A review of hybrid-electric energy

management and its inclusion in vehicle sizing

Christopher Perullo and Dimitri Mavris
School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine state-of-the-art in hybrid-electric propulsion system modeling and suggest new methodologies
for sizing such advanced concepts. Many entities are involved in the modelling and design of hybrid electric aircraft; however, the highly
multidisciplinary nature of the problem means that most tools focus heavily on one discipline and over simplify others to keep the analysis reasonable
in scope. Correctly sizing a hybrid-electric system requires knowledge of aircraft and engine performance along with a working knowledge of
electrical and energy storage systems. The difficulty is compounded by the multi-timescale dynamic nature of the problem. Furthermore, the choice
of energy management in a hybrid electric system presents multiple degrees of freedom, which means the aircraft sizing problem now becomes not
just a root-finding exercise, but also a constrained optimization problem.
Design/methodology/approach – The hybrid electric vehicle sizing problem can be sub-divided into three areas: modelling methods/fidelity,
energy management and optimization technique. The literature is reviewed to find desirable characteristics and features of each area. Subsequently,
a new process for sizing a new hybrid electric aircraft is proposed by synthesizing techniques from model predictive control and detailed conceptual
design modelling. Elements from model predictive control and concurrent optimization are combined to formulate a new structure for the
optimization of the sizing and energy management of future aircraft.
Findings – While the example optimization formulation provided is specific to a hybrid electric concept, the proposed structure is general enough
to be adapted to any vehicle concept which contains multiple degrees of control freedom that can be optimized continuously throughout a mission.
Originality/value – The proposed technique is novel in its application of model predictive control to the conceptual design phase.
Keywords Hybrid-electric, Vehicle sizing, Propulsion, Energy management, Aircraft engine
Paper type Conceptual paper

Introduction weight, which is in turn a function of the integration of the rate

Hybrid-electric propulsion is defined as a vehicle in which
propulsion energy is available from two or more kinds of
energy stores, sources or converters; at least one source must
be electrical in nature (Lin, 2001). Hybrid-electric system
components may include some or all of the following: a gas
turbine or thermal engine, fuel cells, batteries, capacitors,
generators, motors, distribution systems, gear boxes and
controllers. Some studies have shown fuel reductions from 22
per cent to 60 per cent compared to current fuel-powered
aircraft (Harmon, 2006; Bradley, 2011) A unique feature of
designing a hybrid-electric system is the additional degree of
freedom(s) available to the system through energy management.
While a conventional aircraft sizing analysis only requires the
assumption that thrust is equal to drag to set engine fuel flow
(i.e. power), a hybrid system allows propulsive energy to be
provided from a multitude of sources. This transforms the
aircraft sizing process from one of root-finding to one founded
on optimization of the additional degrees of freedom. Because
an aircraft’s performance is dependent on its instantaneous
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
86/6 (2014) 550 –557
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1748-8842]
[DOI 10.1108/AEAT-04-2014-0041]
of fuel consumption to that point in the mission, the choice of
how to use energy from fuel (variable weight) or electric (fixed
weight) sources becomes closely coupled to the entire mission
profile. This paper will examine the current status of
hybrid-electric vehicle analysis and will propose the next steps
to develop a next-generation modelling and simulation
environment.
Challenges in modelling
The modelling and design of a hybrid-electric aircraft requires
a diverse set of tools and disciplines. Many different timescales
are involved due to the dynamic nature of the problem. At the
highest level, an aircraft mission analysis is performed by
integrating a series of discrete time steps on the order of
minutes. At the engine and energy storage level, timescales
can be on the order of seconds to capture the dynamics of
charging and discharging capacitors and batteries. At the
electrical system level, timescales can be on the order of
microseconds to capture the transients associated with
electrical system control. For most sizing problems, the
electrical transients can be neglected for a well-designed
system because they are several orders of magnitude smaller
than the engine and aircraft dynamics. Essentially, the degree
of hybridization will affect fuel consumption rate. In turn, this
affects the vehicle performance, thereby affecting thrust
required. In turn this will be affected by the time varying
degree of hybridization. The following section reviews selected
literature to examine how this close coupling between the
engine and airframe has been addressed to date.

