Properties and Processes of Steam Thermo-2

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A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development
Module
In
ME104
THERMODYNAMICS 2
College of Engineering and Technology

BS in Mechanical Engineering
WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

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Module No. 1
PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES OF

STEAM
2nd Semester, AY 2020-2021
ENGR. ROBERT V. ABRASALDO

Instructor 1

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Table of Contents
Contents Page
Cover Page i
Title Page ii
Table of Contents iii
Instruction to Users iv
Introduction v
Chapter 1: Properties and Processes of Steam 1
Overview 1
Learning Outcomes 1
Pre-Test 1
Lesson 1: Properties of Steam 2
A. Learning Outcomes 2
B. Time Allotment 2
C. Discussions 3
D. Exercises 33
E. Evaluation 34
Lesson 2: Processes of Vapors 35
A. Learning Outcomes 12
B. Time Allotment 12
C. Discussions 13
D. Exercises 59
E. Evaluation 60
References 61

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INSTRUCTION TO THE USER
This module would provide you an educational experience while independently

accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as well to ensure that learning is
unhampered by health and other challenges. It covers the topic about different modes of
heat and mass transfer; laws governing conduction, convection and radiation and its
application to the design of common heat exchangers such as condenser. Cooling coils
and evaporators; and the environmental impact of their operation.
Reminders in using this module:
1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be learned
about the topic to be discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for better
understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social media
platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will still continue amidst
this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.
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INTRODUCTION
.

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Chapter 1
PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES OF
STEAM
Direction: Write your answer on a sheet of paper.

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Lesson 1
PROPERTIES OF STEAM
A. Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
ü Explain the phase change of pure substance;
ü Explain the p-v, p-h and T-s diagram of a pure substance;
ü Solve problems involving pure substance; and
ü Solve problems using Mollier diagram.
B. Time Allotment: 2 hrs (1 Week)
6 hrs. (2Week)
C. Discussions
Definition of The Pure Substance
A pure substance is a system which is (i) homogeneous in composition, (ii)

homogeneous in chemical aggregation, and (iii) invariable in chemical aggregation.
® “Homogeneous in composition” means that the composition of each part of

the system is the same as the composition of every other part.
“Composition means the relative proportions of the chemical elements into
which the sample can be analyzed. It does not matter how these elements
are combined.
For example, in Fig. 1.1 system (a), comprising steam and water, is homogeneous in
composition, since chemical analysis would reveal that hydrogen and oxygen atoms are
presents in the ratio 2: 1 whether the sample be taken from the steam or from the water.
The same is true of system (b) containing uncombined hydrogen and oxygen gas in the
atomic ratio 2: 1 in the upper part, and water in the lower part. System (c) however, is
not homogeneous in composition, for the hydrogen and oxygen are present in the ratio
1: 1 in the upper part, but in the ratio 2: 1 (as water) in the lower part.
Figure 1.1. Heating at Constant Pressure.

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® “Homogeneous in chemical aggregation” means that the chemical elements

must be combined chemically in the same way in all parts of the system.
Consideration of Fig. 1.1 again shows that the system (a) satisfies this
condition also; for steam and water consist of identical molecules. System (b)
on the other hand is not homogeneous in chemical aggregation since in the
upper part of the system the hydrogen and oxygen are not combined
chemically (individual atoms of H and O are not uniquely associated),
whereas in the lower part of the system the hydrogen and oxygen are
combined to form water.
Note however that a uniform mixture of steam, hydrogen gas, and oxygen gas
would be regarded as homogeneous in both composition and chemical aggregation
whatever the relative proportions of the components.
® “Invariable in chemical aggregation” means that the state of chemical
combination of the system does not change with time (condition (ii) referred
to variation with position). Thus, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, which
changed into steam during the time that the system was under consideration,
would not be a pure substance.
Phase Change of a Pure Substance
Let us consider 1 kg of liquid water at a temperature of 20°C in a cylinder fitted

with a piston, which exerts on the water a constant pressure of one atmosphere (1.0132
bar) as shown in Fig. 1.2 (i).
® As the water is heated slowly its temperature rises until the temperature of
the liquid water becomes 100°C. During the process of heating, the volume
slightly increases as indicated by the line 1–2 on the temperature-specific
volume diagram (Fig.1.3). The piston starts moving upwards.
Figure 1.2. Heating at Constant Pressure.
® If the heating of the liquid, after it attains a temperature of 100°C, is

continued it undergoes a change in phase. A portion of the liquid water
changes into vapor as shown in Fig. 1.2 (ii). This state is described by the line
2–3 in Fig. 1.3. The amount of heat required to convert the liquid water
completely into vapor under this condition is called the heat of vaporization.
The temperature at which vaporization takes place at a given pressure is
called the saturation temperature and the given pressure is called the
saturation pressure.

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During the process represented by the line 2–3 (Fig. 1.3) the volume increases
rapidly and piston moves upwards Fig. 1.2 (iii).
Figure 1.3. p-v diagram Figure 1.4. Vapor pressure curve for
water.
For a pure substance, definite relationship exists between the saturation pressure
and saturation temperature as shown in Fig. 1.4, the curve so obtained is called vapor
pressure curve.
® It may be noted that if the temperature of the liquid water on cooling
becomes lower than the saturation temperature for the given pressure, the
liquid water is called a subcooled liquid. The point ‘1’ (in Fig. 1.3) illustrates
this situation, when the liquid water is cooled under atmospheric pressure to
a temperature of 20°C, which is below the saturation temperature (100°C).
® Further, at point ‘1’ the temperature of liquid is 20°C and corresponding to
this temperature, the saturation pressure is 0.0234 bar, which is lower than
the pressure on the liquid water, which is 1 atmosphere. Thus, the pressure
on the liquid water is greater than the saturation pressure at a given
temperature. In this condition, the liquid water is known as the compressed
liquid.
The term compressed liquid or sub-cooled liquid is used to distinguish it from
saturated liquid. All points in the liquid region indicate the states of the compressed
liquid.
® When all the liquid has been evaporated completely and heat is further
added, the temperature of the vapor increases. The curve 3-4 in Fig. 1.3
describes the process. When the temperature increases above the saturation
temperature (in this case 100°C), the vapor is known as the superheated
vapor and the temperature at this state is called the superheated
temperature. There is rapid increase in volume and the piston moves
upwards [Fig. 1.2 (iii)].
The difference between the superheated temperature and the saturation
temperature at the given pressure is called the degree of superheat.
® If the above-mentioned heating process is repeated at different pressures a
number of curve similar to 1-2-3-4 are obtained. Thus, if the heating of the

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liquid water in the piston cylinder arrangement takes place under a constant
pressure of 12 bar with an initial temperature of 20°C until the liquid water
is converted into superheated steam, then curve 5-6-7-8 will represent the
process.
® In the above heating process, it may be noted that, as the pressure increases
the length of constant temperature vaporization gets reduced.
From the heating process at a constant pressure of 225 bar represented by
the curve 9-10-11 in Fig. 1.3, it can be seen that there is no constant temperature
vaporization line. The specific volume of the saturated liquid and of the saturated vapor
is the same, i.e., = . Such a state of the substance is called the critical state. The
parameters like temperature, pressure, volume, etc., at such a state are called critical
parameters.
® The curve 12-13 (Fig. 1.3) represents a constant pressure heating process,
when the pressure is greater than the critical pressure. At this state, the
liquid water is directly converted into superheated steam. As there is no
definite point at which the liquid water changes into superheated steam, it is
generally called liquid water when the temperature is less than the critical
temperature and superheated steam when the temperature is above the
critical temperature.
p-T (Pressure-Temperature) Diagram for a Pure Substance
If the vapor pressure of a solid is measured at various temperatures until the

triple point is reached and then that of the liquid is measured until the critical point is
reached, the result when plotted on a p-T diagram appears as in Fig. 1.5.
Figure 1.5. p-T diagram for a substance such as water.
If the substance at the triple point is compressed until there is no vapor left and
the pressure on the resulting mixture of liquid and solid is increased, the temperature
will have to be changed for equilibrium to exist between the solid and the liquid.
Measurements of these pressures and temperatures give rise to a third curve on
the p-T diagram, starting at the triple point and continuing indefinitely.
The points representing the coexistence of (i) solid and vapor lie on the
‘sublimation curve’, (ii) liquid and vapor lie on the ‘vaporization curve’, (iii) liquid

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and solid lie on the ‘fusion curve’. In the particular case of water, the sublimation
curve is called the frost line, the vaporization curve is called the steam line, and the
fusion curve is called the ice line.
The slopes of sublimation and the vaporization curves for all substances are
positive. The slope of the fusion curve, however may be positive or negative. The
fusion curve of most substances has a positive slope. Water is one of the important
exceptions.
v Triple Point
The triple point is merely the point of intersection of sublimation and
vaporization curves. It must be understood that only on p-T diagram is the triple point
represented by a point. On p-V diagram it is a line, and on a U-V diagram it is a triangle.
® The pressure and temperature at which all three phases of a pure substance
coexist may be measured with the apparatus that is used to measure vapor
pressure.
® Triple-point data for some interesting substances are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Triple-point Data.
p-V-T (Pressure-Volume-Temperature) Surface
A detailed study of the heating process reveals that the temperature of the solid rises
and then during the change of phase from solid to liquid (or solid to vapor) the
temperature remains constant. This phenomenon is common to all phase changes. Since
the temperature is constant, pressure and temperature are not independent properties
and cannot be used to specify state during a change of phase.
The combined picture of change of pressure, specific volume and temperature may
be shown on a three-dimensional state model. Fig. 1.6 illustrates the equilibrium states
for a pure substance which expands on fusion. Water is an example of a substance that
exhibits this phenomenon.

