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Micheal Van Wyk Ka 2016 Chapter 2Theoretical Fo Teaching

Economic And Ma
Science For Teaching 111 (University of the Western Cape)

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Theoretical foundations of
teaching and learning:
2 Insights into EM S
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Emmanuel Olusola Adu

Chapter objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
• Understand the importance of educational theories to the EM S teacher
• Recognise the importance of the theories of behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism in education
• Apply behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism theories of education to the teaching of EM S in schools
• Appreciate the responsibilities of both the teacher and the learner using each theory.

Case study: Emmanuel’s decision to become a teacher

I really wanted to be a teacher because my parents were teachers. When I was a young child in
a family of six I loved the peace and freedom my parents had. My first appointment after
qualifying as a teacher was in a high school where the head teacher said I should forget
everything that I had learnt in university and that school was the real world.
I later wondered if I had made a wrong choice. Indeed before the end of the first term in
school, the learners were not happy with my teaching. They said my teaching was boring and I
found the learners rude and unruly. One day the head teacher called me into her office and
asked me how many hours I used to prepare for a 45 minute lesson. I told her that I did not
need to prepare because I understood the subject very well and I had passed Economics cum
laude. She replied that understanding the subject did not mean that I could teach it. I quickly
asked her why. She told me that teaching involved adequate preparation in terms of preparing
a lesson plan, making available learning materials, or improvising if there were no materials
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

available. She added that it also meant thinking about appropriate teaching methods to transfer
knowledge meaningfully.

Introduction
Understanding education theory and its application is considered a best practice for teaching
and learning. Many teachers mistakenly believe that they operate in the world of practice,
devoid of any theory. As a result of this misconception the word ‘theory’ has earned a poor
reputation amongst teachers. However, theory forms the basis of everything we do as teachers.
Everyone has a theory or an explanation for things that occur in their daily lives, for instance,
‘why do we have such high crime rates?’ or ‘why are many learners averse to writing long

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essays?’, or ‘why don’t people save?’ There are always several explanations for everything that
happens in our daily lives. These explanations may not be grounded in extensive research and
may not include formal academic language and terms/concepts, but they help us to find
convincing reasons for different occurrences. We are hoping that you will develop into a
teacher who will be able to offer rich and convincing explanations for the choices you make in
your EMS classroom and that you will be able to draw on the existing field of educational
theory to support the classroom practice decisions you make. The field of educational theory is
vast and you will cover some of this in the different courses that make up your teaching
qualification.

2 Why is theory important to the novice EMS teacher?

.1
In Education, new ideas about teaching and learning are constantly being put forward.
Teachers are constantly challenged by new curriculum, new teaching strategies, best assessment
practices and reforms in education. They must prepare the learners by using a variety of
theories on the best way to teach the learners and achieve good results. Each theory provides a
different viewpoint on learning. Each theory has weaknesses and strengths.
Good teaching involves combining many skills and actions, such as understanding content
knowledge (the curriculum), using appropriate teaching methods, ensuring teaching
aids/materials are available, understanding the background of learners and their intellectual
capability, to mention but a few. A teacher has to be versatile in content knowledge (curriculum
contents that the teacher teaches and is expected to know), pedagogical content knowledge (the
teaching methods that fit the curriculum content), knowledge of the curriculum, understanding
the learners’ attitudes and backgrounds, as well as the purpose of education. All this
knowledge should come into play during the teaching process. In order for this to happen,
teachers must have a solid understanding of the theoretical foundations of teaching and
learning.
The scenario outlined in the opening case study is a common one and shows how important
it is for a teacher to prepare adequately before each class. Part of preparing includes selecting
the appropriate teaching methods to engage learners and transfer knowledge meaningfully.
This requires a sound knowledge of educational theories. The case study shows that Emmanuel
failed to consider aspects such as class size, learners’ backgrounds, learners’ levels and the
subject matter. If he had taken these into account and then determined which teaching method
to apply, he would have had far more success.
Although your favourite teacher at school might have made teaching look easy, not
everybody can teach. Teaching involves far more than simply reading out of a textbook and
transferring knowledge. Good teaching involves extremely specialised skills.
Teaching requires teachers to think, prepare, and reflect. Good teachers understand that
teaching is not easy or simple, they know when to use certain teaching methods, how to apply
teaching methods in the context of subject matter and how to adapt the methods to suit their
learners. The years that you spent at university do not adequately prepare you for teaching. Let
us take a closer look at why education theories are important in helping you as a teacher to
prepare adequately for teaching.
In this chapter, we will introduce you to various theories about teaching and learning as
they apply in an EMS teaching context. We are guided by the theoretical orientation to the
teaching of EMS that is favoured by school curriculum policies across the world and by South
Africa in particular. Read the Stop and reflect box to gain a better understanding of what a
theory is.

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Stop and reflect

What is a theory?
A theory is a collection of related statements that explain certain observations. It is an attempt to logically explain something that
can be observed. For example, if you notice that your friend is not at every social gathering, then you might develop a theory that he
or she does not like social gatherings. Similarly if you notice a person leaving their house at the same time every day, dressed smartly
and carrying a laptop bag, you might come up with a theory that he/ she is leaving to go to an office.
Why do you think we use theories?

The following list gives more reasons why we use theories:

• Theories help us to solve complex issues by providing acceptable explanations so as to predict
their recurrence in the future.
• Theories boost the transferring of information from one setting to another because they
provide lenses through which to look at difficult problems and provide empirical evidence
so as to produce a realistic solution.
• Theories help to design an environment to promote learning (Reeves, Albert, Kuper &
Hodges, 2008:5).

2 Fields of educational theory

.2
Because the field of educational theory is vast, we will provide a brief overview of the main
subfields. In a single lesson, it is possible to draw on elements of different theories in the
different phases or stages of the lesson. Remember that each choice of technique or method
should have a sound educational rationale or theoretical explanation regarding its usefulness or
value in helping learners learn. Broadly speaking, there are three main schools of thought:
behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. In the following sections we will examine each
theory as it relates to:
• The general aims and functions of education
• The role of the learner and how learning is constructed
• The tasks and responsibilities of the teacher
• The EMS teaching and learning experience
• Its strengths and weaknesses.

We begin by looking at behaviourism.

2.2 Behaviourism
.1
Behaviourism deals with the changes that occur in human behaviour as a result of incentives.
Behaviourists believe that the only behaviour that can be studied is that which can be observed
directly. Hence, action is more important than thoughts. According to behaviourism, abnormal
behaviour can be corrected by different forms of motivation (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,
2007:257). The behaviour of the learners therefore has a lot to do with the effectiveness of
teaching and learning. Now look at the statement below and discuss the question that follows.

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Stop and reflect

‘Teaching involves learning; teachers need to learn more current or contemporary ways of teaching.’
Take a moment to think about this statement and brainstorm a little. Is teaching a learning process? Do teachers need to learn
how to teach?