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 Hybrid-electric energy management and vehicle sizing
Christopher Perullo and Dimitri Mavris
A review of hybrid-electric sizing methodologies
Hybrid electric vehicle analysis can be sub-divided into three
distinct elements. First, the modelling method and level of
fidelity must be chosen. Second, the energy management
approach must be chosen. This involves a method to
parameterize the degree of hybridization (e.g. the amount of
power drawn from each source at a given time step). Finally,
an optimization method may be required to determine the
optimum energy management at each point in the mission and
from a global perspective.
Aircraft modelling methods
Three types of modelling tools are present in literature,
detailed physics-based models, first-order analytical models
and linearized models created from higher fidelity tools.
Detailed models, while more accurate, present challenges in
terms of integration and run time. First-order models, while
easy to optimize, often neglect secondary effects that lead to
over prediction of system benefits. Linearized models, often
used in control design, capture some of the behaviour of
higher fidelity models, but have difficulty in handling discrete
events within the system.
Bradley (2011) presents a hybrid-electric configuration in
which an electric motor is attached to the fan shaft of
a conventional turbofan engine. The motor allows for the engine
core to be idled at cruise conditions, enabling a reduction in fuel
consumption. The aircraft carries removable batteries which
provide energy to the electric motor. The study was carried out
using detailed proprietary performance tools. As part of this
study, a set of public domain performance tools within the
Numerical Propulsion System Simulation (NPSS) was also
developed that are capable of addressing engine operability
issues such as stall at low power, and the interrelationship
between hybrid turbofan operation and energy management
(Perullo, 2014). Unfortunately, as is the case with most
detailed design tools, the engine and aircraft analysis are
completely isolated, leading to a manual iteration between
tools to size the configuration. This also makes it very difficult
to address the proper energy management routine. To address
this, the assumption of constant electrical power draw
throughout the mission was made. This enables the sizing and
analysis to be performed, but means the resulting system may
have room for further optimization.
Nam (2005) overcomes the limitation of predefined energy
profiles by expanding the traditional aircraft constraint
analysis to include fixed weight sources. The work further
breaks the mission into different segments, namely, take off,
climb, cruise, descent and loiter. Finally, the hybrid-electric
system is represented as a chain of elements with energy
conversion efficiencies and specific weights/powers. This
approach allows the designer to work within an integrated
framework and enables optimization of the energy usage
profile at each predefined mission segment. This approach is
similar to Harmon (2006) in which the mission is segmented
into different operating phases, and the energy management is
specified to be a constant during each segment. An optimizer
can then determine the optimum constant power usage per
segment. Schoemann (2012) takes this method one-step
further and introduces efficiency performance maps into
analysis; however, all of these methods simplify the sizing
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process by using first-order equations to model the aircraft and
engine. Use of first-order equations precludes the inclusion of
detailed cycle effects such as performance maps, Reynolds
effects and aircraft drag polars. All of these methods work well
as pre-sizing tools; however, they cannot account for detailed
effects such as the interaction between the electric systems and
the gas turbine, as mentioned previously.
Hybrid-electric aircraft sizing and optimization
methods
Traditional aircraft sizing and optimization methods have been
modified to account for various forms of non-gas turbine
propulsion systems. While many of these methods do not include
energy management into the actual sizing and optimization
process, they still provide useful starting points for inclusion of
energy management into the optimization. Martins (2013)
divides the optimization problem into two distinct classifications,
monolithic and distributed architectures. Monolithic architectures
solve a single optimization problem using a single high-level
optimizer. While there are many different sub-types of
monolithic architectures, they all suffer in performance and
complexity as dimensionality is increased due to the larger
number of coupling variables between analysis modules.
Nonetheless, several methods presented in the literature make
very effective use of a monolithic architecture to solve the
hybrid-electric sizing and optimization method. Choi (2005)
and Reynolds (2013) provide multi-disciplinary analysis and
optimization (MDAO) environments for completely fuel cell
and completely battery driven propulsion systems. Choi
(2005) includes analysis and sizing modules
for the fuel cell, balance of plant, heat exchangers and
propulsor. The analysis modules are executed in a sequential
manner. The optimizer is responsible for ensuring consistency
between inputs and outputs of each analysis module so that
the resulting vehicle is a “closed” solution. This method works
well for a single energy source where each analysis module can
be executed independently. In the case of a fuel cell, prior
usage will not affect future performance; however, in the case
of a fully battery-driven propulsion system, as described in
Reynolds (2013), the total usable energy of the battery is
dependent upon the current draw at each instantaneous
moment throughout a flight. The integrated effect of each
discrete point in time should be accounted for to identify total
available energy for a given battery size. Reynolds neglects this
detail and assumes battery energy capacity is dependent only
on size. If the battery is the only source of energy for
propulsion then neglecting the trade between power draw and
useable energy capacity may be a fair assumption because the
power draw will be relatively constant; however, when
multiple energy sources are involved, this trade becomes more
important. Pornet (2014) presents a monolithic environment
that includes integrated analysis modules for multiple energy
sources. This approach circumvents the energy management
optimization problem by adapting the methods from Harmon
(2006), where the energy split between power sources is
defined by aircraft mission segment. A high-level optimizer
can then choose energy splits by segment. This method is
effective for a small number of segments assuming constant
power splits and two energy sources. This paper will present
an extension to this type of formulation, which will be general
 Hybrid-electric energy management and vehicle sizing
