SURVEYING

MODULE NOTES
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Surveying.......................................................................................................1
1.1 History of Surveying...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Future Challenges in Surveying.............................................................................................3
1.3 Definition of Surveying/ Geomatics.......................................................................................3
1.4 Surveying field measurements................................................................................................4
1.5 The purposes of surveying......................................................................................................4
1.6 Principles of Surveying...........................................................................................................4
1.7 Principle factors to be considered when surveying..............................................................5
1.8 Branches of Surveying............................................................................................................5
1.9 Types of Surveying...................................................................................................................6
1.10 Spatial Data.............................................................................................................................6
1.11 The Qualities of a good Surveyor..........................................................................................6
1.12 Importance of Surveying.........................................................................................................7
1.13 Care of instruments.................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2: Maps and Plans.......................................................................................................................9
2.1 Necessities on any plan/map..................................................................................................9
2.2 Survey Plan Scales and Accuracy Requirements..................................................................9
2.3 Accuracy versus Precision....................................................................................................11
2.4 Contours.................................................................................................................................11
Chapter 3: Co-Ordinate Systems.............................................................................................................19
3.1 The Geoid, Spheroid & Ellipsoid.........................................................................................19
3.2 Map Projections....................................................................................................................19
3.3 Point positioning...................................................................................................................24
3.4 The South African Co-ordinate Reference System..............................................................24
3.5 Plotting Coordinate and Plan Requirements......................................................................34
Chapter 4: General Calculations............................................................................................................38
4.1 Units of measure....................................................................................................................38
4.2 Co-ordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations..............................................................40
4.3 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles......................................................41
4.4 Areas and Volumes................................................................................................................44
Chapter 5: Vertical Control.....................................................................................................................55
5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................55
5.2 Purpose of Levelling.............................................................................................................55
5.3 Differential Levelling............................................................................................................56
5.4 Reciprocal Levelling.............................................................................................................79
5.5 Trigonometrical / Tacheometrical Levelling.......................................................................80
5.6 Levelling applications...........................................................................................................81
Chapter 6: EDM Traversing....................................................................................................................91
6.1 Objective:...............................................................................................................................91
6.2 The Total Station...................................................................................................................91
6.3 EDM Distance Measurements..............................................................................................99
6.4 Traverse...............................................................................................................................104
Chapter 7: Site Surveying/Detail Surveying........................................................................................140
7.1 Background..........................................................................................................................140
7.2 Purpose................................................................................................................................140
7.3 Accuracy of reading:...........................................................................................................141
7.4 Procedure.............................................................................................................................141
7.5 Possible mistakes and errors..............................................................................................142
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7.6 The practical procedure for taking a spot shot.................................................................143
7.7 Principles of radial positioning.........................................................................................143
7.8 Calculation and plotting of survey (manually).................................................................145