As you may have discovered during your brainstorming session, there are many aspects to
teaching, such as:
• Teaching is an activity that involves finding solutions to problems related to instruction,
classroom management, and assessment.
• Teaching empowers learners to do things they could not otherwise do, making it possible for
them to be relevant and functional in a given society.
• Teaching involves the dissemination of content knowledge in order to achieve educational
goals.
• Teaching permits personal and professional development on the part of both the teacher and
the learners.

Stop and reflect

Take a moment to think again about the previous Stop and reflect box. The answer should be yes. You can only give to your learners
what you have. You can appreciate the assertion that teaching and learning is from the cradle to the grave.

It is therefore crucial for teachers to prepare thoroughly before going to class. A teacher must
possess mastery of the content he/she is going to deliver and he/she must be prepared for any
probing questions that might come from the learners. Hence, you must be abreast with current
facts and figures about national issues.
Theorists such as Pavlov, Skinner, Watson, Hull, and Thorndike are associated with
behaviourism. Behaviourists proposed that human beings respond to stimuli in the
environment (stimulus-response). Learners’ behaviour is changed through stimuli and
reinforcement. Both stimuli and reinforcement increase the probability that a certain behaviour
will happen again. For example, scolding can make a learner behave both normally and
abnormally, but either way, it will make the learner adjust his/her behaviour. ‘Normally’
means the presence of stimulus, for example, a learner understanding why he is being scolded,
while ‘abnormally’ means the absence of stimulus, for example, when a learner feels that he is
being scolded unnecessarily and perceives the teacher as being wicked. Learning occurs
through a change in the behaviour of the learner. This also suggests that a teacher should make
use of rewards such as praise and appreciation to encourage learners, rather than reprimanding
them. For more understanding, let us look at practical experiments conducted by Pavlov on
dogs.

Stop and reflect

Pavlov’s experiment established the theory of classical training or respondent training. Every time Pavlov brought food for the dogs,
he would ring a bell. After doing this for some time, the dogs became used to the sound of the bell signalling food. Sometimes Pavlov
would ring the bell without bringing any food to the dogs. Because the dogs were used to the sound of the bell they would salivate

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just because they heard the sound of the bell. The association that the dogs made between the sound of the bell and the food led the
dogs to link the two together. They reacted to the sound of the bell even when there was no food. This demonstrated the importance
of stimuli (Brittaney, 2010:6).

Pavlov’s experiment showed that all behaviours are learned through conditioning and that
conditioning arises through collaboration with the surroundings. Our reactions to
environmental stimuli change our behaviour. According to Watson (2003), people can be
motivated to perform any action through training, regardless of their race, background, social
status and personality traits. All it takes is conditioning.

Figure 2.1 The ABC of behavioural learning

Source: Atherton, J.S. (2003). Learning and Teaching Behaviourism. [Online]. Available at: http:/ / www
.learningandteaching.info/ learning/ behaviour.htm. [Accessed: 03 April 2015].

Learning is the acquisition of information and knowledge, of habits and skills and of the
attainment of attitudes and beliefs so as to produce a desirable change. This change is brought
about through learners’ experiences. Learning entails not only a change in capability, but also
changes in disposition. This can be seen in Figure 2.1, the ABC of behavioural learning.
Figure 2.1 demonstrates that learning is really about the increased probability of a behaviour
occuring, based on reinforcement which has taken place in the past, so that the antecedents
(experience) of the new behaviour include the consequences (penalties) of the previous
behaviour (Atherton, 2003:1).
In order to apply behaviourism to teaching and learning, you will need to be diligent and
conversant with professional procedures. As EMS teachers, you will need to make use of
positive reinforcement, such as a reward system of praising the learners who answer questions
correctly and the use of scaffoldings to support learners who do not answer the questions
correctly. For example, when your learners exhibt acceptable behaviour in class, they should be
rewarded with praise; likewise you need to punish learners who are unruly in class (using

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alternatives to corporal punishment such as detention). Now let us look at some of the
assumptions underpinning behaviourism.
• Behaviourists believe that a learner comes to class without any prior knowledge and his/her
behaviour is modified by positive reinforcement and punishment.
• Behaviourists believe that support, either progressive or undesirable, enhances the probability
of an occurrence happening.
• According to behaviourists, reprimand reduces the probability of occurrences happening.
• Behaviourists assume that a learner is fundamentally inactive and reacts to incentives from the
environment.
• Behaviourists believe that progressive support is the application of an incentive, while
undesirable support is the withdrawal of an incentive.
Human behaviour can be influenced, changed or altered if appropriate stimuli are applied or
provided. It is expected of a teacher to enhance effective teaching and learning by providing the
necessary support to learners and by offering the right kinds of stimulus to learners. This could
include either positive reinforcement (praise) or negative reinforcement (punishment) in order
to prompt learning. In this way, learners can be conditioned to learn in a particular way.
Repetition and conditioning will produce desired behaviours.
Pavlov’s experiment and the case study of Emmanuel show us the importance of
behaviourism in effective teaching and learning. Now let us examine the aims and function of
education according to behaviourism.

2.2.1 The general aims and functions of education according to behaviourism

.1
Behaviourists see the function of education as that of preparing learners to contribute both
economically and socially to society, in other words, to take up their places as citizens in
society. Learners should understand that there is a particular order in society and that order has
to be maintained. This approach suggests that there is a generally accepted body of scientific
knowledge that is worthy of learning. This body of knowledge is fairly stable and can be
identified by experts and as such, there should be no haste to want to change this. Existing
economic and business knowledge is accepted as true, given and is uncontested by either
teacher or learners. Learners are basically passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The
behaviour of learners is modified through positive and negative reinforcement. Therefore
education should be aimed at helping learners become better citizens, more useful for society.
According to behaviourism, education should promote the social interaction of learners
within the environment. Learners should interact meaningfully with members of society in a
way that promotes the norms and culture of society. Society may have a problem if education
does not shape the mind of the learners towards providing solutions, for example, to challenges
such as HIV/AIDS, epidemics, diseases, inflation, exchange rates and trade disputes. As EMS
teachers, you need to be conversant with the types of behaviour your learners exhibit in class
when you are teaching them about current issues. What are your learners’ attitudes to the
government and to society? What are their beliefs about the functions and obligations of
citizens? What roles are they expected to play when they relate with others in their community?
All these topics are components of the EMS content knowledge that your learners must become
familiar with. Therefore, the aims and functions of education according to behaviourism are
very significant in promoting economic growth and development. Let us now look at the role of
learners and how learning is constructed using behaviourism.

2.2.1 The role of the learner and how learning is constructed

.2
As previously discussed, the aims and functions of education have something to do with both

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the learners and the teacher. Learners enter the classroom raw and leave refined, with the help
of incentives used by the teacher when delivering the curriculum contents. The learner is
regarded as relatively passive and responding to direction (stimulus) provided by the teacher.
Learners absorb transmitted knowledge. Learners should be conditioned to understand and
obey rules that exist in the class and in school. This kind of obedience will result in producing
learners who will eventually become compliant, socially acceptable citizens. Moreover, it is
expected of the learners to do the following under this theory:
• Respond to reinforcement
• Be ready to complete tasks and to work in groups for more understanding of the subject
matter and of concepts ranging from the most simple to complex
• Seek clarity about any unclear task
• Ask for feedback.