Christopher Perullo and Dimitri Mavris
enough to allow for more than two energy sources and will
remove the burden of having to give a high-level optimizer
control over the parameterization of each mission segment.
As mentioned, Martins (2014) also describes a second
classification of MDAO environments called distributed
architectures. A primary purpose of using a distributed
approach is to reduce the solution and convergence time. By
breaking a large optimization problem with many independent
parameters into several self-contained, smaller sub-problems,
solution time can be reduced. An example of this approach
can be found in Skillen (2008). Skillen proposes a distributed
approach to the problem of selecting the sweep angle for a
variable sweep wing for a supersonic aircraft. This is analogous
to selecting the energy usage split between the battery and gas
turbine in a hybrid electric system. Rather than segmenting
the mission into phases and handing the sweep angle for each
phase to a single optimizer to solver simultaneously, Skillen
breaks the mission analysis into discrete analysis modules.
Each analysis module then contains a local optimizer that
determines the optimal sweep before passing the vehicle state
at the end of that segment to the next analysis module. A
high-level optimizer can then control design parameters to
minimize the overall fuel burn. The following sections will
discuss how energy management (i.e. the optimization of
multiple degrees of freedom throughout a mission) has been
treated in the literature. Energy management will define how
energy usage is parameterized within the context of an MDAO
environment.
Energy management approach
While hybrid electric energy management is a relatively new
challenge for aerospace, the problem has been extensively
explored for land-based vehicles. There are many similarities
in the problem definition, but aircraft sizing has one important
distinction. The rate of fuel consumption affects vehicle
weight by a significant margin during a mission. Vehicle
weight drives lift-dependent drag. Therefore, the operation
and optimal degree of hybridization is dependent on all points
preceding and following a given time step. It should be noted
that the reviewed energy management and control
optimization strategies assumed a sized system already existed.
They did not take into account the impact of mission
optimization on the sizing of the vehicle itself.
Serrao (2011), Salmasi (2007) and Bayindir (2011) present
comprehensive overviews of energy management strategies.
While the three reviews differ somewhat in categorization, the
types of energy management can be roughly grouped into the
following areas: rule based, fuzzy rule based, optimization
based, global optimization and real-time optimization.
Rule-based (heuristic) optimization requires the engineer to
use intuition to develop a series of energy management rules.
Hiserote (2010) extends the concepts of Nam and Bradley to
introduce rule-based management through the use of
predefined control strategies. Jalil (1997), Chau (2001) and
the E-thrust concept developed by Rolls-Royce and EADS
also present examples of rule-based energy management. In all
of these concepts, the rules for when to use, charge or keep the
electric storage system idle are predefined by mission segment
or energy storage state-of-charge. Rule-based approaches can
be optimized, but this requires parameterization of the energy
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profile. Harmon (2006) allows for the power split to be
optimized in each flight segment. This creates several
high-level control variables that may be optimized using
traditional techniques; however, further parameterization,
which involves varying the energy management power splits at
each mission analysis point, require more sophisticated
optimization techniques. These topics are discussed in the
next section.
Energy management optimization approach
As mentioned previously, optimization of the energy
management profile can be sub-divided into instantaneous,
global and real-time. Real-time optimization is usually
required for control of systems and requires its own set of
modelling assumptions and trade-offs. Because the goal of this
paper is not to control a vehicle, but rather propose a better
sizing method, real-time simulation is not discussed.
Bradley (2009), Lin (2001), Pei (2013) and Brahma (2000)
all discretized the mission and applied deterministic dynamic
programming to split the optimization problem into a set of
recursive one-stage problems. The optimal control sequence,
which contains the energy split between the energy storage
and thermal engine is recursively calculated. This approach
effectively explores all possible control policies to reach the
global optimum. While accurate, this approach is not efficient
and is likely to be infeasible using higher fidelity aircraft and
propulsion system models due to the required simulation
times. This problem can be overcome through instantaneous
optimization, where the power split is optimized only for a
specific, discrete time step; however, as discussed in Zhang
(2010) this may result in a sub-optimal global solution. Zhang
(2010) presents a predictive energy management strategy that
accounts for the future state of the system. The concept is that
the system knows its energy demands in the future and can
optimize its current state to meet those demands in the
globally most efficient manner. For example, if an automotive
vehicle knows a hill is coming up, it can use more fuel during
the flat portion of its journey to charge up the battery. This
allows it to make it over the hill more quickly, potentially using
less total energy.
While deterministic programming can solve the prediction
problem presented in Zhang, it is computationally inefficient.
The controls optimization field, driven by the need for
real-time modelling, has developed several techniques that
allow for the minimization of the fuel consumption over an
extended period of time. One area of interest is model
predictive control (MPC). This technique is explored in
Borhan (2009) using a relatively simple plant model. Koot
(2005) compares MPC to dynamic programming to
determine that MPC is capable of finding the answer close to
the global optimum and at increased computational efficiency.
He also found it worked well for optimization of hybrid
electric power split for systems with non-linearity and
time-varying inequality constraints. As these issues are also
found in gas turbines, it means the method is broadly
applicable. Finally, Vahidi (2006) provides perhaps the most
relevant use of MPC for hybrid electric energy management
by applying it to a non-linear fuel cell plant model
incorporating detailed compressor performance maps and
model dynamics. Vahidi (2006) linearizes the model as
 Hybrid-electric energy management and vehicle sizing Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Christopher Perullo and Dimitri Mavris Volume 86 · Number 6 · 2014 · 550 –557