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

1.1 History of Surveying

The oldest historical records in existence today that bear directly on the subject of
surveying state that this science began in Egypt. Herodotus recorded that Sesostris (about
1400 B.C.) divided the land of Egypt into plots for the purpose of taxation. Annual floods of
the Nile River swept away portions of these plots, and surveyors were appointed to replace
the boundaries. These early surveyors were called rope-stretchers, since their measurements
were made with ropes having markers at unit distances.
As a consequence of this work, early Greek thinkers developed the science of geometry.
Their advance, however, was chiefly along the lines of pure science. Heron stands out
prominently for applying science to surveying in about 120 B.C. He was the author of several
important treatises of interest to surveyors, including The Dioptra, which related the methods
of surveying a field, drawing a plan, and making related calculations. It also described one of
the first pieces of surveying equipment recorded. For many years Heron’s work was the most
authoritative among Greek and Egyptian surveyors.
Significant development in the art of surveying came from the practical minded Romans,
whose best-known writing on surveying was by Frontinus. Although the original manuscript
disappeared, copied portions of his work have been preserved. This noted Roman engineer
and surveyor, who lived in the first century, was a pioneer in the field, and his essay remained
the standard for many years. The engineering ability of the Romans was demonstrated by
their extensive construction work throughout the empire. Surveying necessary for this
construction resulted in the organization of a surveyors’ guild. Ingenious instruments were
developed and used. Among these were the groma, used for sighting; the libella, an A-frame
with a plumb bob, for levelling; and the chorobates, a horizontal straightedge about 20 ft long
with supporting legs and a groove on top for water to serve as a level.
One of the oldest Latin manuscripts in existence is the Codex Acerianus, written in about
the sixth century. It contains an account of surveying as practiced by the Romans and includes
several pages from Frontinus’s treatise. The manuscript was found in the 10th century by
Gerbert and served as the basis for his text on geometry, which was largely devoted to
surveying. During the Middle Ages, the Arabs kept Greek and Roman science alive. Little
progress was made in the art of surveying, and the only writings pertaining to it were called
“practical geometry.”
In the 13th century, Von Piso wrote Practica Geometria, which contained instructions on
surveying. He also authored Liber Quadratorum, dealing chiefly with the quadrans, a square
brass frame having a 90° angle and other graduated scales. A movable pointer was used for
sighting. Other instruments of the period were the astrolabe, a metal circle with a pointer
hinged at its centre and held by a ring at the top, and the cross staff, a wooden rod about 4 ft.
long with an adjustable cross arm at right angles to it. The known lengths of the arms of the
cross staff per- mitted distances to be measured by proportion and angles.
Early civilizations assumed the Earth to be a flat surface, but by noting the Earth’s circular
shadow on the moon during lunar eclipses and watching ships gradually disappear as they
sailed toward the horizon, it was slowly deduced that the planet actually curved in all
directions.
Determining the true size and shape of the Earth has intrigued humans for centuries.
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History records that a Greek named Eratosthenes was among the first to compute its
dimensions. His procedure, which occurred about 200 B.C. Eratosthenes had concluded that
the Egyptian cities of Alexandria and Syene were located approximately on the same meridian,
and he had also observed that at noon on the summer solstice, the sun was directly over-head
at Syene. (This was apparent because at that time of that day, the image of the sun could be
seen reflecting from the bottom of a deep vertical well there.)
He reasoned that at that moment, the sun, Syene, and Alexandria were in a common
meridian plane, and if he could measure the arc length between the two cities, and the angle
it subtended at the Earth’s centre, he could compute the Earth’s circumference. He
determined the angle by measuring the length of the shadow cast at Alexandria from a
vertical staff of known length. The arc length was found from multiplying the number of
caravan days between Syene and Alexandria by the average daily distance travelled. From
these measurements, Eratosthenes calculated the Earth’s circumference to be about
25,000mi. Subsequent precise geodetic measurements using better instruments, but
techniques similar geometrically to Eratosthenes’, have shown his value, though slightly too
large, to be amazingly close to the currently accepted one. (Actually, the Earth approximates
an oblate spheroid having an equatorial radius about 13.5 mi longer than the polar radius.)
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the art of surveying advanced more rapidly. The need for
maps and locations of national boundaries caused England and France to make extensive
surveys requiring accurate triangulation; thus, geodetic surveying began. The U.S. Coast
Survey (now the National Geodetic Survey of the U.S. Department of Commerce) was
established by an act of Congress in 1807. Initially its charge was to perform hydrographic
surveys and prepare nautical charts. Later its activities were expanded to include
establishment of reference monuments of precisely known positions throughout the country.
Increased land values and the importance of precise boundaries, along with the demand
for public improvements in the canal, railroad, and turnpike eras, brought surveying into a
prominent position. More recently, the large volume of general construction, numerous land
subdivisions that require precise records, and demands posed by the fields of exploration and
ecology have entailed an augmented surveying program. Surveying is still the sign of progress
in the development, use, and preservation of the Earth’s resources.
In addition to meeting a host of growing civilian needs, surveying has always played an
important role in our nation’s defence activities. World Wars I and II, the Korean and Vietnam
conflicts, and the more recent conflicts in the Middle East and Europe have created staggering
demands for precise measurements and accurate maps. These military operations also
provided the stimulus for improving instruments and methods to meet these needs. Surveying
also contributed to, and benefited from, the space program where new equipment and
systems were needed to provide precise control for missile alignment and for mapping and
charting portions of the moon and nearby planets.
Developments in surveying and mapping equipment have now evolved to the point where
the traditional instruments that were used until about the 1960s or 1970s—the transit,
theodolite, dumpy level, and steel tape—have now been almost completely replaced by an
array of new “high-tech” instruments. These include electronic total station instruments,
which can be used to automatically measure and record horizontal and vertical distances, and
horizontal and vertical angles; and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as the
global positioning system (GPS) that can provide precise location information for virtually any
type of survey. Laser-scanning instruments combine automatic distance and angle
measurements to compute dense grids of coordinated points. Also new aerial cameras and
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remote sensing instruments have been developed, which provide images in digital form, and
these images can be processed to obtain spatial information and maps using new digital
photogrammetric restitution instruments (also called softcopy plotters).