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Figure 1.6. A pressure-volume-temperature (p-V-T) surface.
All the equilibrium states lie on the surface of the model. States represented by the
space above or below the surface are not possible. It may be seen that the triple point
appears as a line in this representation. The point C.P. is called the critical point and
no liquid phase exists at temperatures above the isotherms through this point. The term
evaporation is meaningless in this situation.
At the critical point the temperature and pressure are called the critical temperature
and the critical pressure respectively and when the temperature of a substance is above
the critical value, it is called a gas. It is not possible to cause a phase change in a gas
unless the temperature is lowered to a value less than the critical temperature. Oxygen
and nitrogen are examples of gases that have critical temperatures below normal
atmospheric temperature.
Phase Change Terminology and Definitions
Triple point—The only state at which the solid, liquid and vapor phases coexist in
equilibrium.
® Critical point (C.P.). The limit of distinction between a liquid and vapor.
® Critical pressure. The pressure at the critical point.
® Critical temperature. The temperature at the critical point.
® Gas—A vapor whose temperature is greater than the critical temperature.
Liquid-vapor terms: Refer Fig. 1.7.

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v Critical Point
The critical point represents the highest pressure and highest temperature at
which liquid and vapor can coexist in equilibrium. The state of water at critical
conditions whether it is saturated liquid or saturated vapor is unknown. Hence, the
latent heat of vaporization of water at this condition is either zero or undefined.
Figure 1.7. Phase change terminologies.
v Saturation Temperature
Saturation temperature is the temperature at which liquids start to boil or the

temperature at which vapors begin to condense. The saturation temperature of a given
substance depends upon its existing pressure. It is directly proportional to the pressure.
i.e.. it increases as the pressure is increased and decreases as the pressure is decreased.
Saturation pressure. The phase change pressure.
F Examples:
a. Water boils at 100°C at atmospheric condition (101.825 kPa)
b. Water boils at 179.91°C at a pressure of 1000 kPa.
c. Steam condenses at 311.06°C at 10 MPa.
d. Steam condenses at 39°C at 0.0070 MPa.
v Subcooled Liquid
A subcooled liquid is one which has a temperature lower than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the existing pressure
F Example:
Liquid water at 60°C and 101.325 is a subcooled liquid.
Why?
From the steam tables, the saturation temperature at 101.825 kPa
is 100°C. Since the actual temperature of liquid water of 60°C is less than
100°C, therefore, it is a subcooled liquid.
v Compressed Liquid

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A compressed liquid is one which has a pressure higher than the saturation
pressure corresponding to the existing temperature.
F Question:
Is liquid water at 110 kPa and 100°C a compressed liquid?
Answer:
From steam tables, Psat at 100°C = 101.325 kpa.
Comparing:
The actual liquid water pressure of 110 kPa is greater than Psat at
100°C. Therefore, it is compressed liquid.
v Saturated Liquid
A saturated liquid is a liquid at the saturation. (saturation temperature or saturation
pressure) which has temperature equal to the boiling point corresponding to the existing
pressure. It is a pure liquid, i.e., it has no vapor content.
F Examples:
a. Liquid water at 100°C and 101.825 kPa.
b. Liquid water at 233.90°C and 3 MPa.
c. Liquid water at 324.75°C and 12 MPa.
From Steam Tables:

tsat at 101.325 kPa = 100°C
tsat at 3 MPa = 233.90°C
tsat at 12 MP8 = 324.75°C
v Vapor
Vapor is the name given to a gaseous phase that is in contact with the liquid
phase, or that is in the vicinity are state where some of it might be condensed.
v Dry (Saturated) Vapor

A saturated vapor is a vapor at the saturation conditions (saturation
temperature and saturation pressure). It is 100% vapor, i.e., has no liquid or
moisture content.
F Examples:
a. Steam (water vapor) at 100°C and 101.325 kPa.
b. Steam at 212.42°C and 2 MPa.
c. Steam at 352.37°C and 17 MPa.
v Super-heated Vapor
A superheated vapor is a vapor having a temperature higher than the
saturation temperature corresponding to the existing pressure.
F Examples:
a. Steam at 200°C and 101.325 kPa.
200°C> (tsat at 101.325 kPa=100°C)
b. Steam at 300°C and 5 MPa.

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200°C> (tsat at 101.325 kPa=100°C)
v Degree of Superheat, °SH

The degree of superheat is the difference between the actual temperature of
superheated vapor and the saturation temperature for the existing pressure.
° = Actual superheated temperature − at existing pressure (1.1.1)
F Example:
Determine the degrees of superheat of superheated steam at 200°C
and 101.325 kPa.
From steam tables:

tsat at 101.325 kPa = 100°C
°SH = 200 °C — 100°C = 100 C°
v Degree Subcooled, °SB

The degree subcooled of a subcooled liquid is the difference between the
saturation temperature for the given pressure and the actual subcooled liquid
temperature.
° = — (1.1.2)
F Example:
Determine the degrees subcooled of liquid and 101.325 kPa.
From steam tables:

tsat at 101.325 kPa = 100°C
°SB = 100°C - 90°C = 10 C°
v Wet Vapor
A wet liquid vapor is a combination of saturated vapor and saturated liquid.
Property Diagrams in Common Use
Besides p-V diagram which is useful because pressure and volume are easily
visualized and the T-s chart which is used in general thermodynamic work, there are
other charts which are of practical use for particular applications. The specific
enthalpy-specific entropy chart is used for steam plant work and the pressure-
specific enthalpy chart is used in refrigeration work. Sketches of these charts are
shown in Fig. 1.8. These charts are drawn for H2O (water and steam) and represent the
correct shape of the curves for this substance.

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Figure 1.8. Thermodynamic charts.
Formation of Steam
Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston which can move freely upwards and
downwards in it. Let, for the sake of simplicity, there be 1 kg of water at 0°C with
volume vf in m3 under the piston [Fig. 1.9 (i)]. Further let the piston is loaded with load
W to ensure heating at constant pressure. Now if the heat is imparted to water, a rise
in temperature will be noticed and this rise will continue till boiling point is reached.
The temperature at which water starts boiling depends upon the pressure and as such
for each pressure (under which water is heated) there is a different boiling point. This
boiling temperature is known as the temperature of formation of steam or saturation
temperature.
It may be noted during heating up to boiling point that there will be slight increase
in volume of water due to which piston moves up and hence work is obtained as shown
in Fig. 1.9 (ii). This work, however, is so small that is can be neglected.
Now, if supply of heat to water is continued it will be noticed that rise of
temperature after the boiling point is reached nil but piston starts moving upwards
which indicates that there is increase is volume which is only possible if steam
formation occurs. The heat being supplied does not show any rise of temperature but
changes water into vapor state (steam) and is known as latent heat or hidden heat. So
long as the steam is in contact with water, it is called wet steam [Fig. 1.9 (iii)] and if
heating of steam is further progressed [as shown in Fig. 1.9 (iv)] such that all the water
particles associated with steam are evaporated, the steam so obtained is called dry and
saturated steam. If vg m3 is the volume of 1 kg of dry and saturated steam then work
done on the piston will be
= − (1.1.3)
where p is the constant pressure (due to weight ‘W’ on the piston).
Again, if supply of heat to the dry and saturated steam is continued at constant
pressure there will be increase in temperature and volume of steam. The steam so
obtained is called superheated steam and it behaves like a perfect gas. This phase of
steam formation is illustrated in Fig. 1.9 (v).