needed to apply the MPC prediction algorithm. This optimization environment that combines the best aspects of
application is most relevant to the proposed environment to be distributed optimization with detailed analysis modules. An
discussed in the next section. The efficiency of MPC relative important enabler of this proposed approach is the ability
to dynamic programming makes it appealing for use with high to execute analysis modules concurrently rather than
fidelity codes. sequentially, as in the aforementioned studies. Furthermore,
by decoupling the sizing process from the mission analysis, the
Proposed environment for a hybrid-electric problem can be decomposed into two sub-problems, namely,
design optimizing high-level design parameters such as aspect ratio
and engine cycle parameters, and optimizing the degrees of
The authors could not find evidence that anyone has yet
freedom available to the system during a mission such as
combined high fidelity conceptual design tools with full
power split from multiple sources, thrust distribution, or any
mission energy management optimization. All of the controls
additional degrees of freedom from the advanced system.
optimization techniques reviewed assumed sized systems;
An overview of this proposed approach is shown in Figure 1.
furthermore, higher fidelity conceptual design tools usually
The high-level optimizer has control over design variables (e.g.
precluded optimization of the energy splits for the simple
fan pressure ratio and wing aspect ratio), while the low-level
reason that the more detailed design tools are disparate and
are not contained within the same environment. As controls optimizer uses a MPC algorithm to optimize the operation of
optimization requires a common plant model, iteration mission adaptive features of the propulsion system at every
between codes is undesired. The authors propose a discrete point along the mission. Because the analysis modules
methodology to apply controls optimization techniques to the in block “A3” are executed concurrently, predefined tables are
vehicle sizing problem. This requires an integrated tool-set not necessary. This greatly reduces the complexity of the
described herein. The proposed modelling framework is environment and eliminates the need for large tables of
platform independent; however, the authors believe NPSS is a coupling variables between analysis modules.
suitable choice given its ability to linearize models for MPC The design process starts with the initialization of the
algorithms and its application to both hybrid electric engine vehicle design variables within the high-level optimizer (A1).
modelling and vehicle mission analysis (Perullo, 2014; Design variables controlled by the high-level optimizer could
Kestner, 2012). include airframe geometry variables such as aspect ratio and
Recall that all of the methods presented previously made wing area and engine design variables including major cycle
use of a sequentially executed design environment. This limits parameters. Because the system is hybrid electric, the
the ability to optimize power usage between analysis modules optimizer also has control over the electrical system, including
with strong, non-linear, mission time-dependent couplings. the amount of energy (e.g. battery size) storage available on
Because a desire of the proposed method is to be flexible the system. Each of the design variables from the optimizer
enough to account for multiple interacting effects including feeds into the appropriate design module (A2) highlighted
multiple power sources, boundary layer ingestion, interactions within the green box in Figure 1. The four design modules
between distributed propulsion and vehicle trim, and any include the airframe design, propulsor design, gas generator
other integrated effects, the authors propose a bi-level design and the electrical system design. Within the four design