Think and Link

Chapter 4

Stop and reflect

How does this theory affect your personal teaching in class? This question can be debated amongst you and your colleagues. Now
pause and read these words from a teacher:

‘When I started teaching, I applied behavioural theory to my teaching by using some incentives to encourage my learners to learn
better. I always support my learners and give them prompt feedback. I try as much as possible to avoid using punishment as an
incentive except when it is absolutely necessary. I always motivate my learners and am positive, letting them know that they can
make it, they can do it, and they can succeed. I explain my expectations and when I give them an assignment, I give them clear
directions to follow in order to answer the questions. I always print my assignments and hand them over to learners one by one. I
play a pastoral role as a teacher.’– M r A

Using the teacher’s statement above, think about whether you are doing what M r A is doing and in what other ways you could
apply this theory to your own teaching.

2.2.1 The task and responsibility of the teacher

.3
Let us now take a closer look at the role of the teacher according to behaviourism. The teacher is
seen as a dispenser of knowledge who combines different learning methods to impart the goals
of a lesson. The teacher should be in full control of the teaching and learning experience. There
is a formal relationship between teacher and learner, with the teacher as the authority figure
who is firmly in charge and responsible for constructing the teaching and learning experience.
The teacher is expected to deliver or transmit predetermined knowledge (syllabus content) to
learners. Teachers must effectively adopt a system of rewards and punishments in their
classroom by rewarding desired behaviours and punishing undesirable behaviours. Rewards
vary but must be important to the learners in some way, for example, most learners appreciate
verbal praise as a form of reward. The teacher must be aware that the success of learners
depends on the stimulus and response as well as the association made by the learners (Parkay
& Hass, 2000). The teacher does the following:
• Provides structured explanations
• Gives practice tasks to the learners
• Gives the learners feedback after the task is completed
• Assists the learners in breaking down tasks into small steps that facilitate understanding

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• Uses learners’ prior knowledge to repeat the instructions/lessons that are not clear to them
• Gives positive reinforcement.

Behaviourists believe that positive reinforcement is more active in shaping learners’ behaviour
than reprimand. This must also be determined by the age of the learners. Therefore a teacher
needs to make adjustments to suit an appropriate age, for example, as an EMS teacher, you
should often use verbal praises and words of encouragement such as ‘very good’, ‘that is nice’,
‘good of you’, to motivate your learners to do better.

Think and Link

Chapter 5

Now that we have examined the role of the teacher according to behaviourism, let us look at
the teaching and learning experience in EMS classrooms.

2.2.1 The EMS teaching and learning experience

.4
According to the behaviourist model, the teacher is the only decision-maker. The teaching and
learning experience will be one in which the teacher follows the curriculum of EMS content
knowledge that must be taught. The teacher usually transmits this knowledge using a
lecture-type presentation. Teaching resources could include charts, the chalkboard, overhead
projector or power point presentations. The focus is on practice and mastery of selected content.
As an EMS teacher, you must facilitate the interaction between the curriculum contents,
learners and learning materials.

Your teaching methods or approaches must be appropriate for the subject matter. Learners’
attitudes towards your teaching style must be positive, as seen through their reactions and
feedback that you get from them. You must give the learners homework that will enhance their
understanding about the next topic to be taught. Their previous knowledge and attitudes will
demonstrate what other materials and teaching approach you are going to use. For example, if
you are teaching the Economic Cycle, the assignment or homework should enable them to
understand what the Economic Cycle is and at the same time, prepare them for the topics of
reconstruction, sustainable growth and development that you will be teaching in the next
lesson.
Using behaviourist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both learners and teachers.
Behavioural changes occur for a reason: learners work for things that give them positive
feelings, and for approval from people they admire. They change behaviours to satisfy the
desires they have learnt to value (Parkay & Hass, 2000).

2.2.1 Advantages of using behaviourist theory in the classroom

.5
This method provides creative solutions to class problems
•
• It establishes an individual association between each learner and the topic of study
• It helps learner to think personally in a less biased manner
• This method promotes learners’ ability to work as a team, using leadership skills and
demonstration abilities
• It leads to better achievements of learners at any grade and age levels for all subjects
• It increases motivation to learn by promoting overlearning through repetition
• It fosters comprehension by allowing learner to teach one another

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• It enhances good rapport amongst group members.

2.2.1 Disadvantages of using behaviourist theory in the classroom

.6
•
Lessons are highly structured and systematic, therefore they become too complex for peer
interaction
• Learners who are low achievers may be ashamed of their performances, this may hinder their
continuous participation
• Time constraint
• If not properly managed, it may lead to rowdiness
• Some slow learners may be stigmatised (Grzega & Schoener, 2014:3).

To conclude this section let us take a closer look at the strengths and weaknesses of
behaviourism.

2.2.1 Strengths and weaknesses of behaviourism

.7
The strengths of behaviourism include the following:
• The consequences of behaviour are important factors in learning
• Behaviourism focuses on the answers desired and tries to shape the responses until they give
the desired results
• Just as behaviourism applies to classroom learning through the use of reinforcement to
enhance teaching, it also applies to discipline problems through the use of punishments
such as detention to correct unpleasant behaviour
• Behaviourists believe that the content knowledge and attitudes of learners are important
factors in school
• The use of repetition and support always promote learning (Cherry, 2015:1; Ireland, 2007:2;
Learning Theories, 2011a:3).

The weaknesses of behaviourism include the following:

• The use of punishment is not very effective in removing unwanted behaviour
• Behaviourism is not a collective cure for all our educational problems, because teachers are not
be able to control all of the factors that affect learners’ behaviour, for example, parental
support and approval, peer acceptance and praise
• Behaviourism is criticised for being one-dimensional because of the idea that behaviour can
only change through support or either positive or negative reinforcement
• Behaviourism has the tendency to view human beings as animals that need to be tamed before
any desirable outcome can happen. This means that without reinforcement, there is no
commensurate performance (Ireland, 2007:3; Learning Theories, 2011a:3).

Let us now take a closer look at cognitivism. As you are reading, try to compare and contrast
the theories in your mind. This will give you a deeper understanding and appreciation of the
best theory to use in class.