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Figure 1.9. Formation of steam.
Fig. 10 shows the graphical representation of formation of steam.
Figure 1.9. Formation of steam.
Important Terms Relating to Steam Formation

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v Sensible Heat, hf
Heat that causes change in temperature without a change in phase.
It is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed by 1 kg of water when it is
heated from 0°C (freezing point) to boiling point. It is also called total heat (or
enthalpy) of water or liquid heat invariably. It is reckoned from 0°C where
sensible heat is taken as zero. If 1 kg of water is heated from 0°C to 100°C the
sensible heat added to it will be 4.18 × 100 = 418 kJ but if water is at say 20°C
initially then sensible heat added will be 4.18 × (100 – 20) = 334.4 kJ. This type
of heat is denoted by letter hf and its value can be directly read from the
steam tables.
F Examples:
a. Heat added in raising the temperature of steam from 100°C at 101.325
kPa to 150°C.
b. Heat removed in lowering the temperate of water from 90°C to 80°C.
Note. The value of specific heat of water may be taken as 4.18 kJ/kg K at low
pressures but at high pressures it is different from this value.
v Latent Heat or Hidden Heat, hfg

Heat that causes change in phase temperature without a change in
temperature.
F Example:
Heat added in converting 1 kg of water at 100°C and 101.325 kPa to 1 kg
of steam at 100°C and 101.315 kPa.
v Latent Heat of Vaporization, hfg

The latent heat of vaporization of a pure substance is the amount of heat
added to or remove from the substance in order to convert it from saturated liquid to
saturated vapor or saturated vapor to saturated liquid with temperature remaining
constant. It is inversely proportional to the temperature or pressure of the substance. It
is expressed by the symbol hfg and its value is available from steam tables. The value of
latent heat is not constant and varies according to pressure variation.
F Example:
Determine the latent heat of vaporization of water at (a.) 100°C, (b) 200°C,
and (c) 300°C.
From steam tables:
(a) hfg at 100°C = 2257.0 kJ/kg
(b) hfg at 200°C = 1940.7 kJ/kg
(c) hfg at 300°C = 1404.9 kJ/kg

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v Dryness fraction (Quality), x

The quality of wet vapor or wet steam is the percent by weight that is
saturated vapor.
v Percent Moisture, y
The percent moisture of wet vapor is the percent by weight that is saturated
liquid.
Let m = mass of wet vapor

mg =mass of the saturated vapor content of wet vapor
mf = mass of the saturated liquid content of wet vapor
Then, m = mg + mf
Following the definitions of quality (x) and percent moisture (y),
= 100 (1.1.3)
= 100 (1.1.4)
ü For saturated liquid:

= 100%
= 0%
ü For saturated vapor:

= 100%
= 0%
ü For wet vapor:

0 < < 100%
0 < < 100%
v Total heat or enthalpy of wet steam (h).

It is defined as the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C
into wet steam at constant pressure. It is the sum of total heat of water and the latent
heat and this sum is also called enthalpy.
In other words, ℎ = ℎ + ℎ (1.1.5)

If steam is dry and saturated, then x = 1 and ℎ = ℎ + ℎ (1.1.6)
v Superheated steam.
When steam is heated after it has become dry and saturated, it is called
superheated steam and the process of heating is called superheating. Superheating is

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always carried out at constant pressure. The additional amount of heat supplied to the
steam during superheating is called as ‘Heat of superheat’ and can be calculated by
using the specific heat of superheated steam at constant pressure (c
ps), the value of which varies from 2.0 to 2.1 kJ/kg K depending upon pressure and
temperature.
If Tsup, Ts are the temperatures of superheated steam in K and wet or dry
steam, then (Tsup– Ts) is called ‘degree of superheat’.
The total heat of superheated steam is given by
ℎ = ℎ + ℎ + ( – ) (1.1.7)
Superheated steam behaves like a gas and therefore it follows the gas laws.
The value of n for this type of steam is 1.3 and the law for the adiabatic expansion is
pv1.3 = constant.
The advantages obtained by using ‘superheated’ steam are as follows:

(i) By superheating steam, its heat content and hence its capacity to do
work is increased without having to increase its pressure.
(ii) Superheating is done in a superheater which obtains its heat from
waste furnace gases which would have otherwise passed uselessly up
the chimney.
(iii) High temperature of superheated steam results in an increase in
thermal efficiency.
(iv) Since the superheated steam is at a temperature above that
corresponding to its pressure, it can be considerably cooled during
expansion in an engine before its temperature falls below that at
which it will condense and thereby become wet. Hence, heat losses
due to condensation of steam on cylinder walls etc., are avoided to a
great extent.
v Volume of wet and dry steam.

If the steam has dryness fraction of x, then 1 kg of this
steam will contain x kg of dry steam and (1 – x) kg of water. If vf is the volume of 1
kg of water and vg is the volume of 1 kg of perfect dry steam (also known as specific
volume), then volume of 1 kg of wet steam = volume of dry steam + volume of water.
= + (1 – ) (1.1.8)
Note. The volume of vf at low pressures is very small and is generally

neglected. Thus, is general, the volume of 1 kg of wet steam is given by, xvg
and density kg/m3.
= + –
= + –
= + (1.1.9)
= + + –
= + – (1 – )
= – (1 – ) (1.1.10)

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v Volume of superheated steam.

As superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas its volume can be
found out in the same way as the gases.
If vg = Specific volume of dry steam at pressure p,
Ts= Saturation temperature in K,
Tsup= Temperature of superheated steam in K, and
vsup = Volume of 1 kg of superheated steam at pressure p,
Then
∙ ∙
=
or
= (1.1.11)
Thermodynamic Properties of Steam and Steam Tables
In engineering problem, for any fluid which is used as working fluid, the six
basic thermodynamic properties required are: p (pressure), T (temperature), v
(volume), u (internal energy), h (enthalpy) and s (entropy). These properties must be
known at different pressure for analyzing the thermodynamic cycles used for work
producing devices. The values of these properties are determined theoretically or
experimentally and are tabulated in the form of tables which are known as ‘Steam
Tables’. The properties of wet steam are then computed from such tabulated
data. Tabulated values are also available for superheated steam. It may be noted that
steam has only one saturation temperature at each pressure.
Following are the thermodynamic properties of steam which are tabulated in

the form of table:
p = Absolute pressure (bar or kPa);

ts = Saturation temperature (°C);
hf = Enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg);
hfg = Enthalpy or latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg);
hg = Enthalpy of saturated vapor (steam) (kJ/kg);
sf = Entropy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg K);
sfg = Entropy of vaporization (kJ/kg K);
sg = Entropy of saturated vapor (steam) (kJ/kg K);
vf = Specific volume of saturated liquid (m3/kg);
vg = Specific volume of saturated vapor (steam) (m3/kg)
= + (1.1.12)
ℎ =ℎ +ℎ (1.1.13)
= + (1.1.14)

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= + (1.1.15)
= − (1.1.16)
ℎ =ℎ −ℎ (1.1.17)
= − (1.1.18)
= − (1.1.19)
External Work Done During Evaporation

When water is evaporated to form saturated steam, its volume increases
from vf to vg at a constant pressure, and thus external work is done by steam due to
increase in volume. The energy for doing the work is obtained during the absorption
of latent heat. This work is called external work of evaporation and is given by
( – ).
i.e., External work of evaporation = – (1.1.19)
As at low pressure vf is very small and hence neglected, work of
evaporation is
= . (1.1.20)
In case of wet steam with dryness fraction x, work of evaporation will
be
= (1.1.21)
Internal Latent Heat
The latent heat consists of true latent heat and the work of evaporation. This
true latent heat is called the internal latent heat and may also be found as follows:
Internal latent heat = ℎ – (1.1.22)
J = 1 in SI units.
Internal Energy of Steam
It is defined as the actual energy stored in the steam. As per previous

articles, the total heat of steam is sum of sensible heat, internal latent heat and the
external work of evaporation. Work of evaporation is not stored in the steam as it is

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utilized in doing external work. Hence the internal energy of steam could be found by
subtracting work of evaporation from the total heat.
In other words,
ℎ = + , , ℎ 1
or
=ℎ–
In case of wet steam with dryness fraction ‘x’
=ℎ– (1.1.23)
and if steam is superheated to a volume of vsup per kg.
ℎ =ℎ +ℎ + ( − ) (1.1.24)
and
=ℎ − (1.1.25)
Entropy of Water
Consider 1 kg of water being heated from temperature T1 to T2 at constant

pressure. The change in entropy will be given by,
= = ∙
Integrating both sides, we get
= ∙
− = log (1.1.26)
If 0°C is taken as datum, then entropy of water per kg at any temperature T

above this datum will be
= log (1.1.27)
273
Entropy of Evaporation
The change of entropy (ds) is given by,
or

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– = , where is the heat absorbed.
When water is evaporated to steam completely the heat absorbed is the latent
heat and this heat goes into water without showing any rise of temperature.
Then = ℎ
and
ℎ
.= (1.1.28)
However, in case of wet steam with dryness fraction x the evaporation will be
partial and heat absorbed will be ℎ per kg of steam. The change of entropy will be
ℎ
Δ = (1.1.29)
Entropy of Wet Steam
The total entropy of wet steam is the sum of entropy of water (sf) and entropy
of evaporation (sfg).
In other words,
ℎ
= + (1.1.30)
where swet = Total entropy of wet steam,

sf = Entropy of water, and
= Entropy of evaporation.
If steam is dry and saturated, i.e., x = 1, then

ℎ
= + (1.1.31)
Entropy of Superheated Steam
Let 1 kg of dry saturated steam at Ts (saturation temperature of steam) be

heated to Tsup. If specific heat at constant pressure is cp, then change of entropy during
superheating at constant pressure p is
Δ = log (1.1.32)
Total entropy of superheated steam above the freezing point of water.