1.2 Future Challenges in Surveying

Surveying is currently in the midst of a revolution in the way data are measured, recorded,
processed, stored, retrieved, and shared. This is in large part because of developments in
computers and computer-related technologies. Concurrent with technological advancements,
society continues to demand more data, with increasingly higher standards of accuracy, than
ever before. Consequently, in a few years the demands on surveying engineers (geomatics
engineers) will likely be very different from what they are now.
In the future, the National Spatial Reference System, a network of horizontal and vertical
control points, must be maintained and supplemented to meet requirements of increasingly
higher-order surveys. New topographic maps with larger scales as well as digital map products
are necessary for better planning. Existing maps of our rapidly expanding urban areas need
revision and updating to reflect changes, and more and better map products are needed of
the older parts of our cities to support urban renewal programs and infrastructure
maintenance and modernization. Large quantities of data will be needed to plan and design
new rapid-transit systems to connect our major cities, and surveyors will face new challenges
in meeting the precise standards required in staking alignments and grades for these systems.
In the future, assessment of environmental impacts of proposed construction projects will
call for more and better maps and other data. GISs and LISs that contain a variety of land-
related data such as ownership, location, acreage, soil types, land uses, and natural resources
must be designed, developed, and maintained. Cadastral surveys of the yet unsurveyed public
lands are essential. Monuments set years ago by the original surveyors have to be recovered
and re-monumented for preservation of property boundaries. Appropriate surveys with very
demanding accuracies will be necessary to position drilling rigs as mineral and oil explorations
press further offshore. Other future challenges include making precise deformation surveys
for monitoring existing structures such as dams, bridges, and skyscrapers to detect
imperceptible movements that could be pre- cursors to catastrophes caused by their failure.
Timely measurements and maps of the effects of natural disasters such as earthquakes,
floods, and hurricanes will be needed so that effective relief and assistance efforts can be
planned and implemented. In the space program, the desire for maps of neighbouring planets
will continue. And we must increase our activities in measuring and monitoring natural and
human-caused global changes (glacial growth and retreat, volcanic activity, large-scale
deforestation, and so on) that can potentially affect our land, water, atmosphere, energy
supply, and even our climate.
These and other opportunities offer professionally rewarding indoor or outdoor (or both)
careers for numerous people with suitable training in the various branches of surveying.