2.2 Cognitivism
.2
In the previous section we learnt that behaviourism is the study of behaviour and the ways in
which behaviour is motivated by reinforcement. The primary focus of behaviourism is on
external incentives that affect human behaviour. In contrast, cognitivism is concerned with the

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mental actions learners perform in order to obtain useful information, how they keep it in their
memory, and how they produce it when needed. The underlying factor here is the intellectual
capability of learners, how learners think, and the skills learners need to solve some tasks using
content knowledge. Hence, cognitivism not only includes learners’ previous knowledge, but
also how the learners accommodate various learning strategies in order to cope with their
present situation. Thus cognitivism is concerned with changes in behaviour, but the focus is on
what mental processes result in a change in behaviour.
The following theorists have made notable contributions in this field:
• Jean Piaget made the following contributions:
Schema: A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organise and interpret
information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in
interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment. Piaget
was of the opinion that human beings acquire understanding of content knowledge
through the help of incentives that allow them to react to environmental factors. Piaget
called this schema. In addition, whenever learners are faced with something new, they
use schema to deal with it. Schema are thought patterns that are organised to resolve
problems or occurrences. For example, when a learner first tries to do a task, he or she
has no schema, but the next time he or she attempts the task, he or she will use schema to
recall how to solve the task. As an EMS teacher you need to instill in your learners the
ability to use their perceptions and thoughts in an organised way in order to solve
classroom exercises. For example, when you give your learners class work, you should
notice the steps they take in solving problems, not the end result they arrive at (Simon,
2005:2).
Assimilation and accommodation: These concepts allow us to add new information to our
existing knowledge. When you add new knowledge to existing knowledge without
changing the existing knowledge (just deepening it), it is called assimilation. When a
new fact or experience allows you to change your existing knowledge or beliefs, it is
called accommodation. For example, when you notice strange behaviour in your friend,
but you do not change your opinion about him/her, it is called assimilation, but when
the change in your friend’s behaviour makes you change your entire opinion about
him/her, it is called accommodation. Another example is when you learn how to use a
new technology such as a personal computer or a smartphone, it is called assimilation.
Cognitive development stages are different stages in the development of a child’s mental
ability. The way a child reasons is different from the way a teenager reasons. Likewise
their thinking, remembering and problem-solving skills are different. The intellectual
capability of learners differs from one level to another. For example, as EMS teacher, the
way you teach leadership and management to a Grade 7 class should be different from
the way you teach it to Grade 8s and 9s. (Simon, 2005:2).
• Vygotsky was of the opinion that the child is vulnerable to social changes in society, and that
societal culture affects both child and adult. He also made the following contributions:
Cognitive development: Vygotsky studied the emotions of a child. A child’s emotions allow
him/her to think properly. Whatever a child sees or experiences can affect him/her
emotionally. Hence, the child’s environment should be conducive for emotional stability.
Zone of proximal development: According to Vygotsky a teacher should make use of
scaffolding, which is a set of supports given by the teacher to learners enabling them to
arrive at the right answer. In this way, learners perform very well. For example when a
teacher asks question for the first time and the learners do not understand the question,
the teacher needs to rephrase and simplify the question when asking for help the second

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time round to help learners give the right answer. In addition, a teacher should guide the
learners properly in class when solving EMS problems (Simon, 2005:3).

Stop and reflect

Think about Piaget and Vygotsky’s contributions and evaluate the type of scaffolding you can use to support the ideas of Piaget and
Vygotsky before we study the contributions of Bruner and Ausubel.

• Jerome Bruner developed the discovery learning theory. He did not support the breaking of
teaching into age or grades, rather, he believed the teacher should be conscious of the
mental development of a child and make use of different strategies that promote a sense of
reasoning and thinking. Learners should be allowed to discover for themselves from their
personal experiences.
• Ausubel laid emphasis on learners’ prior knowledge as an effective way of learning. The prior
knowledge of learners will determine the content knowledge and the pedagogy the teacher
will employ. This will make learning more real (Simon, 2005:3).

Let us now apply the ideas of the cognitive theorists mentioned above to teaching. In order to
apply cognitivism to teaching, we need to know what knowledge the learners are bringing to
the classroom. This will enable us to know what teaching strategies to use and what learning
materials to provide in order to make learning meaningful. We should also make use of
information processing strategies to help the learners memorise and organise EMS concepts.
Finally, we should allow learners to be actively involved in class activities and give them the
necessary support during the course of teaching. You should make use of different
learner-centred methods such as co-operative learning, discussions, role playing and
demonstrations. Your own role is to facilitate class activities. Learners will have a greater
retention of knowledge that they discover amongst themselves. For example, if you are teaching
entrepreneurship, you could allow your learners to demonstrate their understanding about
how to finance, start and run a business. You could also let them demonstrate the
responsibilities of an entrepreneur within the community and environment.
The cognitivist approach to education was a reaction to behaviourism. The focus is on the
enormous potential of the human mind. It tries to explain how the human mind processes
information and how schema or mental constructions used in any new learning result in the
change of the learners’ schemata.

Activity 2.1
1. Define cognitivism.
2. Explain how cognitivism can be applied to your teaching.
3. What method(s) of teaching would you use to promote retention of content knowledge on the part of learners during your lesson?
4. Using relevant examples and differentiate between assimilation and accommodation.

Think and Link

Chapter 2

2.2.2 The general aims and function of education according to cognitivism

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According
.1 to cognitivism, the educationist must study the mind and how it obtains, processes,
and stores information (Stavredes, 2011:3). It is argued that not all learning occurs through the
shaping and changing of behaviour. In this theory, learners are active participants in their
learning, and the mind functions like a computer processor. Information comes in as input, the
mind processes the information, and the information is stored away to be retrieved later
(Learning Theories Knowledge Base, 2011b:5). Learning is shaped by acquired learning
strategies and prior knowledge and attitudes. The cognitive view of education is that
information must be presented in an organised manner in order to achieve the most efficient
learning.

2.2.2 The role of the learner and how learning is constructed

.2
Learners have different abilities and may be at different stages of development. Learners are
active in the learning process. Learners have existing knowledge. They should try to appraise
this knowledge (its validity) and connect new knowledge to existing knowledge, using various
encoding and memory strategies. The result is a mental or cognitive reorganisation of
knowledge. The teacher should constantly rehearse new knowledge to ensure consolidation in
long-term memory. Because learners are naturally curious and inquisitive, their interest can be
aroused by providing audio- and visual stimuli.
Cognitivists believe that the thoughts and experiences of the learners must be engaged.
Social interactions are very important amongst the learners; learners should be encouraged to
be active rather than passive in their learning. They should be taught to plan and direct their
own learning as much as possible. This is also referred to as cognitive construction, where the
role of the teacher is to act as mediator, facilitator or coach. This is in contrast with the
traditional mode of teaching used in many schools, where the emphasis is on the teacher
transmitting facts to the learners, who are expected to memorise these facts by rote learning
(Robinson & Lomofsky, 2010:72).