= Entropy of dry saturated steam + change of entropy during superheating
ℎ
= + + log = + log (1.1.33)

P a g e | 20
Enthalpy-Entropy (h-s) Chart or Mollier Diagram for Steam
Dr. Mollier, in 1904, conceived the idea of plotting total heat against entropy,
and his diagram is more widely used than any other entropy diagram, since the work
done on vapor cycles can be scaled from this diagram directly as a length; whereas on
T-s diagram it is represented by an area.
Figure 1.10. Enthalpy-entropy (h-s) (Mollier) chart.
® Lines of constant pressure are indicated by p1, p2 etc., lines of constant

temperature by T1, T2, etc.
® Any two independent properties which appear on the chart are sufficient to
define the state (e.g., p1 and x1 define state 1 and h can be read off the
vertical axis).
® In the superheat region, pressure and temperature can define the state (e.g.,
p3 and T4 define the state 2, and h2 can be read off).
® A line of constant entropy between two state points 2 and 3 defines the
properties at all points during an isentropic process between the two states
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1

Problem:
Calculate the dryness fraction (quality) of steam which has 1.5 kg of water in
suspension with 50 kg of steam.
Solution:
Mass of dry steam, ms = 50 kg
Mass of water in suspension, mw = 1.5 kg

P a g e | 21
50
∴ , = = = 0.971 97.1%
+ 50 + 1.5
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.2

Problem:
Specify whether the steam is wet, dry, or superheated for the following
conditions:
(a) t=200°C, p = 1.44 MPa
(b) t=220°C, p = 2.318 MPa.
(c) p=1.0 MPa, s = 6.672 kJ/kg-K
(d) p=3.0 MPa, t = 234°C
(e) t=250°C, v = 54.2x10-3 m3/kg
(f) p=11.0 MPa, h = 2805 kJ/kg
(g) p=4.0 MPa, s = 5.897 kJ/kg-K
(h) p=15.0 MPa, t = 310°C
Solution:
From Steam Tables by keenan.
(a) ts at 1.44 MPa = 196.39°C
Since 200°C > ts at 1.44 MPa, the steam is superheated.
(b) ts at 2.318 MPa = 220°C
Since 220°C = ts at 2.318 MPa, the steam is saturated vapor (dry).
(c) ts at 1.0 MPa = 6.5865 kJ/kg-K
Since 6.672 kJ/kg-K > sg at 1.0 MPa, the steam is superheated.
(d) ts at 3.0 MPa = 23.90°C
Since 234°C > ts at 3.0 MPa, the steam is superheated.
(e) vg at 250°C = 50.13x10-3 m3/kg
Since 54.2x10-3 m3/kg > vg at 250°C, the steam is superheated.
(f) hg at 11.0 MPa =
Since 2805 kJ/kg > hg at 11.0 MPa, the steam is superheated.
(g) sg at 4.0 MPa = 6.0701 kJ/kg-K
Since 5.897 kJ/kg-K < sg at 4.0 MPa, the steam is a wet mixture.
(b) ts at 15.0 MPa = 342.24°C
Since 310°C< ts at 15.0 MPa, the steam is a wet mixture.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.3

Problem:

P a g e | 22
What is the specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of steam
at 1.50 MPa and 254°C?
Solution:
The steam is superheated, since the temperature of 254°C is greater than the
saturation temperature, 198°C, at 1.50 MPa.
Use Table 4 of steam tables for superheated steam.
At 1.5 MPa and 254 °C, the exact values of v, u, h and s are not shown in the table,
therefore we have to interpolate using the nearest values such as 250°C and 260°C in
the table as shown below.
4
= = = =
10 0.00364 18.1 23.4 0.0445
= 0.00146; = 0.15195 + 0.00146 = 0.15341 /

= 7.24; = 2695.3 + 7.24 = 2702.5 /
= 9.36; ℎ = 2923.3 + 9.36 = 2932.7 /
= 0.0173; = 6. 7090 + 0.0178 = 6.7268 /( )( )
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.4

Problem:
At 250°C a mixture of saturated steam and liquid water exists in equilibrium.
If the specific volume of the mixture is 0.04159 m3/kg, calculate the following:
(a) percent moisture;
(b) enthalpy; and
(c) entropy.
Solution:
At 250°C
= 0.0012512 ℎ = 1085.36 = 2.7927
= 0.04888 ℎ = 1716.2 = 3.2802
= 0.05013 ℎ = 2801.5 = 6.0729
From Eq. (1.1.9), since the given is specific volume (v):

= +
Then

P a g e | 23
− 0.04159 − 0.0012512
= = = 0.8253 82.53%
0.04888
(a) moisture, = 100% − 82.53% = 17.47%
(b) ℎ = ℎ + ℎ = 1085.36 + 0.8253 (1716.2) = 2501.7 /
(c) = + = 2.7927 + 0.8253(3.2802) = 5.4993 /( − )
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.5

Problem:
Steam at a pressure of 0.90 MPa has an entropy of 4.9678 kJ/(kg) (K). What
is the specific volume, internal energy, and enthalpy?
Solution:
The entropy of saturated vapor at a pressure of 0.90 MPa is 6.6185 kJ/(kg)(K),
therefore, steam with an entropy of 4.9678 kJ/(kg) (K) is a wet-mixture.
At 0.90 MPa, from Steam Tables: Table 2: Saturation Pressure table
= 0.0011212 = 741.33 ℎ = 742.83 = 2.0946
= 0.21388 = 1838.6 ℎ = 2031.1 = 4.5280
= 0.215 = 2580.5 ℎ = 2773.91 = 6.6226
Solving for quality (x):

Using the formula = + , since entropy (s) is the given value.
Then
− 4.9678 − 1.0946
= = = 0.6345 63.45%
4.5280
Solving for v:
= + = 0.0011212 + (0.6345)(0.21388) = 0.1368 /
Solving for u:
= + = 741.83 + 0.6345 (1838.6) = 1908.4 /
Solving for h:
ℎ = ℎ + ℎ = 742.83 + (0.6845) (2031.1) = 2031.6 /
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.6

Problem:
Steam at a temperature of 300°C has a Specific volume of 0.09765 m3/kg.
Determine the pressure, Specific internal energy, enthalpy and entropy.
Solution:

P a g e | 24
Since the specific volume, 0.09765 ins/kg, is greater than the Specific volume of
saturated steam, 0.02167 kg at 300°C, the steam is superheated.
From Table 3 of steam tables:
0.00084
= = = =
0.00209 0.05 1.2 1.5 0.0112
= 0.02; = 2.55 — 0.02 = 2.53

= 0.50; = 2760.4 + 0.5 = 2760.9 /
= 0.60; ℎ = 3007.3 + 0.6 = 3007.9 /
= . 0.0045: = 6.6326 + 0.0045 = 6.6371 /( )( )
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.7

Problem:
Steam at a pressure of 0.58 MPa has an internal energy of 2725.2 kJ/kg. What
is the temperature, specific volume, enthalpy and entropy?
Solution:
The steam is superheated because the internal energy. 2725.2 kJ/kg, is greater
than the internal energy of saturated steam, 2566.3 kJ/kg for a pressure of 0.58 MPa.
From Table 3 of steam tables:
3.8
= = = =
16.1 10 0.085 20.9 0.0397
= 2.4; = 250 + 2.4 = 252.4°

= 0.002; = 0.4077 + 0.002 = 0.4097 /
= 4.9; ℎ = 2957.9 + 4.9 = 2962.8 /
= 0.0094; = 7.1983 + 0.0094 = 7.2077 /( )( )

P a g e | 25
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.8

Problem:
A 0.0856-m3 drum contains saturated water and saturated vapor at 370°C.
(a) Find the mass of each if their volumes are equal. What is the quality? (b) Find the
volume occupied by each if their masses are equal.
Solution:
Let Vv=the volume of saturated vapor
VL=the volume of saturated liquid
Mv=the mass of saturated vapor
mL=the mass of saturated liquid
370° = 0.004925 /
370° = 0.002213 /
(a)
0.0856
= = = 0.0426
2
0.0428
= = = 8.69
0.004925 /
0.0428
= = = 19.34
0.002213 /
, =
ℎ
8.69
= = 0.31 31%
8.69 + 19.34
(b)

P a g e | 26
= (1)
+ = 0.0856 (2)
= = 0.004925 (3)
= = 0.002213 (4)
Substituting equation (3) & (4) into (2):
0.004925 + 0.002213 = 0.0856

But = , then
0.004925 + 0.002213 = 0.0856
= 11.99
= 11.99
Therefore,
= = 0.004925 = (0.004925 / )(11.99 ) = 0.05905 m
= = 0.002213 = ( 0.002213/ )(11.99 ) = 0.02653 m
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.9

Problem:
A 60-liter rigid tank with adiabatic walls is divided into equal parts A and B
by partition. On one side is steam at 0.68 MPa, 170 °C; on the other side is steam at 4
MPa, 370°C. The partition is removed and thorough mixing occurs. Determine the
equilibrium state (p, t) neglecting the thickness of the partition.
Solution:

P a g e | 27
From Steam Tables:

ℎ = ℎ 0.68 170° = 2777 /
= 0.68 170° = 2532.9 /
= 0.68 170° = 285.5 10 /
ℎ =ℎ 4 370° = 3141.7 /
= 4 370° = 2864.6 /
= 4 370° = 69.29 10 /
Let subscript C= combined/mixture of A & B

From law of conservation of mass:
=
+ =
0.030
= = = 0.105
0.2855 /
0.030
= = = 0.433
0.06929 /
Therefore,
= 0.105 + 0.433 = 0.538
= + = 60 = 0.060
0.060
specific volume, = = = 0.1115 /
0.538
From First law of Thermodynamics:
=
+ =
+ =
+
= =

P a g e | 28
(0.105) (2582.9) + (0.433) (2864.6)