1.3 Definition of Surveying/ Geomatics

Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative location of points on or near the
surface of the earth. It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between
objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of-

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establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.
Parallel to the actual measurements of surveying are mathematical calculations. Distances,
angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volume are thus determined from data of
the survey. Also, much of the information of the survey is portrayed graphically by the
construction of maps, profiles, cross-sections, and diagrams. Thus the process of surveying
may be divided into the field work of taking measurements and the office work of computing
and drawing necessary to the purpose of the survey. It requires care, skill, attention to details,
and good judgment. Each survey presents particular problems, but if the principles are
properly mastered, the resourceful surveyor will have no difficulty in making the necessary
applications.
It is essential that the surveyor shall understand the limitations of the instruments which
he is using. The exactness, or precision, desired will vary according to the purpose of the
survey, but whether the survey is rough or precise, sufficient checks must be applied in the
field and in the preparation of plans so that inexcusable errors and mistakes may be
eliminated from the final results.
Surveying is the art and science of making field measurements on or near the earth surface
of the earth. In addition to taking measurements in the field the surveyor can derive related
distances and directions through geometric and trigonometric analysis.
Geomatics, is a relatively newly coined word, derived from the word geo-, meaning of the
earth, and -matics, a derivative of informatics, meaning the science of disseminating
information. Geomatics therefore is reformed surveying encompassing modern measurements
science, land information sciences and spatial data management. It is a discipline with focus
on information dissemination as contrasted to data collection for which surveying was known
for centuries.
A survey may therefore be executed in several ways by different combinations of
instruments and methods, and some parts of the work may require different treatment from
others.

1.4 Surveying field measurements

Horizontal and slope distances

Vertical distances
Horizontal and vertical angles

1.5 The purposes of surveying

The determination of the relative positions of points (natural or artificial) on the

surface of the earth.
The setting out on the ground of the positions of points used in construction,
location of properties, etc.

1.6 Principles of Surveying

The position of a point is said to be "determined", when it is known how far that point is
from one or more given points, and in what direction there from; or how far it is in front of
them or behind them, and how far to the right or left etc.; so that the place of the first point,
if lost, could be again found by repeating these measurements in the contrary direction. The
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"points" which are to be determined in Surveying are not the Mathematical points treated off
in Geometry, but the corners of fences, beacons, trees and the like, which are mere points in
comparison with the extensive surfaces and areas which they are the means of determining.
A straight line is determined, i.e. has its length and its position known and fixed when the
points at its extremities are determined, and a plane surface has its form and dimensions
determined when the lines which bound it are determined. Consequently, the determination
of the relative position of points is all that is necessary for the principle objects of surveying;
which are to make a Map or Plan of any surface and to calculate its content. The position of a
point may be determined by a variety of methods

1.7 Principle factors to be considered when surveying

Purpose of the survey.

The degree of accuracy required.
The nature of the country.
The extent of the survey.
The time available for both field and office work.
In most types of survey, the ruling principle is to "work from the whole to the part". The
idea of working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors, which in some cases, tend
to magnify itself very quickly. If the reverse process is adopted and the survey is made to
expand outwards, it will generally be found that minor errors become so magnified in the
process of expansion as to become uncontrollable at the finish. On the other hand, if an
accurate basic control is established in the first place, not only, are large errors prevented and
minor ones controlled and localised, but it will be found that the detail begins to fall almost
automatically into its proper place, like filling in the smaller pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.

1.8 Branches of Surveying

Various branches of Surveying/Geomatics exist depending on where they are applied.

Engineering surveys: Surveys preparatory to, or in conjunction with the erection of
engineering works such as roads, railways, dams, tunnels, storm water and
sewerage works, and construction works generally including the calculation and
placing of pegs in the field.
Topographic surveys: Surveys concerned with the location and representation (by
plan or map) of the main natural and artificial features of the earth’s surface
including hills, valleys, lakes, rivers, buildings, roads, railways, power lines, etc.
Cadastral surveys: Surveys concerned with the measurement of land for the
preparation of plans and diagrams, drawn to scale, showing and defining legal
property boundaries in order that ownership may be registered in the Deeds
Office. Cadastral surveying therefore involves the survey of land (townships or
farms) and buildings (sectional title) for the purpose of delimiting property
boundaries and/or rights to that property.
Mine surveys: Determining the extent of existing mine works in order to keep the
relationship between surface and underground work correct, and to determine the
way mining should proceed so to reach some required position.
Hydrographic surveys: The determination of extent of water areas, volumes, rate of
flow and form and characteristics of underwater surfaces, in connection with
rivers, harbours, lakes and along cost lines. Civil engineering works connected with
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 water supply, water power, irrigation, sewerage disposal, flood control, viaduct and
river works generally, also involve the practice of hydrographic surveying.
Hydrographic surveying also includes the determination of mean sea level.