2.2.2 The task and responsibility of the teacher

.3
The teacher recognises that each learner is different in terms of learning ability. The teacher
undertakes careful diagnosis of learner needs and develops learning experiences that are
designed to match each learner’s developmental stage. The teacher identifies ways of
stimulating learner interest in the new knowledge to be learnt. He/she
develops/locates/sources appropriate teaching resources for this purpose. The teacher should
ascertain learners’ existing knowledge, getting to know each learner through the use of group
discussion. The programme of learning should enable learners to reflect on existing knowledge
and engage with new knowledge. The teacher organises knowledge to be learnt into
manageable portions. He or she co-ordinates the programme of instruction in a way that allows
memorisation and retention (Weil, 2004:24).
The teacher should use visual stimuli that attract, engage and maintain learners’ attention.
He/she should also make use of rehearsal to decide on the objective to be achieved (recall,
comprehension, application, analysis) and help learners develop learning strategies as well as
an awareness of how their learning is happening (meta-cognitive processes).
The teacher creates an environment, setting expectations for learning and explaining why the
knowledge being learnt is worthwhile. Teachers should also make use of practical examples to
drive home the content knowledge. The teacher is thus an active facilitator/guide who focuses
on how children engage in the learning process and is not pre-occupied with, or distracted by,
the outcome (product). The teacher should evaluate the current stage of a child’s cognitive
development and only assign educational tasks for which the learner is equipped.

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It is expected that teachers will guide learners on the steps to be taken to solve particular
academic problems or tasks in class. The duty of the teacher is to motivate the learners through
the process of learning. As an EMS teacher, you need to be observant in class when learners are
performing classroom tasks. Slow learners must be encouraged, teachers must be mindful of
encouraging the participation of all learners. As with behaviourism, teachers should encourage
learners to learn from each other through the use of co-operative learning or group work. For
example, when you are teaching the economic problem, you can allow your learners to discuss
their views and opinion about the state of the economy. Allow them to share their own views of
how to solve the problem.
Let us now discuss the implications of using cognitivism in the classroom. This will give you
practical knowledge that you can apply for yourself (Robinson & Lomofsky, 2010:73).

2.2.2 Classroom implication

.4
Think and Link
Chapter 5

Cognitivism is concerned with how a learner reasons and thinks, it is interested in making the
learners into thinkers. As an EMS teacher, you should make your learners not only thinkers, but
critical thinkers. Learners must develop an awareness of themselves as thinkers and processors
of information; you can achieve this when you organise a field trip or excursion. Whatever they
see, they will be able to retain. The learners must exercise strategies and methods that involve
effective problem solving and creative thinking.
Learners must develop appropriate metacognitive skills and cognitive strategies. These skills
are imperative for effective learning. Even if the school teaches specific curriculum contents, the
teacher must make a concerted effort to develop programmes that will facilitate the learning of
cognitive strategies and metacognitive awareness in the learners. For example, using what is
known as the resource-person method of teaching, you can invite some professionals to address
your learners. For example, you can invite economists, or budget analysts to speak to the
learners. You can also employ teaching aids/materials such as video clips and documentaries.
As EMS teachers, you must be conscious of the environment of the learners. The learning
environment must encourage the learners to learn by being equipped with learning materials
for learners to interact with. You must let your learners realise the importance of the academic
tasks you are giving them and why they must perform them with the sense of critical thinking.

Stop and reflect

Based on cognitivist theory, what games can you use to promote critical thinking and to make your classes lively and fascinating?

2.2.2 The EMS teaching and learning experience

.5
The EMS lesson must be supported by teaching and learning resources that are rich and
stimulating so as to capture the attention of learners (economics data, newspaper clippings, or
statistics). Learning happens when the learner has contact with new information that relates to
existing knowledge. New knowledge is processed incrementally and in manageable amounts

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that the learner can master. Rehearsal and review is emphasised so as to enable long-term
memory retention. Learners are encouraged to constantly assess their own learning by
self-assessment (feedback from test and assignment scripts) and peer evaluation.
Learners may be at different stages in their learning. The EMS teacher has knowledge of this
and assigns work/task according to the developmental stage of each learner. Curious learners
are encouraged to discover new knowledge. The teaching and learning context is set up for this
kind of discovery to occur.
The principles of cognitivism continue to have appeal to teachers and remain a valuable
theoretical resource for understanding and shaping teaching and learning in classrooms across
the world. The learners must be willing to interact with the learning materials provided while
the teacher must also be willing to facilitate the interaction, thus producing the desired result.
Let us now look closely at some of the strengths and weaknesses of cognitivism.

2.2.2 Strengths and weaknesses of cognitivism

.6
The following are some of the strengths of cognitivism:
• It stresses the importance of learners’ mental levels and how learners process, organise and
recall information
• Cognitive theorists see knowledge as consisting of an immense network of interactions
• Cognitivists suggest that the curriculum needs to be arranged to show interactions between
topics and subjects. Schools should pay attention to developing strategies for organising
knowledge
• It makes use of the progressive organisation of information that makes clear the relationship
between new and old learning
• Cognitivism recognises the importance of education in empowering learners by providing
them with understanding, skills, and confidence (Lefrancois, 1991:5).

The weaknesses of cognitivism include:

• At times it is difficult to separate learning material into hierarchically organised concepts
• This theory likens human beings to machines, in that man should function in the same way
that machines function
• According to this theory, discovery learning does not necessarily lead to discovery teaching,
similarly, learning through exposition does not lead to learning through reception
• It disregards feelings, careful knowledge and free will (Lefrancois, 1991:5).

Let us now examine constructivism, the last theory for the purpose of this chapter.

2.2 Constructivism
.3
Constructivism places the learner at the centre of the teaching and learning experience.
Learning happens by providing learners with experiences that focus on learning how to learn.
This can happen individually or in collaboration with other learners. The process is as
important as the mastering of content knowledge. Being aware of learners’ existing knowledge
is important because it serves as a starting point for planning.
Each of us, as a result of our own particular experiences, places our own meaning on
information that we receive. Meaning is created through a process of thinking, engaging and
reflecting. For example, if learners are paired to present a report on the topic of how to sustain
economic growth and development, they will be expected to have information and to be abreast

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of the indices of economic growth and development, especially with reference to South Africa.
They will need to be able to interpret, discuss and reflect on the information at their disposal.
The emphasis is on socially relevant knowledge that is relevant to the learners’ lived context.
Knowledge is neither static nor fixed, but dynamic and subject to change. Interdisciplinary
knowledge is encouraged, for example, EMS can be linked to Life Orientation. The democratic
role of government, society and the environment in Life Orientation relate well to economic
growth, sustainability and the socio-economic system in EMS. Constructivism encourages
thinking, as opposed to simple mastery and recall of information. Notable theorists under this
are Piaget, Bandura and Vygotsky (Wertsch, 1997:4).

2.2.3 The general aim and function of education according to constructivism

.1
Constructivists would argue that education has no specific aims. The aims of education derive
from what an individual believes is important for him/her. It is an individual’s curiosity and
inquisitiveness that drives his/her learning.

Activity 2.2
Explain why, according to you, knowledge should be constructed for its own sake and should not necessarily serve an instrumental
purpose.
While you are thinking about this question, read more about the view of constructivism on the above assertion.