= = 2809.62 /
0.538
Heat balance:
Heat lost by Steam B = Heat gained by Steam A
( — ) = ( − )
+ =( + )
ℎ + ℎ = ℎ
ℎ + ℎ
ℎ =
(0.433) (314.7) + (0.105) (2777)
=
0.538
= 3070.52 /
By definition, ℎ = +
ℎ − 3070.52 — 2809.62
= =
0.1115
= 2339.9 2.34
From the Mollier Chart:

,= ( 3070.52 / 2.34 ) = 324°
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1.10

Problem:
Steadily flowing streams of steam A and B meet and mix, then flow in a steady
state in a pipe C, all under adiabatic conditions. Stream A is at 5.5 MPa, 370°C and flows
at 45 kg/s; stream B is saturated vapor at 5.5 MPa and flows at 160 kg/s. (a) Determine
the state of the mixture C if Δ = 0 and = 0. (b) If the speed of the fluid in C is 30
m/s, what is the pipe diameter?
Solution:
(a) From Steam Tables:
Steam A:

P a g e | 29
ℎ =ℎ 5.5 370° = 3109.6 /

Steam B:
ℎ =ℎ 5.5 = 3109.6 ( )
Since pA = pB = 5.5 MPa
Then if follows that pc = 5.5 MPa
From law of conservation of mass:
=
+ =
From First law of Thermodynamics:
=
+ =
+ + =
+ =
ℎ + ℎ = ℎ
ℎ + ℎ
ℎ =
(45) (3109.6) + (160) (2789.65)

=
205
= 2859.88 /
To determine the state of C, compare hc with hg at pC = 5.5 Mpa.
[ℎ @ = 5.5 ] = 2789.65 /
Since hC > hg at pC, therefore, the state of the mixture is Superheated.
From the Superheat Tables:
(b) By interpolations:
= 287.34°
= 38.49 10 /

P a g e | 30
(205) (0.003849)
= =
30
= 0.02630
=
4
4 (4) (0.02630)
= =
= 0.183 183

Problem:
Determine the h, s, °SH of steam at 0.09 MPa and 370°C.
Solution:
Locate the intersection of 0.09 MPa constant pressure line with 370°C constant
temperature line. Their intersection represents the condition/state of steam.
Answers:
ℎ = 3217 /
= 8.50 /( − )
° = 273°

Problem:

P a g e | 31
Determine the pressure and temperature of steam having h=3034 kJ/kg and
s=7.51 kJ/(kg-K).
Solution:
Locate the Intersection of h= 3034 kJ/kg constant enthalpy line (horizontal line)
and s = 7.51 kJ/kg-K constant entropy line (vertical line).
Answers:
= 0.40
= 283°

Problem:
Determine the h, t and s of saturated steam at 0.10 MPa.
Solution:
Locate the intersection of0.10 MPa constant pressure line with the saturated
vapor line.

P a g e | 32
Answers:
ℎ = 2675 /
= 100°
= 7.36 / −

Problem:
Determine the p and h of steam at y=4% and t=60°C.
Solution:
Answers:
ℎ = 2515 /
= 0.020

P a g e | 33
D. EXERCISES
Name: ______________________________ Year Level: ____ Date: _______
Direction: Answer the following problem as directed. Write your answer in a sheet of
yellow paper. Provide another sheet if necessary.
1. Find the specific volume, enthalpy and internal energy of wet steam at 1.8
MPa, dryness fraction 0.9.
2. Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and internal energy of steam at
0.7 MPa and enthalpy 2600 kJ/kg.
3. Steam at 110 bar has a specific volume of 0.0196 m3/kg, find the
temperature, the enthalpy and the internal energy.
4. Steam at 150 bar has an enthalpy of 3309 kJ/kg, find the temperature, the
specific volume and the internal energy.
5. Steam at 1.9 MPa is throttled to 1 bar and the temperature after throttling
is found to be 150°C. Calculate the initial dryness fraction of the steam.

P a g e | 34
E. EVALUATION
Name: ______________________________ Year Level: ____ Date: _______

1. Steam at a temperature of 250°C has a specific volume of 0.15436 m3/kg.
Find the pressure, specific internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy.
2. Steam at a pressure of 3.5 MPa is known to have a specific volume of
50x10-3 m3/kg. What is its specific enthalpy?
3. A tank contains exactly one kilogram of water consisting of liquid and
vapor in equilibrium at 1 MPa. If the liquid and vapor each occupy one-
half the volume of the tank, what is the enthalpy of the contents of the
tank?
4. Saturated steam vapor at 250°C moves along its isotherm until the
pressure becomes 1 MPa. Locate the end state points on the Mollier chart
and for each kilogram of steam processed determine (a) the initial
pressure, (b) the change of enthalpy, and (c) the change of entropy. (Take
a photo of your work on the chart)
5. Steam undergoes an isenthalpic (h = C) process from 1.5 MPa, 350°C to
10 MPa. Find the final temperature using the Mollier chart. (Take a photo
of your work on the chart)

P a g e | 35
Lesson 2
PROCESSES OF VAPORS
A. Learning Outcomes
After completing this lesson, you will able to:
B. Time Allotment:
v 2 hours (1week)
C. Discussions
Introduction
Although vapors and ideal gases have similarity in forms and in their processes,
all of the equations that are based on the characteristic equation of a perfect gas or on
Joule's Law, for instance, are not generally applicable to vapors. But the general energy
equation,
+ + + + = + + + + (1.2.1)
and the simple energy equation,
= − + (1.2.2)
are not based on any limitations concerning the substance. They are applicable,
therefore, to processes vapors as well as of gases. Therefore, in this lesson, compare the
equations obtained with analogous one for a gas. This way we can avoid the improper
application of a perfect gas equation to a vapor.
Constant Pressure Process
(a) The process on the p-v and T-s planes.
Figure 1.11. Enthalpy-entropy (h-s) (Mollier) chart.

P a g e | 36
v Defining the condition of the substance
Point 1 is in the liquid region and the condition of the substance is ‘subcooled’
or ‘compressed’ liquid. It is generally defined by giving its pressure and temperature.
Point f lies on the saturation curve and is therefore saturated liquid at a given
pressure or temperature.
Point m is in the wet region, is a mixture of liquid and vapor. Quality x and a
pressure or temperature generally defines the condition of the substance. Thus, for the
enthalpy at point m,
ℎ =ℎ + ℎ (1.2.3)
Point g is on the saturation vapor curve. A pressure or temperature defines the

state or condition of the substance.
Point 2 is the superheat region generally, but not necessarily, defined by giving
its temperature and pressure.
(b) The work of a reversible nonflow constant pressure process.
Figure 1.12. work of a reversible

nonflow constant pressure process.
=∫ is the area on the p-v plane under the constant pressure process.
At p=C,
= = ( − ) (1.2.4)
Far steady flow process, the work Wn is

=ℎ −ℎ −Δ + (1.2.5)
and
ℎ =ℎ + ℎ (1.2.6)
(c) Transferred Heat, Q
From the simple energy equation,

= − + (1.2.7)

P a g e | 37
For steady flow and non-flow processes

= − + ( − ) (1.2.8)
= − + − ) (1.2.9)
=ℎ −ℎ (1.2.10)
ℎ ℎ =ℎ + ℎ
If the change in specific internal energy s derired, use the relation
− = (ℎ − ) − (ℎ − ) (1.2.10)
Problem:
Steam with a specific volume of 0.09596 / undergoes a constant
pressure process at 1.70 MPa until the specific volume becomes 0.13796 / . What
are (a) the final temperature, (b) Δ , (c) W, (c) Δ , and (e) Q?
Solution:
Steam at a pressure of 1.70 MPa and with specific volume of 0.09596 /
is a wet mixture, the specific volume of saturated steam at 1.70 MPa is 0.11673 / .
At = .
= 0.0011634 = 870.09 ℎ = 872.06 = 2.3718

= 0.11557 = 1727.2 ℎ = 1923.6 = 4.0282
= 0.11673 = 2597.3 ℎ = 2795.7 = 6.400
− 0.09596 − 0.0011634
= = = 0.8203
0.11557
= + = 870.09 + (0.8203)(1727.2) = 2286.9 kJ/k

ℎ =ℎ + ℎ = 872.06 + (0.8203)(1923.6) = 2450.0 kJ/kg
= + = 2.3718 + (0.823)(4.0282) = 5.6761 kJ/(k − )
At a pressure of 1.70 MPa and a specific volume of 0.13796 m3/kg, the steam is
superheated.
At = = .
0.00175
= = = =
0.00323 10 18.2 23.7 0.0441
= 0.542; = 260 + 5.42 = 265.4

P a g e | 38
= 9.86; = 2707.7 + 9.86 = 2717.6 /

= 12.84; ℎ = 2939.3 + 12.84 = 2952.1 /
= 0.02389: = 6.6849 + 0.02389 = 6.7088 /( )( )
(a) = 265.4
(b)Δ = − = 2717.6 − 2286.9 = 430.7 /
(c) W = ( − ) = 1700(0.13796 − 0.09596) = 71.4 /
(d)Δ = − = 6.7088 − 5.6761 = 1.0327 /( ) ( )
(e) Q = ℎ − ℎ = 2952.1 − 2450.0 = 502.1 /