1.9 Types of Surveying

Plane Surveying: Type of surveying that ignores the curved surface of the earth and
assumes the measured earth surface as a plane. The vast majority of engineering
and construction projects are limited in geographic size and therefore fall in this
category of surveying.
Geodetic Surveying: Surveys that cover large geographic areas for which
corrections need to be made to the field measurements in order to reflect the
curved (ellipsoidal) shape of the earth’s surface. Examples include provincial
boundary surveys.

1.10 Spatial Data

Spatial data, in general, refers to data associated with a location on some reference
coordinate system. The kind of spatial data used in Surveying/Geomatics is associated with
location on the earth surface. Hence it is also referred to as geo- spatial or geo-information.
This is the form of data used to represent geographic objects on paper maps or digital spatial
databases.
Spatial data collection:
At this phase spatial data is observed and recorded using a wide variety of surveying
instruments. The major quantities measured in the field at this phase of data acquisition are
angles and distances (horizontal and vertical). These quantities may then be used to compute
co-ordinates that used to define the location of spatial objects.
Equipment for spatial data collection:
Most of the equipment’s used in surveying are designed to measure angles and distances in
isolation or in combination. Each instrument is designed to undertake a particular job and to a
specific accuracy and its role towards provision of accurate spatial data determines how much
it should cost. The cost of the instrument varies; the general rule though is "the higher the
degree of accuracy, the higher the cost.
Spatial Data Processing, Manipulation and Analysis:
Once data have been collected, the resultant measurements need to be processed,
manipulated and analysed in order to obtain the required results. The resources required for
these may vary slightly depending on the mode of data collection. The major resource for
modern data processing, however, is a computer.

1.11 The Qualities of a good Surveyor

He must have a sound knowledge of the theory and practice of surveying.

He/she must be absolutely honest.
He/she should verify each result, preferably by means of an independent check i.e.
scientific attitude.
He/she must be reliable.

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 His/her judgment must be sound.
He/she must be able to think clearly without confusion and to reason logically
without prejudice.
He/she must be thorough and be content with his work only when it has been
finished in a workmanlike manner.
He/she must possess initiative and should attack each problem with
resourcefulness and energy.

1.12 Importance of Surveying

Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important arts because, as noted
previously, from the earliest times it has been necessary to mark boundaries and divide land.
Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern way of life. The results of today’s
surveys are used to:
map the Earth above and below sea level.
prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea.
establish property boundaries of private and public lands.
develop data banks of land-use and natural resource information that aid in
managing our environment.
determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields of the earth.
prepare charts of our moon and planets.

1.13 Care of instruments

Treat your instrument with respect. It is a delicate item of scientific equipment,