Knowledge comes from experience. That is why constructivism wants learners to construct
their own knowledge and gain understanding based on their own experience. As an EMS
teacher, you must be able to make use of Bloom’s taxonomy principles, by allowing your
learners to appreciate the different domains and how they are relevant to knowledge
construction. Bloom talks about three specific domains in education: cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor. Bloom further divided the cognitive domains into six levels, the first three being
regarded as low levels and the last three as high levels (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian,
Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths & Wittrock, 2001:6). All of these levels are relevant to how
learners construct their own understanding from their experience. According to Bloom, the first
three levels are:
• Remembering
• Understanding
• Applying.

Whatever a learner has constructed will be remembered. The learner will be able to understand
and apply the knowledge. Let us look more closely at the higher cognitive levels of Bloom’s
taxonomy. These levels are:
• Analysis
• Evaluation
• Creating.

Knowledge that is created, must be critically analysed. Before an experience is analysed, it must
be evaluated. Evaluation allows you, the teacher, to judge the value of the teaching materials
you are using. It enables learners to link together and reconcile ideas before making
conclusions. For example, learners should be able to demonstrate how individuals and
organisations manage their daily activities by using different management and leadership

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skills. The learners must also be able to understand the effect of interpersonal communication
skills on business management. Creating according to Bloom’s taxonomy means the ability of
learners to be creative so as to become independent. For learners to be creative, the
environment must be conducive to reflection and thinking.

2.2.3 The role of the learner and how learning is constructed

.2
According to constructivist theory, learners are innately curious, that is, they possess a natural
desire to investigate, to explore and to discover new things. Curiosity and the need to want to
know serve as a compelling motivation for learners. Using learner-centred methods allow the
learners to take possession of their own learning. Learners learn from experience and can be
taught to be reflective (metacognitive). Learners are perceived as questioning individuals who
wish to develop a deep understanding of how things work. They are perceived as wanting to
seek solutions to real problems, to discover meaning and understanding. The learner assumes
responsibility for his/her own learning to become a critical thinker, creative, and conscious of
all academic tasks undertaken.
The learning process must therefore allow learners to be active, creative and social. They
must be able to analyse strategies and negotiate problems. The learning technique not only
allows for narrative and explanation, but also allows learners to use the skills of problem
solving. It is based on investigation and concrete experience. Having explained the role of
learners and how learning is constructed, let us now look at the constructivist view of the role
of the teacher.

2.2.3 The teacher’s role and responsibilities

.3
The constructivist teacher is not a disconnected observer, but someone who actively
constructs/creates spaces and opportunities for learners to discover and construct knowledge.
Because of learners’ natural curiosity, teachers need to constantly find ways of arousing and
fuelling this curiosity. Teachers need to ascertain the existing experiences, abilities, learning
styles of learners and the pace at which they learn. They must do this in order to respond
appropriately to learners’ needs. By asking and encouraging the asking of questions the teacher
will gain insights into how learners think. The teacher does not have to be the source of
answers, but can set up problems relating to the content to be learnt. To meet the curiosity of
the learners as a teacher, you need to be resourceful, creative, flexible, and current. You also
need to have mastered the content knowledge (curriculum contents) and pedagogical content
knowledge (method of teaching).
Constructivist teachers encourage learners to constantly assess how an activity is helping
them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, learners in the
constructivist classroom ideally become ‘expert learners’. This gives them ever-broadening tools
to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the learners learn how to learn.
You might look at it as a spiral. When they continuously reflect on their experiences, learners
find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and they increase their abilities to integrate
new information. One of the teacher’s main roles becomes to encourage this learning and
reflection process (Gray, 2007:4).
For example, suppose groups of learners in an EMS class are discussing a problem related to
economic growth and development. Though the teacher knows the ‘solution’ to the problem,
she/he should focus on helping learners to scaffold their questions in useful ways. She/he can
prompt each learner to reflect on and examine his or her current knowledge. When one of the
learners comes up with a relevant solution, the teacher can use this solution to explain to the
groups. After this, the learners and teacher can talk about what they have learned.

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The teacher views the curriculum not as a list of topics to be mastered but as flexible and
responsive. Learners’ interests influence or determine the topics and content selected. Learners
develop their own learning objectives and ways to assess achievement thereof.

Example of the teacher as facilitator

For example, when a group of learners in a particular class were solving some class tasks, they started deliberating amongst
themselves. The teacher assumed the role of the facilitator by co-ordinating and overseeing the classroom activities. Even though the
teacher knew the answers to the issues raised by the learners, the teacher did not interrupt the session. This allowed the learners to
think deeply and reflect properly on the topic under discussion. At one stage when there were some disagreements, the teacher used
the opportunity to bring the learners back on track. The learners remained in control of the discussion and quickly grasped the new
content knowledge.

The teacher encourages divergent thinking and multiple perspectives. He/she creates problems
that are complex and challenging. A variety of assessments is set for different learners.
Open-ended questions are used instead of learning experiences constructed around the key
concepts to be learnt.
The teacher must encourage critical thinking. For example, teachers must allow the learners
to interact freely amongst themselves; he/she must make the classroom conducive for group
discussion. While facilitating the class discussion, the teacher must provide learning materials
that the learner can interact with. Hence, the environment must promote co-operative and
collaborating learning.
According to constructivism, learners actively participate in the learning process. This is in
contrast to behaviourism which sees learners as inactive recipients of information. Learners
create their knowledge actively rather than being spoon-fed by the knowledge of the teacher or
from the textbook. Hence, it encourages critical thinking skills and ability since the learners are
at liberty to think and formulate any hypothesis in order to arrive at a certain logical
conclusion.
Now that you have understood your role as EMS student teacher, let us explain the nature of
teaching and learning experience under the same constructivism.

2.2.3 The nature of the teaching and learning experience

.4
The constuctivist theory sees teaching and learning as a shared responsibility. Democratic
context is where elements of the teaching and learning experience are constantly negotiated. In
a constructivist learning context, learners are actively engaged because the method used is
learner centred and this promotes problem-solving skills. Several different activities could be
taking place at the same time. For example, learners can be divided into different groups with
different tasks. Each activity is authentic as it is specifically designed to address particular
needs of learners. Constant questioning and dialogue takes place. A problem-solving approach
is favoured. Assessment is integrated into learning activities and focuses on process rather than
product. The process of achieving an outcome is more important that the outcome. When a
learner is given a task, the teacher must observe the steps taken by the learner to solve the task
rather than the end result. Different assessment methods are used. The teaching and learning
process empowers both teachers and learners. Learners develop multiple skills, especially skills
that encourage critical thinking. Shared responsibility for learning includes learners taking
responsibility for the learning and development of their peers.
Learning is a dynamic social process that brings about change in learners’ behaviour as a