Problem:
Steam with an enthalpy of 2843.5 kJ/kg undergoes a constant pressure
process at 0.9 MPa until the enthalpy becomes 2056.1 kJ/kg. What are (a) the initial
temperature 0r quality, (b) Δu, (c)W, (d) Δs. And (e) Q.
Solution:
Steam with an enthalpy of 2843.5 kJ/kg at a pressure of 0.90 MPa is a
superheated vapor.
At p1 = 0.90 MPa
9.9
= = = =
23.3 10 0.0061 17.9 0.0486
= 4.2; = 200 + 42 = 204.2 °
= 0.00259; = 0.2303 + 0.00259 = 0.2329 /
= 7.6; = 2626.3 + 7.6 = 2633.9 /
= 0.0206; 6.7522 + 0.0206 = 6.7728 /( )( )
Steam with an enthalpy of 2056.1 kJ/kg at a pressure of 0.90 MPa is a wet texture.
At p2=0.90 MPa
= 0.0011212 ℎ = 742.83 = 2.09046 = 741.83
= 0.2139 ℎ = 2031.1 = 4.5280 = 1838.6
= 0.215 ℎ = 2773.91 = 6.6 = 2580.5

P a g e | 39
h −h 2056.1 − 742.83
x = = = 0.6466
h 2031.1
= + = 0.0011212 + (0.6466)(0.2139) = 0.1394 /

= + = 741. 83 + (0.6466) (1838.6) = 1930 /
= + = 2.0946 + (0.6466) (4.5280) = 5.0224 /( )( )
( ) 1 = 204.2°
( )∆ = − = 1930.7 – 2633.9 = −703.2 /
( ) = ( − ) = 900 (0.1394 – 0.2329) = −84.15 /
( )∆ = − = 5.0224 – 6.7728 = −1.7505 /( )( )
( ) = ℎ − ℎ = 2056.1 – 2843.5 = −787.4 /
Constant Volume Process

(a) The process on the p-v and T-s planes
Figure 1.13. Reversible Constant Volume (Isometric)

Process
Point 1 is in the superheat region and point 2 is in the wet region so that
= = + (1.2.11)
(b) Work of the nonflow process, Wn.
= 0 (1.2.12)
(c) Transferred heat, Q.
= – + (1.2.13)
= – (1.2.14)

P a g e | 40
and
= + (1.2.15)
or
= (ℎ − ) – (ℎ − ) (1.2.16)

Problem:
One kg of steam at 260◦C and with an enthalpy of 1861 kJ/kg is confined in a rigid
container. Heat is applied until the steam becomes saturated. Determine (a) Q, (b) ∆h, (c) ∆s,
and (d) the final temperature.
Solution:
The enthalpy of saturated vapor at 260◦C is 2796.9 kJ/kg, point 1 is wet- mixture.
At t1 = 260◦C
vn = 0.0012755 uf1= 1128.39 hf1= 1134.37 sf1=2.8838
vfg1=0.0409345 ufg1=1470.6 hfg1= 1662.5 sfg1= 3.1181
vg1= 0.04221 ug1= 2599.0 hg1= 2796.9 sg1= 6.0019
h −h 1861 − 1134.37
x = = = 0.4371
h 1662.5
v1= vf1 + x1vfg1 = 0.0012755 + (0.4371) (0.0409345) = 0.019168 m3/kg

u1= uf1 + x1ufg1 = 1128.39 + (0.4371) (1470.6) = 1771.2 kJ/kg
s1= sf1 + x1sfg1 = 2.8838 + (0.4371) (3.1181) = 4.2467kJ/kg
At v2= vg2= v1= 0.019168 m3/kg

P a g e | 41
0.000126 x x x x
= = = =
0.000319 1 1.7 2.3 0.0082
x1= 0.4; t2= 307 +0.4 = 307◦C
x2= 0.7; u2= 2551.8 – 0.7 = 2551.1 kJ/kg
x3= 0.9; h2= 2734.3 – 0.9 = 2733.4 kJ/kg
x4= 0.0032; s2= 5.6579 – 0.0032 = 5.6447 kJ/(kg) (K)
(a) Q= u2 – u1 = 2551.1 – 1771.2= 779.9 kJ/kg

(b) ∆h= h2 – h1 = 27334 – 1861 = 872.4 kJ/kg
(c) ∆s= s2 – s1 = 5.6447 - 4.2467 = 1.398 kJ/(kg) (K)
(d) t2= 307.4◦C

Problem:
One kg of steam at 121◦C and 10% moisture undergoes a constant volume process until
the pressure becomes 0.28 MPa. Determine (a) the final temperature and (b) Q. (c) At what
pressure was the final condition saturated?
Solution:
y1= 10% x1= 90%
At t1= 121◦C
vf1= 0.0010612 uf1= 507.74
vfg1= 0.8648388 ufg1= 2022.6
vg1= 0.8659 ug1= 2530.3
v1= vf1 + x1vfg1= 0.0010612 + (0.90) (0.8648388) = 0.7794 m3/kg

u1= uf1 + x1ufg1= 507.74 + (0.90) (2022.6) = 2328.1 kJ/kg
Steam at a pressure of 0.28 MPa and with a specific volume of 0.7794 m3/kg is a
superheated vapor.
At p2= 0.28 MPa and v2= v1= 0.7794 m3/kg

P a g e | 42
0.0111
= =
0.0172 10 15.6
x1= 6.5; t2= 200 + 6.5= 206.5◦C

x2= 10.1; u2= 2651.4 + 10.1= 2661.5 kJ/kg
(a) t2=206.5◦C
(b) Q= u2 – u1= 2661.5 – 2328.1= 333.4 kJ/kg
(c) vg= 0.7794 m3/kg
0.0139
=
0.005 0.0162
x= 0.00429
p= 0.225 + 0.00429 = 0.229MPa

Problem:
A 0.50 m3 tank contains saturated steam at 300 kPa. Heat is transferred until the pressure
reaches 100 kPa. Determine (a) the heat transferred (b) the final temperature, and (c) the final
steam.
Solution:
p1= 0.30 MPa, saturated vapor
v1= v2 at 0.30 MPa = 0.6058 m3/kg
u1= ug at 0.30 MPa = 2543 kJ/kg
V 0.50
m= = = 0.8254 kg
v 0.6058
v −v 0.6058 − 0.0010432
x = = = 0.3572
v 1.693
p2= 0.10 MPa, v2= v1 = 0.6058 m3/kg, this is a wet mixture.
vf2= 0.0010432 m3/kg uf2= 417.36 kJ/kg

vfg2= 1.693 m3/kg ufg2= 2088.7 kJ/kg
vg2= 1.694 m3/kg ug2= 2506.1 kJ/kg
v −v 0.6058 − 0.0010432
x = = = 0.3572
v 1.693

P a g e | 43
= + = 417.36 + (0.3572) (2088.7) = 1163.4 /
(a) Q= m (u2 – u1) = (0.8254) (1163.5 – 2543.6) = - 1139.1 kJ

(b) t2= 99.23◦C
(c) x2= 35.72%

Problem:
To what temperature must a rigid tank containing dry saturated steam at 127◦ C be cooled to
yield a mixture of quality?
Solution:
v1= vg at 127℃ = 0.7277 m3/kg

v2= v1 = 0.7277 m3/kg x2= 25%
v2= vf2 + x2vfg2

v2= vf2 + x2 (vg2 – vf2)
v2= vf2 + x2vg2 – x2vf2
v2= (1 – x2) vf2 + x2vg2
v2= y2vf2 + x2vg2
0.7277= 0.75 vf2 + 0.25 vg2
Neglecting vf2 in comparison with vg2;
0.25 vg2 = 0.7277
vg2= 2.9108 m3/kg
x 0.0232
=
1 0.106
x= 0.22;
t2= 84 + 0.22= 84.22℃
Isothermal Process

P a g e | 44
(a) The process on the p-v and T-s planes.
Figure 1.14. Reversible Isothermal Process.
(b) Work of a nonflow process, Wn

From the simple energy equation,
Wn= Q - ∆u
(c) Transferred heat Q from the Ts plane.

Q= T∆s
= T (s2 – s1)
and
= +
(d) Work of steady flow process, Ws
Ws = Q - ∆h − ∆K

Problem:
There are 2.27 kg/min of steam undergoing an isothermal process from 27.5 bar, 316℃ to 6.8
bar. Determine (a) ∆ , (b) Q, (c) W for nonflow, and (d) W for steady flow with ∆ = 0, ∆K =
42kJ/min. (1 bar= 100 kPa)
Solution:
The initial and final conditions are superheated. The saturation temperature at a
pressure of 2.75 MPa is 229℃ and 0.68 MPa is 164℃.