Figure 1 MDAO environment top-level design flow

A2 - Design Modules A3 - Integrated Mission Analysis
A1 - High Level
Aero A4 - Low
Optimizer Airframe
Performance Level MPC
[ Vehicle
Design ] Design
(with BLI) Optimizer
[Mission]
Mission Performance Metrics

Design Variables
Point Performance Metrics

Propulsor Propulsor
Fixed Vehicle

Operation
Variables

Design Performance
Mission

Gas Gas
Generator Generator
Design Performance
Mission
Analysis
Electrical Electrical
System System
Design Performance
Point
Performance
No Converge
on Range

Mission
Yes Definition
Design Complete

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Christopher Perullo and Dimitri Mavris Volume 86 · Number 6 · 2014 · 550 –557

modules, the design variables are used to create the complete Figure 2 Integrated mission analysis module
vehicle design including vehicle layout, geometry and mass
properties. Aerodynamic
The information from the fixed vehicle is then passed to BLI Module
an integrated mission analysis module (A3) highlighted
Drag Delta
within the yellow box in Figure 1. In a conventional
environment, the engine performance model must assume a Mission
Vehicle Alt, MN Analysis
predefined mode of performance. In other words, to

Fuel
generate a static engine performance deck, the engine must Mission Performance

Total Fn
assume a priori how the battery and gas generator are used
throughout the mission. The proposed concept circumvents

Inlet Pt, Tt
MPC
this issue by developing an integrated mission analysis
module. The vehicle, through the use of MPC techniques, is Thrust & Power Split
able to choose an operating mode that optimizes performance
Power
dynamically, depending on the requirements of the mission Gas Turbine

State-of-Charge
Pwr(+) Management
and the vehicle capabilities. The fixed vehicle information is
passed to one of the four performance modules; aero Fn1 Fn2
performance (including boundary layer ingestion [BLI]), Propulsor Propulsor
propulsor performance, gas generator performance and Bank #1 Bank #2
electrical system performance. Each of these modules is linked
to each other and to a mission analysis module. At every step Torque Torque