and rough treatment or heavy-handedness, such as over-tightening of clamps, will
soon impair its efficiency.
Never leave the instrument standing on the tripod, even for a second, if it is not
securely screwed down, and do not stand on the smooth surface where it is likely
to slip.
Never allowed the instrument to be manipulated by unskilled person. Setting-up,
packing and unpacking are the surveyor’s jobs, not the assistant’s
During transportation, store the instrument carefully in place where the container
cannot fall over, and where it is subjected to a minimum road shock, even if these
considerations do impose some discomfort upon passengers in the vehicle.
When it is necessary to carry the instrument on the tripod, try to keep it as vertical
as possible, and do not scramble up and down the banks or over obstructions with
the instrument but rather pass it to an assistant.
Protect the instrument from rain and dust. When it has un-avoidable become wet
or dusty, wipe it with a soft cloth. A brush may be found better for the dust. It is
most desirable, if it is wet, to leave it out of its case, as soon as possible, to dry out
thoroughly.
At least once a month, clean all the exposed parts, except the lenses, with a soft
cloth, slightly damped with light oil.
Occasionally polish all exposed parts, except lenses and screw threads with a good
quality polish. This not only preserves its appearance and keeps the paint work in
good condition, but, more important its seals any small crevices, through which
moisture may enter the instrument and promote fungus growth on the optical
parts.
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 At the first sign of fungus growth, send the instrument for thorough cleaning.
Try never to touch the lenses.
clean the lenses only with the soft brush provided for this purpose, or with very
soft tissue paper. Never use the brush for any other purpose.
It must be stressed that an instrument in good condition and adjustment will always give
better results, with less trouble than the one in poor condition or adjustment. Although
observing techniques cancel out certain errors, it is a fact that these techniques are better able
to cope with small errors than with large ones. It is therefore, in the surveyor’s own interest to
ensure that this instrument is in the best possible condition at all times.
Surveying continues to play an extremely important role in many branches of
engineering. For example, surveys are required to plan, construct, and maintain highways,
railroads, rapid-transit systems, buildings, bridges, missile ranges, launching sites, tracking
stations, tunnels, canals, irrigation ditches, dams, drainage works, urban land subdivisions,
water supply and sewage systems, pipelines, and mine shafts. Surveying methods are
commonly employed in laying out industrial assembly lines and jigs. These methods are also
used for guiding the fabrication of large equipment, such as airplanes and ships, where
separate pieces that have been assembled at different locations must ultimately be
connected as a unit. Surveying is important in many related tasks in agronomy, archaeology,
astronomy, forestry, geography, geology, geophysics, landscape architecture, meteorology,
palaeontology, and seismology, but particularly in military and civil engineering.
All engineers must know the limits of accuracy possible in construction, plant design and
layout, and manufacturing processes, even though someone else may do the actual
surveying. In particular, surveyors and civil engineers who are called on to design and plan
surveys must have a thorough understanding of the methods and instruments used, including
their capabilities and limitations. This knowledge is best obtained by making observations
with the kinds of equipment used in practice to get a true concept of the theory of errors and
the small but recognizable differences that occur in observed quantities. In addition to
stressing the need for reasonable limits of accuracy, surveying emphasizes the value of
significant figures. Surveyors and engineers must know when to work to hundredths of a foot
instead of to tenths or thousandths, or perhaps the nearest foot, and what precision in field
data is necessary to justify carrying out computations to the desired number of decimal
places. With experience, they learn how available equipment and personnel govern
procedures and results.
Neat sketches and computations are the mark of an orderly mind, which in turn is an index
of sound engineering background and competence. Taking field notes under all sorts of
conditions is excellent preparation for the kind of recording and sketching expected of all
engineers. Performing later office computations based on the notes underscores their
importance. Additional training that has a carryover value is obtained in arranging
computations in an organized manner. Engineers who design buildings, bridges, equipment,
and so on are fortunate if their estimates of loads to be carried are correct within 5%. Then a
factor of safety of 2 or more is often applied. But except for some topographic work, only
exceedingly small errors can be tolerated in surveying, and there is no factor of safety.
Traditionally, therefore, both manual and computational precision are stressed in surveying.

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CHAPTER 2: MAPS AND PLANS

A plan is a true to scale representation of features on the ground.

A map is drawn to such a small scale that some of the features shown on it cannot
be drawn to scale but must be indicated by means of symbols.

2.1 Necessities on any plan/map

A title which is briefly descriptive of the purpose of the plan.

A north point direction.
An indication of the locality of the area portrayed by the plan. (Incorporated in the
title).
The co-ordinate values of the grid lines, if there are any shown on the plan.
The scale of the plan/map.
The datum on which levels are based.
The date. (Usually the date of completion).
Any other information which may have a bearing on the plan or which will be
useful for its intended purpose
The name of the person or persons who have been concerned with the survey,
drawing, etc., of the plan.
The name of the organisation producing the plan.