P a g e | 45
At p1= 2.75 MPa and 316℃
6 x x x
= = =
10 18.6 24.2 0.0412
x1= 11.2; u1= 2774.8 + 11.2 = 2786 kJ/kg
x2= 14.5; h1= 3025.0 + 14.5 = 3040.2 kJ/kg
x3= 0.0247; s1= 6.6321 + 0.0247 = 6.6568 kJ/(kg) (K)
At p2 = 0.68 MPa and 316℃
6 x x x
= = =
10 16 20.9 0.0355
x1= 9.6; u2= 2815.6 + 9.6 = 2825.2 kJ/kg
x2= 12.5; h2= 3080.5 + 12.5 = 3093.0 kJ/kg
x3= 0.0213; s2= 7.3481 + 0.0213 = 7.3694 kJ/(kg) (K)
(a) ∆S = m (s2 – s1) = 2.27 (7.3694 - 6.6568) = 1.6176 kJ/(kg) (K)

P a g e | 46
(b) = T (∆S) = (316 + 273) (1.6176) = 952.8 kJ/kg
(c) ∆U= m (u2 – u1) = 2.27 (2825.2 – 2786) = 88.98 kJ/kg
Wn= Q - ∆U = 952.8 – 88.98 = 863.8 kJ/kg
(d) ∆H = m (h2 – h1) = 2.27 (3093 – 3040.4) = 119.4 kJ/kg
Ws = Q - ∆K − ∆H = 952.8 – 42 – 119.4 = 791.4 kJ/min

Problem:
Steam at 200℃ and with an entropy of 5.6105 kJ/(kg) (K) expands isothermally to
0.515 MPa. For 5 kg (a) what are ∆S, ∆H, and ∆U? Determine Q and W (b) for a nonflow process,
(c) for a steady flow process with ∆K=0
Solution:
Steam with an entropy of 5.6105 kJ/(kg) (K) at 200℃ is a wet mixture.

Steam under a pressure of 0.515 MPa at 200℃ is a superheated vapor.
At t1= 200℃
vf1= 0.0011565 uf1= 850.65 hf1= 852.45 sf1= 2.3309

vfg1= 0.12620 ufg1= 1744.7 hfg1= 1940.7 sfg1= 4.1014
vg1= 0.12736 ug1= 2595.3 hg1= 2793.2 sg1= 6.4323
s −s 5.6105 − 2.3309
x = = = 0.7996
s 4.1014
v1= vf1 + x1vfg1 = 0.0011563 + (0.7996) (0.12620) = 0.10207 m3/kg
u1= uf1 + x1ufg1 = 850.65 + (0.7996) (1744.7) = 2245.7 kJ/kg
h1= hf1 + x1hfg1 = 852.45 + (0.7996) (1940.7) = 2404.2 kJ/kg
At t2=200℃ and 200℃

P a g e | 47
0.005 x x x x
= = = =
0.020 0.0168 0.8 1.1 0.0198
x1= 0.0042; v2= 0.4081 + 0.042 = 0.4123 m3/kg

x2= 0.20; u2= 2642.1 + 0.20 = 2642.3 kJ/kg
x3= 0.3; h2= 2854.3 + 0.3 = 2854.6 kJ/kg
x4= 0.0045; s2= 7.0394 + 0.00495 = 7.0444 kJ/ (kg) (K)
(a) ∆S= m (s2 – s1) = 5 (7.0444 – 5.6105) = 7.1695 kJ/kg
∆H= m (h2 – h1) = 5 (2854.7 – 2404.2) = 2252 kJ
∆U= m (u2-u1) = 5 (2642.3 – 2245.7) = 1983 kJ
(b) Q= T (∆S) = (473) (7.1695) = 3391.2 kJ
Wn= Q - ∆U= 3391.2 – 1983 = 1408.2 kJ
(c) Q= 3391.2 kJ
Ws = Q - ∆H −( ∆K = 0)
Ws = 3391.2 – 2252 = 1139.2 kJ
Adiabatic Processes of Vapor

(a) The reversible process on the pv and Ts planes.
Figure 1.15. Reversible Adiabatic Process.

A reversible adiabatic process is a constant entropy process and also known as
“isentropic process”

P a g e | 48
In an isentropic process, no heat is transferred (Q =0) and the change in entropy of

the substance is also zero (∆ = 0)
ü For a nonflow process,
Q = ∆u + Wn = 0 [unit mass]
Wn = −∆
Wn = u1 – u2
and for steady flow process, with ∆P = 0
K1 + h1 + Q= K2 + h2 + Ws
with Q = 0
Ws = h1 – h2 - ∆
with ∆K = 0,
Ws = h1 – h2
(b) The irreversible process on the pv and Ts planes.
Figure 1.16. Irreversible Adiabatic Process.
F Process 1-2 is the corresponding reversible adiabatic or isentropic process

(ideal expansion)
F Process 1-2’ is the irreversible adiabatic process (actual expansion.
ü For nonflow process with Q = 0,

Q= 0 = ∆u + Wn [unit mass]
Wn = -∆u
Where ∆u = u′ − u′
ü For steady flow process,
Ws = h1 – h2, reversible process
= h1 – h2, irreversible process
ü Efficiency of the process, η
Expansion on h-s plane.

P a g e | 49
actual work h − h
η= =
ideal work h −h
h1 – h2 is known as process internal reheat and s − s is the irreversibility of the
process
Compression on h-s plane.
Efficiency of the compression, η = x100%

Problem:
One kg of steam expands at constant entropy from 2.2 MPa and 374℃ to 93℃. Find
the final quality and the work for non-flow and steady flow process.
Solution:
The saturation temperature corresponding to a pressure of 2.1 MPa is 214.9℃ , therefore,

the initial condition is superheated.

P a g e | 50
At p1 = 2.1 MPa & 214.9℃
4 x x x
= = =
10 17.1 22.2 0.0343
x1 = 6.8 u1 = 2892.7 + 6.8 = 2899.5 kJ/kg
x2 = 8.9 h1 = 3179.5 + 8.9 = 3188.4 kJ/kg
x3 = 0.0137 s1 = 7.0017 + 0.0137 = 7.0154 kJ/(kg) (K)
s2 = s1 = 7.0154 kJ/(kg) (K)
At t2 = 93℃
hf2 = 389.54 sf2 = 1.2271 uf2 = 389.46
hfg2 = 2275.4 sfg2 = 6.2138 ufg2 = 2108.7
s −s 7.0154 − 1.2271
x = = = .
s 6.2138
= + = 389.46 + (0.9315) (2108.7) = 2353.7 /
ℎ = ℎ + ℎ = 389.54 + (0.9315) (2275.4) = 2509.1 /
= + = 2899.5 – 2352.7 = 545.8 /
= ℎ + ℎ = 3188.4– 2509.1 = 679.3 /

Problem:
Steam flows isentropically through a nozzle from 1500 kPa, 288℃ to 960 kPa =. For
454 g/s determine (a) t2, (b) ∆V, (c) W, and (d) ∆K.
Solution:
Steam at a temperature of 288℃ under a pressure of 1.50 MPa is superheated, since

the saturation temperature for 1.50 MPa is 198℃.

P a g e | 51
At p2 = 1.50 MPa & 198℃
8 x x x x
= = = =
10 0.0035 17.3 22.6 0.0404
x1 = 0.0028; v1 = 0.16271 + 0.0028 = 0.16551 m3/kg
x2 = 13.8; u1 = 2748.6 + 13.8 = 2762.4 kJ/kg
x3 = 18.1; h1 = 2992.7 + 18.1 = 3010.8 kJ/kg
x4 = 0.0323; s1 = 6.8381 + 0.0323 = 6.8704 kJ/(kg) (K)
The final condition p2 = 0.960 MPa and s2 = 6.8704 kJ/ (kg) (K), is superheated.
The entropy of saturated vapor at a pressure of 0.960 MPa is 6.6005 kJ/ (kg) (K).
At p2 = 0.960 MPa & s2 = 6.8704 kJ/ (kg) (K)
0.0115
= = = =
0.0441 10 0.0055 17.2 22.4
x1 = 2.6; t2= 230 + 2.6 = 232.6℃

x2 = 0.0014; v2 = 0.2319 + 0.0014 = 0.2333 m3/kg
x3 = 4.5; u2 = 2676.9 + 4.5= 2681.4 kJ/kg
x4 = 5.8; h2 = 2899.6 + 5.8 = 2905.4 kJ/kg
(a) t2 = 232.6℃
(b) ∆ = m (v2 – v1) = 0.454 (0.2333 – 0.16551) = 0.0308 m3/kg
(c) = 0
(d) ∆H = m (h2 – h1) = 0.454 (2905.4 – 3010.81) = -47.85 kJ/s
Q = ∆H + ∆K + W

P a g e | 52
∆K = −∆H = (−)(−47.85) = 47.85 kJ/s

Problem:
A steam turbine receives a 0.52 MPa of steam at 300℃. Then expand in an

irreversible adiabatic process to a pressure of 0.012 MPa. If the exhaust steam is dry and
saturated, calculate (a) the work of an irreversible process and (b) the efficiency of the process.
Solution:
At p1= 0.52 MPa and t1 = 300℃

u1 = 2802.6 kJ/kg h1 = 3063.7 kJ/kg S1 = 7.4411 kJ/ kg * K
At p2= 0.012 MPa, dry and saturated

h = h at 0.012 MPa = 2591.1 kJ/kg
(a) W = h − h = 3063.7 − 2591.1 = 472.7 kJ/kg

(b) s = s + x s
7.4411 = 0.6963 + x (7.39)
x = 0.913
h = h + x h = 206.92 + 0913 (2384.1) = 2383.6 kJ/kg
W = h − h = 3063.7 − 2383.6 = 680.1 kJ/kg
W 472.7
η= = x100% = 69.5%
W 680.1
Polytropic Process

