzy-controller-controlled PMSM’s efficiency when its winding is hot (after running for
2 5.
h).Conclusions
From the testing results of the fuzzy algorithm controller and the inverter‑controlled
5.PMSM
Conclusions
motor, as shown in Figures 16 and 17, we can find that the fuzzy‑controller‑controlled
motor’s
From output efficiency
the testing is increased
results of the from
fuzzy83.9% to 87.7%.
algorithm This means
controller andthat
thethe fuzzy algo‑
inverter-controlled
rithm controller has better self‑adaptation on the online magnet
PMSM motor, as shown in Figures 16 and 17, we can find that the fuzzy-controller-con- parameter searching and
adjustment procedure. It performs well in terms of motor control with the same output,
trolled motor’s output efficiency is increased from 83.9% to 87.7%. This means that the
and it even increases the motor’s output efficiency after 2 h of running when the wind‑
fuzzy algorithm controller has better self-adaptation on the online magnet parameter
ing resistance changes. Meanwhile, the inverter‑controlled motor’s efficiency drops from
searching and because
89.2% to 86.2% adjustment procedure.
the inverter cannotItadjust
performs well in
the control terms
itself when ofthe
motor
motor control
winding with the
same
resistance changes after 2 h of running. This experiment proves that the motor’s running when
output, and it even increases the motor’s output efficiency after 2 h of running
the winding
efficiency can resistance
be improved changes.
with better Meanwhile,
online magnet thechain
inverter-controlled
parameter control. motor’s
Moreover, efficiency
drops from
the fuzzy 89.2% to 86.2%
self‑adaption because
algorithm couldthe be inverter
applied incannot adjust
the magnet the control
chain’s itself when
online control to the
improve the whole system’s output efficiency, thus reducing the
motor winding resistance changes after 2 h of running. This experiment proves that the energy consumption and
achieving
motor’s sustainable
running performance
efficiency can beoptimization.
improved with Although
bettertheonline
fuzzy algorithm
magnet chaincontroller
parameter
could increase the motor’s working efficiency via on‑time magnet chain parameter adjust‑
control. Moreover, the fuzzy self-adaption algorithm could be applied in the magnet
ment, but it is limited by the motor design, and it could be treated as a combination of the
chain’s online control to improve the whole system’s output efficiency, thus reducing the
online loss model and input‑power‑searching model. The fuzzy controller will work at all
energy
times toconsumption
reduce the loss and achieving
or input powersustainable
via accurateperformance
magnet chain optimization. Although the
parameter adjustment,
fuzzy algorithm
improving controller
the model’s could increase
convergence the motor’s function.
and self‑adjustment working efficiency via on-time mag-
net chain parameter
One limitation adjustment,
of this experiment but it isthe
is that limited by the motor design,
fuzzy‑algorithm‑controlled and start‑
motor’s it could be
treated as a combination of the online loss model and input-power-searching model.
ing magnet chain value set does not contain the most optimized values, which means that The
its starting
fuzzy efficiency
controller is 83.9%;
will work thistimes
at all is lower than the
to reduce theinverter‑controlled
loss or input power motor’s starting mag-
via accurate
efficiency,
net which is 89.2%.
chain parameter This means
adjustment, that the original
improving magnet
the model’s chain value set
convergence andin self-adjustment
the fuzzy
algorithm does not include the most optimized values and it could be improved. However,
function.
attributed to the algorithm’s on‑time convergence, the controller increases the motor’s ef‑
One limitation of this experiment is that the fuzzy-algorithm-controlled motor’s start-
ficiency during the motor’s magnet chain parameter adjustment. On the other hand, the
ing magnet
inverter cannot chain value
react set motor’s
to the does not contain
magnet the parameter
chain most optimized values,
adjustment; which means
it continues to that
its
usestarting efficiency
the original valuesisto83.9%;
controlthisthe is lower
motor than
when thethe inverter-controlled
motor’s motor’s starting
magnet chain parameters
efficiency,
change, causing the motor’s working efficiency to decline. We believe that if the set
which is 89.2%. This means that the original magnet chain value fuzzyin the
al‑ fuzzy
algorithm does notvalue
gorithm’s starting include
set isthe most optimized
optimized, more researchvalues andbeitimplemented,
could could be improved.and the How-
fuzzyattributed
ever, self‑adaptive algorithm
to the could control
algorithm’s on-timetheconvergence,