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result of experience. Learning therefore involves the acquisition of scholarly as well as social
skills and habits. Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavioural patterns. This
shows that the learner is active rather than passive, having being motivated by his goals and
needs. Such learning may be either accidental, direct or both and results from experience
peculiar to the individual which occurs as a part of the process of learning.
Teachers are responsible for guiding learners’ activity, modelling appropriate behaviour and
providing the examples that can turn learners’ conversations into meaningful interactive
learning. Learner-centred learning requires active participation, not passive reception. Learners
learn by experimenting with ideas, by thinking about what they see and then by comparing
new experiences with what they already know. They construct hypotheses about how the
world works. The serious thinking of learners is a major component of such learning. It is the
opposite of rote learning and memorisation whereby one might be able to recall many facts, but
explain few. Learning by experiment is a continuous process that seeks to help learners to
transform society by searching for solutions to social problems and improves learners’ life
(Weil, 2004:34).
Let us now look at the interaction between the tasks, teacher, and learner as represented in
Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Interaction between tasks, teachers and learners

Source: Adu, E.O. Creative and Effective Teaching of Arts and Social. In: Araromi, M .A., M oronkola, O.A. &
Ademokoya, J.A. (Eds) (2013a). Teaching and Evaluation in Regular and Special Secondary School (An effective and
creative approach). Ibadan: Royal People (Nigeria) Ltd:352

Figure 2.2 shows that there should be an interplay amongst the three factors. The three must
interact together to facilitate residual knowledge. The teacher must be willing to use different
tasks to arouse the interest of the learners. Likewise the learners must engage the tasks
thoroughly and come out with their own understanding of the concept. Hence, the task is
between the learners and the teacher. Such task must allow the learners to critically think on
their own. They must be independent (upholding their views, beliefs, values and standard), and
their thoughts must allow them to form a logical conclusion (remember Bloom’s taxonomy
explained previously). Similarly, the teacher must be able to mentor the learners appropriately.
He/she must guide the learners so that the classroom discussion will be meaningful.
In this type of situation, the best approach to teaching is the use of co-operative and
collaborative methods of teaching. It is widely believed that learners learn faster from their
colleagues, especially during the group discussion (Adu, 2013b:207). In South Africa where
there are large numbers of learners in classes, group discussions are very important to promote
collaboration. Other collaborative methods include problem-based learning, field trips,
dramatisation, role play, and discussion methods to mention but a few (Adu, 2013b:207).

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Activity 2.3
Discuss any one of the above-mentioned collaborative approaches amongst yourselves.

Let us now look at problem-based learning (PBL) to show you how it promotes collaboration.
Problem-based learning involves different steps of solving classroom tasks. In PBL, the teacher
first provides an ill-structured problem. Then the teacher helps learners to evaluate the
knowledge they should learn for solving the problem. During the process of problem solving,
learners work in small groups. They identify what they know, and more importantly what they
do not know from the tasks. They must go beyond the textbook and classroom activities to
pursue knowledge and information from other resources (Adu, 2012:47).
Most problem-based learning models have problem-solving steps that range from four to
eleven. However, the most used ones have between five and seven steps. Gallagher et al.
(1992:254), cited by Adu (2013b:208) proposed and tested a six-step problem-based learning.
These steps include:
1. Fact finding: Learners search for information, which may help to organise the ‘mess’ of
appropriate resources for information gathering as well as the collection of relevant
information.
2. Problem finding: Here the learners identify certain problems.
3. Brainstorming: At this stage, the learners compile a list of possible solutions to the problems.
4. Solution finding: The brainstormed list is evaluated to determine the potency or efficacy of
possible solutions.
5. Implementation: This means putting into place a preferred solution or solutions on a
permanent or temporary/experimental basis.
6. Evaluation: This requires the vetting of the effectiveness of the implemented solutions.

See below a practical example of how to use the six-step problem-based learning approach to
solve quantitative EMS problems.

Worked example on how to use the six-steps problem-based learning approach

Question: The following set of scores represents the scores of 10 students in Economics: 72, 68, 42, 61, 50, 32, 80, 51, 61 and 48.
Find the mean.

Answ er
Step 1: Fact finding
a) I need to read the problem statement carefully.
b) I need to write out the input elements in the problem i.e. mean (not given).
Scores: 72, 68, 42, 61, 50, 32, 80, 15, 61, 48

No. of students: 10
a) I need to gather needed facts, i.e. what do we understand by ‘mean’? It is the addition of all scores divided by the total number of
scores.

Step 2: Problem finding

a) I need to calculate the mean.
b) I need to add up all the scores, i.e.
72+68+42+61+50+32+80+15+61+48

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c) I need to know the total number of the scores = 10

Step 3: Brainstorming
a) I need the formula for calculating mean, i.e. X/ N
b) I need to recall X = Addition of all scores
N = Total number of scores
c) I need to divide X by N

Step 4: Solution finding

a) X/ N
b) I have all the information needed.
X = 529
N = 10
c) Do I still need more information? (No).

Step 5: Implementation
a) M ean = X/ N
X = 529
N = 10
b) 529/ 10 = 52.9

Step 6: Evaluation
a) Have I followed the correct procedure? Yes.
b) Does the solution address the problem? Yes.
c) Then, I have successfully calculated the mean.

Now that you have been guided on how to solve the question in the worked example, let us
take one of the collaborative problem-solving methods and explain briefly the constructivism
view. We shall take a closer look at peer collaboration.

2.2.3 Peer collaboration

.5
Peer collaboration allows learners to actively participate in the learning process by talking to
each other and listening to other points of view. Peer collaboration creates an individual
association between learners and the subject matter. It helps learners to think in a less
personally biased way. Group assignments and discussions are examples of this teaching
method. Teachers may use peer collaboration to evaluate learners’ abilities to work as a team,
show leadership skills, or demonstrate abilities.
During the group discussion, learners collaborate together regardless of their background
and intellectual capability. They benefit from each other, they rub minds together, they
brainstorm together, and they share views, beliefs and perception together. At this stage, each
learner will understand what he/she can do with assistance or help for what they cannot do.
This is what the constructivists call the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is the
difference between what a learner can do without assistance and what he or she can do with
assistance. Under this method, learners’ potential are utilised and boldness and courage of
expressing yourself will be achieved.
Teachers should make sure that less competent or slower learners are catered for in the
group selection so that is there is a combination of competent and less competent learners in
each group. The most skillful learners will be placed with the less skillful learners. Like we said
before, learners learn faster from their friends or peers than the teacher who they see as the
custodian of knowledge.
Let us conclude this section by examining the strengths and weaknesses of constructivism.

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2.2.3 Strengths and weaknesses of constructivism

.6
The strengths include:
• Constructivist teaching puts more emphasis on physical input, something that has long been
overlooked by many old-fashioned teachers. That is why emphasis is placed on
learner-centred methods. Learners are independent and have critical thinking ability. In
days of old, learners were expected to sit through lectures, take notes and take tests. While
some of that still occurs in classrooms, more and more teachers are understanding that
learners need to be fully involved in the learning process, using all of their senses, not just
their eyes and ears. Learners aren’t just inactive participants in the classroom; they need to
be actively involved in the bigger picture of the world around them.
• The constructivist teaching method has been used in special education settings for some time.
It is quite effective for those learners who have special needs, such as sensory processing
disorders. Some of these learners have brilliant minds, but simply can’t be reached through
old-fashioned methods. Rather than simply doling out information, a teacher is more of a
guide for the learning journey and actively participates in the learning process with learners
(Bright Hub Education, 2012:3).