of the mission, each of the models is executed to generate
performance data based on the current state of the vehicle.
The NPSS modular aircraft performance module can serve as
the backbone of this integrated mission analysis (A3)
(Kestner, 2012).
The performance of the vehicle during the mission is
controlled by the low-level optimizer (A4). MPC algorithms
are used to optimize the mission operation variables, which
include the power split between energy storage and gas
generator and thrust distribution amongst the propulsors. The
optimization occurs by adjusting the control variables at each
point in the mission to optimize total integrated mission
performance. When the mission analysis is completed, the
performance data are then passed back to the high-level
optimizer for the next pass. Details of the integrated modelling
environment (yellow box in Figure 1) are expanded upon in
Figure 2. Specifics are left to the individual implementation,
but high-level interfaces and requirements are defined. The
example is shown for a distributed propulsion application with
BLI; however, the method is easily adapted to other
architectures.
A gas generator connects, via a shaft, to an electrical
generator. The generator ties into an electrical bus that then
distributes power to/from the battery and to the propulsion
system. The rest of the gas turbine is treated as a standard
steady state analysis because the engine dynamics are much
quicker than the fuel and energy consumption rates of the
aircraft.
For a given set of inputs in a single pass of the optimizer, the
question then becomes how to operate both the hybrid-
electric system and distributed, electrically driven propulsors
throughout the mission to achieve maximum energy
efficiency. This sub-optimization needs to take place in an
integrated, time-dependent mission analysis and sizing block
[yellow (A3) shaded block in Figure 1]. This block integrates
vehicle aerodynamics, gas generator and propulsor performance
and electrical system performance into the vehicle mission
analysis. Unlike traditional MDAO environments, which pass
pre-computed information between analysis elements, the
Pwr(+)
Motor #1 Motor #2
Pwr(-) Pwr(-)
Bus
Pwr(-)
Battery
proposed environment will have the aerodynamic, propulsion,
electrical and mission analysis modules communicating and
passing data during their executions for each step in the
vehicle mission. A more detailed depiction of the information
flow within the integrated mission analysis module is shown in
Figure 2.
To develop the integrated mission analysis module from a
functional standpoint, the modules must be able to
communicate seamlessly and rapidly. This suggests either a
single tool set, such as Kestner (2012) or another
environment. The main benefit of an integrated model is
NPSS’ native ability to linearize the model at a given point
providing a plant matrix for MPC.
The exact distribution of thrust production across the
propulsors is the first of the two control variables to be
optimized. Once the thrust distribution is known, the
propulsors’ individual power requirements can be calculated.
Then, the power management sends a power split signal to the
gas turbine model and the energy storage (e.g. battery) model.
This power split is the second control variable requiring
optimization. The power split controls the level of power
provided to the propulsors from the gas turbine or energy
storage. Possibilities include no gas turbine power, partial gas
turbine power, all gas turbine power (no battery usage) or
excess gas turbine power in which the power from the gas
turbine is used to power the propulsors and recharge the
battery. Finally, the fuel burn and battery state-of-charge are