P a g e | 53
(a) The process on the p-v plane
Figure 1.17. Reversible Polytropic Process.
(b) Works of the nonflow process, Wn

Polytropic process is defined by the equation, pvn= C
W = ⟆pdv
p v −p v
W =
1−n
(c) Transferred heat, Q
Q = ∆u + W
p v −p v
= u −u +
1−n
(d) Work of steady flow process, Ws

W = Q − ∆h − ∆K
Also,
n(p v − p v )
W = −⟆vdp = = (n)(W )
1−n
Problem:
Expand 2 kg of steam at 15 bar, 300℃, into the wet region to 100℃ in a polytropic
process where pV1.21= C. Determine (a) y2, (b) ∆H, (C) ∆S, (d) nonflow and steady flow work, and
(e) Q.
Solution:
For a pressure p1= 1.5 MPa and temperature t1= 300℃, the steam is superheated.
The saturation temperature for a pressure of 1.5 MPa is 198 ℃.
v1= 0.16966 m3/kg h1= 3037.6 kJ/kg

u1= 2783.1 kJ/kg s1= 6.9179 kJ/(kg) (K)
At t2 = 100℃, the saturation pressure, p2 = 0.10135 MPa.

p2v2n= p1v1n
p 1.5 .
v =v = 0.16966 = 1.5730 m /kg
p 0.10135
vf2 = 0.0010435 uf2 = 418.94 hf2 = 419.04 sf2 = 1.3069
vfg2 = 1.6719 ufg2 = 2087.6 hfg2 = 2257.0 sfg2 = 6.0480
vg2 = 1.6729 ug2 = 2506.5 hg2 = 2676.1 sg2 = 7.3549

P a g e | 54
v −v 1.5730 − 0.0010435
x = = = 0.9402
v 1.6719
= + = 418.94 + (0.9402) (2087.6) = 2381.7 /
ℎ = ℎ + ℎ = 419.04 + (0.9402) (2257.0) = 2541.1 /
= + = 1.3069 + (0.9402) (6.0480) = 6.9932 /
(a) y2 = 5.98%
(b) ∆H = m (h2 – h1) = 2 (2541.1 – 3037.6) = -993 kJ
(c) ∆S = m (s2 – s1) = 2 (6.9932 – 6.9179) = 0.1506 kJ/K
( ) [( . )( . ) ( . )( . )]
(d) W = = .
= 905.4 kJ
W = (n)(W ) = (1.21)(905.4) = 1095.5 kJ
(e) ∆U = m(u − u ) = 2(2381.1 − 2783.1) = −802.8 kJ
Q = ∆U + W = −802.8 − 905.4 = 102.6 kJ

Problem:
Five kg per second of steam at 5.9 MPa and 500℃ expand to 0.9 MPa in a polytropic
process where pV1.26=C. Find (a) x2 = or t2, ∆ , ∆ , ∆ , (b) W for nonflow, and (c) W for steady
flow if ∆ = -40 kJ/s. (d) Find Q from steady flow and also from energy equation.
Solution:
At a pressure of 5.9 MPa and a temperature of 500℃, the steam is superheated.

v1=0.05766 m3/kg h1= 3423.3 kJ/kg
u1= 3083.1 kJ/kg s1= 6.8892 kJ/(kg) (K)
p2v2n= p1v1n
p 5.9 .
v =v = 0.05766 = 0.2564 m /kg
p 0.9
The specific volume of saturated steam at o.9 MPa is 0.17535 m3/kg. the final
condition is a superheated vapor.
At p2=o.90 MPa & 0.17535 m3/kg

P a g e | 55
0.0025
= = = =
0.0057 16.8 21.9 0.0423 10
x1 = 7.4; u2 = 2695.9 + 7.4 = 2703.3 kJ/kg

x2 = 9.6; h2 = 2924.4 + 9.6 = 2934 kJ/kg
x3 = 0.0186; s2 = 6.9364 + 0.0186 = 3010.8 kJ/kg
x4 = 4.4; t2 = 240 + 4.4= 244.4 kJ/(kg) (K)
(a) t2= 244.4℃

∆H = m(h − h ) = 5(2934 − 3423.3) = −2446.5 kJ/s
∆U = m(u − u ) = 5(2703.3 − 3083.1) = −1899 kJ/s
∆S = m(s − s ) = 5(6.955 − 6.8892) = 0.329 kJ/(s) (K)
( ) [( )( . ) ( )( . )]
(b) W = = .
= 2104.5 kJ
(c) − ∫ Vdp = W + ∆K
= +∆
(1.26) (2104.5) = Ws – 40
Ws = 26917 kJ/s
(d) Q = ∆U + W = −1899 + 2104.5 = 205.5 Kj

Q = ∆K + ∆H + = −40 + (– 2446.5) + 2691.7 = 205.2 kJ/s
Throttling Process
(a) The process on the T-s and h-s planes.
Figure 1.18. Irreversible Throttling Process.

P a g e | 56
(b) Throttling process is a fully irreversible steady flow adiabatic process with no work
being done.
From the general energy equation with ∆ = 0, = 0and = 0, we have, h1 = h2. The
general defining equation for throttling is
h2= h1= hf1 + x1hfg1
for approximate computation
h2= hg + cp∆t
where hg the specific enthalpy of saturated vapor at p2 or t2,
∆t = °SH, degrees of superheat

= t − (t at p )
c = 2 ℃, the specific heat of steam

Problem:
Steam at 1.4 MPa and 270℃ flows steadily through a steam throttle valve that
reduces its pressure by 50%. Find (a) the final temperature and (c) the change in entropy.
Solution:
At p1= 1.4 MPa and t1 = 270℃:
h1= 2973.3 kJ/kg s1= 6.8331 kJ/kg * K

At p2 = 0.70 MPa and h2 = h1 = 2973.3 kJ
(a) t2 = 259.4℃ (by interpolation)

s2 = 7.143 kJ/kg * K (by interpolation)
(b) ∆ = −
= 7.143 – 6.8331 = 0.31 / ∗

Problem:
A throttling calorimeter receives steam from a boiler drum at 0.11 MPa and is
superheated by 10 degrees. If the boiler drum pressure is 1.55 MPa, what is the quality of the
steam generated by the boiler?

P a g e | 57
Solution:
At p2= 0.11 MPa, t = 102.31℃

t =t + °SH
= 102.31 + 10
= 112.31℃
h2= 2700 kJ/kg (by interpolation)
At p1 = 1.55 MPa, hf1 = 851.92 kJ/kg and hfg1 = 1941.2 kJ/kg
h1= hf1 + x1hfg1
2700= 851.92 + x1 (1941.2)
x1= 95.20%

Problem:
A steam calorimeter receives steam from a pipe at 0.1 MPa and 20°SH. For a pipe
pressure of 2 MPa, what is the quality of the steam?
Solution:
At p2= 0.1 MPa, h = 2675.5 kJ/kg
h =h + c (°SH)
= 2675.5+ 2 (20)
= 2715.5
At p1 = 2 MPa, hf1 = 908.79 kJ/kg and hfg1 = 1890.7 kJ/kg

P a g e | 58
h1= hf1 + x1hfg1

2715.5= 908.79 + x1 (1890.7)
x1= 95.56%

P a g e | 59
D. EXERCISES
Name: ________________________ Year Level: ____ Date: _______
1. Water vapor at 100 kPa and 150℃ is compressed isothermally until half the vapor
has condensed. How much work must be performed on the steam in this
compression process per kg?
2. A steam engine isentropically expands 5kg/sec of steam from 0.68 MPa, 220℃.
The exhaust is dry and saturated. Determine (a) the work of a nonflow process
(b) the final temperature, and (c) the work of a steady flow process.

P a g e | 60
E. EVALUATION
Name: ________________________ Year Level: ____ Date: _______
1. A piston-cylinder steam at 700 kPa and 250℃ undergoes a constant pressure process
until the quality IS 70%. Determine per kilogram (a) the work done, (b) the heat
transferred, 9c0 the change of internal energy, and (d) the change of enthalpy.
2. Steam at 3.1 MPa and with 74.28℃ SH rejects 1973.36 kJ/kg of steam heat at constant
pressure, determine (a) the final temperature and (b) the change in specific entropy.
3. With 3% moisture, 2.5 kg of steam has an enthalpy of 6600 kJ. It is heated at constant
pressure to a final condition of 80° superheated. Find (a) the pressure of the process and
(b) the quantity of heat received by the steam.
4. Water at 2.5 MPa and 200℃ is heated at constant temperature up to a quality of 80%.
Find the (a) the quantity of heat received by the water, (b) the change in internal energy
and (c) the work of a nonflow process.
5. Three kg of steam initially at 2.5 MPa and a temperature 0f 370℃ have 2460 kJ of heat
removed at constant temperature until the quality is 90%. Determine (a) the pressure
when dry saturated steam exist and (b) the work.

P a g e | 61
REFERENCES
Sta. Maria, H., (1991). Thermodynamics 2. National Book Store
Rajput, R., (2014). Applied thermodynamics (Second Edition). Laxmi Publications (P)
Ltd
Çengel, Y., (2019). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (Ninth Edition).

McGraw-Hill Education
Long, C., Sayma, S., Bohn, M. (2014). Heat transfer (First Edition). Bookboon

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