The weaknesses include:

• The biggest weakness is lack of structure. Some learners require highly structured
environments in order to be able to function.
• Constructivism calls for the teacher to remove the standardised curriculum in favour of a
more personalised course of study based on what the learner already knows. Since learners
have different backgrounds and intelligence quotients, this can lead to some learners falling
behind others.
• It removes assessment in the traditional form and instead places more value on learners
assessing their own progress, which may lead to an indiscriminate form of assessment.
Without standardised assessment and evaluations teachers may not know that the learners
are struggling. Since there is no assessment in the traditional sense, the learner may not be
generating knowledge, but just be copying what other learners are doing.

Activity 2.4
Now let us compare the three aforementioned theories using the following questions:
1. What is learning?
2. How does motivation affect learning?
3. How can you promote memory among the learners?
4. How can you transfer knowledge to your learners?
5. What are the learning strategies used by different theories?

Do you think that you can give brief answers? Can you give brief answers to the above questions based on what you have read in this
chapter?

• Another weakness is that it can actually lead learners to be confused and unsatisfied because
they may not have the ability to conceptualise and form associations between the
knowledge they already have and the knowledge they are currently learning.
• Constructivism has a place in the learning system, but as an absolute learning system, it has
flaws. Learners may benefit when some constructivism principles are incorporated into the

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classroom setting. However, most learners need more structure and evaluation to succeed
(Bright Hub Education, 2012: 4).

While you are reflecting, take a closer look to the following table as a guide. Then you can add
more to it.

Table 2.1 Comparison of behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism

Source: Ireland, T. (2007). Situating Connectivism. [Online]. Available at: http:/ / design.test.olt.ubc.ca/ Situating
_Connectivism. [Accessed: 11 M arch 2015]

Conclusion
In this chapter we examined the theories of behaviouralism, cognitivism and constructivism.
The chapter also looked extensively at the aims and function of education, the role of the
learners, the roles of the teacher, as well as the interplay of teaching and learning using
different theories. The chapter included a discussion of the educational and classroom
implications of the three theories, and also explained the strengths and weaknesses of each
theory.

Key concepts

Behaviourism: deals with changes that occur in human behaviour as a result of incentives

Cognitivism: is concerned with mental activities needed by learners to obtain useful

information from the class, keep it in their memory and produce it when needed

Constructivism: places the learner at the centre of the teaching and learning experience

Educational theory: the collection of related statements that explain certain observations in

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education

Reinforcement: a form of a support given to someone in order to get a desired outcome

Stimuli: a motivation or an inducement given to learners to enhance their academic ability

Teaching and learning: teaching and learning are tightly bound activities and learning is
enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative and co-operative effort between learners

Questions
1. What are the general aims and functions of education according to the theories of
behaviouralism, cognitivism, and constructivism?
2. What are the roles of the learner according to the theories of behaviouralism, cognitivism, and
constructivism?
3. What are the tasks and responsibilities of the teacher according to the theories of
behaviouralism, cognitivism, and constructivism?
4. What would an EMS teaching and learning experience look like under behaviouralism,
cognitivism, and constructivism?
5. What are the strengths and criticisms of behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism?
6. What are the classroom implications of constructivism?
7. How can you apply cognitivism to EMS teaching?
8. Explain what is meant by the peer collaboration teaching method and list THREE advantages
and disadvantages of it.
9. As an EMS teacher, explain how you can apply Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain in
your teaching?
10. As an EMS teacher, which of these theories do you use most constantly in your classroom
and why?

References

Adu, E.O. (2012). Two Problem Based Learning Strategies for Teaching Economics.
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Adu, E.O. Creative and Effective Teaching of Arts and Social. In: M.A. Araromi, O.A.
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Secondary School (An effective and creative approach). Ibadan: Royal People (Nigeria) Ltd.

Adu, E.O. Effective and Creative Teaching of Economics in Schools. In: M.A. Araromi, O.A.
Moronkola, & J.A. Ademokoya, (Eds). (2013b). Teaching and Evaluation in Regular and Special
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Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R.,
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of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.

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Bright Hub Education. (2012). Constructivist Learning theory: Pros & Cons. [Online]. Available
at: http://www.brighthubeducation.com/teaching-methods-tips/76645-pros-and-cons-of
-constructivist-learning-theory/ [Accessed: 19 March 2015].

Brittaney, K. (2010). Behaviouralism theory of learning-Slides Share. [Online]. Available at: http:
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/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm. [Accessed: 22 March 2015].

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E, & Heward, W.L. (2007). Applied Behaviour Analysis, 2nd edition.
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Gray, A. (2007). Constructivist Teaching and Learning.[Online]. Available at: www

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communication in a knowledge society. Journal of Education for Teaching, 34(3):167–175.

Ireland, T. (2007). Situating Connectivism. [Online]. Available at: http://design.test.olt.ubc.ca

/Situating_Connectivism. [Accessed: March 11, 2015].

Kincheloe, J.L. & Weil, D. (2004). Critical Thinking and Learning. An Encyclopaedia For Parents
and Teachers. London: Greenwood Press.

Learning Theories Knowledge Base. (2011a). Behaviourism. [Online]. Available at: http://www
.learning-theories.com/behaviourism.html [Accessed: 11 March 2015].

Learning Theories Knowledge Base. (2011b). Cognitivism. [Online]. Available at http://www

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Lefrancois, G.R. (1991). Psychology for Teaching, 7th edition. California: Wadsworth Publishing
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Stavredes, T. (2011). Effective Online Teaching: Foundations and Strategies for Student Success.

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[Online]. Available at: http://learn.education.illinois.edu/file.php/1647/LearningTheory

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Greenwood Press.

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Further reading

Cherry, K. (2011). Background and Key Concepts of Piaget’s theory. Psychology–complete

guide to psychology learners, educators & enthusiast. Available at: http://psychology.about
.com/od/piagetstheory/a/keyconcepts.htm. [Accessed: 19 March 2015].

Rom, N. (2001). Puzzles and Cognitive Development. Concepts Puzzles. [Online]. Available at:
http://www.conceptispuzzles.com/index.aspx?uri=info/article/167. [Accessed: 19 March
2015].

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M anaging the
3 curriculum
Karen Dos Reis

Chapter objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
• Understand the concept ‘curriculum’
• Understand the roles of stakeholders in the EM S curriculum
• Have knowledge about the EM S curriculum in the South African context
• Know how to develop and implement a year planner and a term planner for teaching EM S
• Know how to balance work and personal life
• Know how to reflect on practice.

Case study: Talking about the curriculum

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