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 Hybrid-electric energy management and vehicle sizing
Christopher Perullo and Dimitri Mavris
sent back to the mission analysis to calculate the next
sequential mission point.
Because the choice of propulsor thrust distribution and
battery/gas turbine power splits impact the time integrated
mission performance, the control values (e.g. power split and
thrust distribution) at a given point in the mission analysis
impact future points. To account for this the sub-optimization
technique, one must be able to choose the optimum
time-dependent settings for each control variable. The
sub-optimization is accomplished using a dynamic prediction
algorithm based on techniques from MPC. The integrated
dynamic sub-optimization of the propulsor thrust distribution
and the battery/gas turbine power splits are performed for each
high-level optimizer pass (e.g. each set of high-level design
parameters that the optimizer sets while maximizing vehicle
performance).
The fundamental challenge to be solved can be formulated
as a constrained optimization that predicts a future path. In
other words, the two control variables (power split between
energy storage and thrust distribution across the propulsors)
must be simultaneously optimized at every point in the
mission analysis while considering future operating states. A
notional example of this problem is shown in Figure 3
assuming a fixed aircraft. This example will be used to
demonstrate why a predictive, path constrained optimization
is necessary and how MPC techniques can be used to solve it.
The top graph in Figure 3 represents available fuel as a
function of range, and the bottom graph shows the power split
between the battery and gas turbine. It is assumed the battery
can only be discharged to simplify the example. Three
completely notional scenarios are presented, two extremes and
one “optimum” solution. In Scenario 1, it is assumed a
point-based, instantaneous optimization is used with the
objective function being to minimize fuel burn. Keep in mind
that point-based optimization only considers each discrete
point in the mission analysis. It is not hard to see that an
optimizer would react by first using all available battery power,
Figure 3 Model predictive strategy
Fuel Full
Zero Fuel
Range
All GT
All Battery
Range
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as the fuel burn when using batteries is zero, followed by the
usage of the gas turbine once the battery power is depleted.
The problem with Scenario 1 is that it is not optimal from a
mission standpoint. By using the battery first, the vehicle
carries extra fuel weight for the first part of the mission,
thereby increasing total fuel consumption.
Another objective function could be defined to locally
minimize drag (required thrust) at the end of each mission leg.
This approach is represented by Scenario 2. In this case, the
optimizer would select to use only gas turbine power early in
the mission to burn fuel as quickly as possible to achieve
minimum gross weight at the end of each mission leg. Once
the fuel is depleted, the battery would be used until power is
no longer available. This approach would be more optimal
than locally optimizing for fuel burn on a mission basis for
cruise segment only, but may not be globally optimal. The
green, “Optimum” path line represents an optimum use of gas
turbine and battery power from an overall mission perspective.
In reality, a battery’s available energy is inversely proportional
to its discharge rate. Higher discharge rates reduce the
effective capacity of the battery. In Scenario 2, the battery is
discharged at a maximum rate once available fuel is used;
however, in the Optimum scenario, the power split varies
throughout the mission. The gas turbine is used more in the
beginning of the mission to burn off fuel and produce a lighter,
more efficient vehicle; however, the gas turbine is still used
towards the end of the mission to provide a buffer on the
amount of power the battery must provide. Using the battery
in this manner allows for more total energy to be extracted and
provides an optimal overall mission.
In the above example, determining the optimal path may be
done using traditional MDAO methods; however, the power
split curve would have to be predefined for a given mission
analysis; furthermore, the curve would have to be
parameterized to apply traditional optimization schemes. It is
not hard to see how conventional MDAO methods would
break down when the number of control variables (i.e. the
Optimum
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Power Split
 Hybrid-electric energy management and vehicle sizing
Christopher Perullo and Dimitri Mavris
power split) are increased. MPC techniques allow for the
green Optimum line in Figure 3 to be calculated in-line as the
model is analysed.
MPC techniques apply linear algebra to solve the constrained
path optimization problem. The MPC problem can be
summarized as shown in Figure 4 (Maciejowsi, 1989). The
algorithm uses both a prediction horizon, P, and a control
horizon, U. The constrained optimization problem is solved at
each time step to identify the optimal setting of the control
variables that maximizes the objective function over the
prediction horizon. The optimum control variables are then
executed over the control horizon and the process repeats. The
model predictive formulation also allows for constraints on both
inputs and outputs of the model. For the hybrid electric vehicle
the final formulation is envisioned to be as follows:
● Control variables (u):
– Gas turbine/Battery power split
– Thrust distribution across propulsors
● Constraints:
– 0 ⬍ battery state-of-charge ⬍ 1
– 0 ⬍ available fuel
– 0 ⬍ gas turbine power ⬍ rated gas turbine power
– Total thrust required ⫽ Total thrust produced by
propulsors
● Objective:
– Maximize vehicle range
It is important to note that while an MPC formulation will
be used to solve the problem, the final method is not
actually a controller. True MPC formulations allow for
deviation between predicted and measured values in the
prediction horizon and often include techniques to infer
state variables from measurable parameters (e.g. thrust
from engine pressure ratio). In the proposed MDAO
approach, all variables are calculated in the model;
therefore, all state variables are known to perfect precision,
and the prediction will not deviate from the model.
Figure 4 Example MPC process
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Conclusion
A survey of appropriate modelling techniques for hybrid
electric architectures is reviewed and the issue of hybrid
electric energy management for the aircraft sizing problem is
confronted. While many techniques exist for addressing some
of the issues including high fidelity modelling and
parameterization and optimization of the energy management
method, none have been combined into a single environment
capable of combining the effects of the optimization of a
transient power split combined within the vehicle sizing
process. As significant work has been done on this problem in
the land-based vehicle area, the authors have proposed a
strategy of using mathematical formulations from MPC to
optimize energy management within the vehicle sizing
process.
Further work
The groundwork has been laid to construct an integrated
hybrid-electric modelling environment for vehicle sizing and
optimization. The next steps include construction of the
proposed environment and application to real-world
problems.
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Further reading
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for dynamic aircraft exergy mapping”, Journal of Aircraft,
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Corresponding author
Christopher Perullo can be contacted at: chris.perullo@
ae.gatech.edu