motor’s working efficiency atincreases
the controller its highestthe mo-
pointefficiency
tor’s at each working
during status.
the motor’s magnet chain parameter adjustment. On the other
The goal of this research
hand, the inverter cannot react was to
to devise a new strategy
the motor’s magnetto reduce
chain CO2 emissions
parameter besides it con-
adjustment;
building green power factories. When people discuss sustainability, they largely focus on
tinues to use the original values to control the motor when the motor’s magnet chain pa-
the building of solar panel power factories, wind turbines, and nuclear power factories,
rameters change, causing the motor’s working efficiency to decline. We believe that if the
fuzzy algorithm’s starting value set is optimized, more research could be implemented,
and the fuzzy self-adaptive algorithm could control the motor’s working efficiency at its
highest point at each working status.
The goal of this research was to devise a new strategy to reduce CO2 emissions be-
but the building of such factories produces CO2 . Thus, the best means of reducing CO2
is to reduce the electricity needed. According to statistical data in China, in the year of
2022, China consumed 8.6372 trillion KWH electricity; all types of motors consumed about
60% of the total electricity, which is 5.18 trillion KWH. Although a 1% motor efficiency
increase appears very small, if it is applied worldwide, such an improvement would lead to
a saving of 51.8 billion KWH electricity in China, or a saving of 155.4 billion KWH electricity
around the world. In our experiment, the permanent‑magnet motor’s working efficiency
was increased by 3% compared to its value at the beginning, and its efficiency was 1.5%
higher compared to the inverter‑controlled motor. It will be possible to achieve higher
efficiency at each working status when the algorithm is optimized regarding its starting
magnet chain value set. We believe that this research will be very meaningful in terms of
sustainable development.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.S. and J.Q.; funding acquisition, H.S; supervision, H.S;
methodology, W.S. and J.Q., validation, W.S. and J.Q., writing—original draft, W.S., J.Q. and J.L.;
writing—review and editing, W.S., J.Q. and J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported in part by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities under Grant NS2022094; in part by the State Key Laboratory of Mechanics and Con‑
trol for Aerospace Structures (Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics) under Grant No.
MCAS‑S‑0224G03; in part by the First Batch of Industry‑University‑Research Cooperative Collabora‑
tive Education Projects of the Ministry of Education in 2021 under Grant 202101042005; in part by the
Experimental Technology Research and Development Project of Nanjing University of Aeronautics
and Astronautics Project under Grant SYJS202207Y; in part by the Research on Safety Risk Assess‑
ment Technology and Method of Human–Computer Intelligent Interaction in Civil Aircraft Cockpit
under Grant U2033202; and in part by Research and Practice Innovation Program for Nanjing Uni‑
versity of Aeronautics and Astronautics graduate students under Grant xcxjh20232003.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: Author Wangsheng Sun was the chief executive officer of the company Nanjing
Watt Electric Motors Corporation. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential
conflict of interest.
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Academic Editor: Shuhua Fang

Sustainability 2024, 16, 1253. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031253 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. PMSM Control Model Building

model can identify the motor’s multi‑parameters,( ( ) )

y(t) = φT (t)θ + ν(t) (16)

2.3. The Influence of the PMSM’s Winding Temperature Changes

2.3.2. Magnetic Chain Observation and Temperature Changes

2.3.3. Electromagnetic Torque and Temperature Change

The observed torque values are expressed as

3. Design of the Fuzzy Controller

Figure 3. Fuzzy control system structure.

Figure 4. Fuzzy controller structure.

3.1. Structure of the Fuzzy Controller

ν0 = maxµν (ν), ν ∈ V (30)

3.2. Establishment of Fuzzy Control Rules

3.3. Algorithm Design of the Fuzzy PID Controller

e(t) = yd (t) − y(t) (32)

The control law is written as a representation of the transfer function as

4. Design of the Experimental Set‑Up

Table 2. Specifications of the PMSM for experiment.

Figure 8. PCB design schematic diagram.

4.4. Testing of the Equipment

Figure 9. On-load magnetic powder dynamo testing meter.

Figure 14. Inverter-controlled PMSM’s efficiency

The comparisonThe of comparison

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