2.2 Survey Plan Scales and Accuracy Requirements

2.2.1 Accuracy Requirements

2.2.1.1 Horizontal Fixing
Traverse / Polars / Triangulation / GPS / or Combination
 Linear Closures
S
Class A=0.04 + Class B=1.5∗Class AClassC=3∗Class A Eq. ( 2-1 )
30000
 Directional Closure
2000
Class A= ( 2+n ) secondsClass B−C=1.5∗Class A Eq. ( 2-2 )
G
Note: The maximum directional closure may not exceed 3 minutes for any length traverse
Where : S=the total Traverse distance ,
¿ the distance between the known∧unknown point
¿ the difference between the measured∧calculated Vectors
G=Mean Traverse Length
n=Number of Legs∈Traverse

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 2.2.1.2 Vertical Fixing
 Differential Levelling
Class A=0.002+ 0.001 √ Number of SetUps
Class B=0.003+0.003 √ Number of SetUps Eq. ( 2-3 )
ClassC=0.005+0.003 √ Number of SetUps
Note: The maximum allowable Collimation Error = +/-0.002m. If it exceeds 0.002m, the
instrument MUST be adjusted. The maximum single reading distance must not exceed 80m and
for Class A, the reading distance is limited to 40m.
 Trigonometrical and Tacheometrical Heighting.
Class A=0.015+ 0.015 √ Distance∈ kilometers
Class B=0.050+0.030 √ Distance∈kilometers Eq. ( 2-4 )
ClassC=0.100+0.100 √ Distance∈kilometers
Note: The maximum single reading distance for Class A & B must not exceeds 300m. For Class
A & B fixes the difference between the fixed & the final adopted values (height) may not
exceed 0.100m
2.2.1.3 Survey Equipment’s
Test and adjustment of equipment’s
 It is important that all measuring equipment’s be in adjustment if accurate results
are to be obtained.
 All survey equipment’s must be checked, and adjusted, if necessary, at least every
three months.
 A level instrument must be checked for collimation error every day before use.
Warning: No adjustment may be done by an officer that is not qualified or trained for the task.
An officer will be held responsible for any damaged caused.
2.2.2 Scale
A fraction or ratio, between the length of a line on a plan or map and the corresponding
horizontal length of the same line on the ground is known as the scale of the plan or map. A
scale of 1/10 000 means that one unit measured on the map or plan represents 10 000 of the
same units on the ground. This scale of 1/10 000 may also be written as 1:10 000, or 1 in
10 000.
The method of expressing a scale, where the numerator is always unity, the scales are
known as natural scales and Engineering scale is where the scale is expressed as a statement
of the relation between two different units of measurement e.g. 1inch = 1mile. This means
that 1inch on the map represents 1mile on the ground.
Note: A scale of 1:100 is said to be larger than a scale of 1: 1 000.
Scale and Distance Relationship:
Ground Distance
Plan Distance= Eq. ( 2-5 )
Scale

2.2.2.1 Plotting Accuracy

The precision of a map / plan depends on the fineness and accuracy with which the details
are plotted. Moreover, the plotting accuracy on paper, varies between 0.1mm to 0.4mm, of

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which the mean value of 0.25mm is usually adopted as plotting accuracy.
This, therefore, imposes limit on linear measurements that can be represented on the map
at a given scale and thus accuracy. The measurements to be made on the ground, for example,
if the plotting scale is 1: 1000, then the minimum possible distance on ground, that can be
represented as map, is 0.25 x 1000 mm i.e., 0.25 meter. Thus, any detail having length less
than 0.25 meter cannot be plotted and thus, field measurement for objects having dimension
less than 0.25 meter are not needed. If the scale is still smaller say 1: 50 000, then minimum
plottable ground distance is 0.25 x 50 000mm i.e., 12.5 meter. Thus any object having length
or width less than 12.5 meter, such as roads, railway track, etc. cannot be plotted on map.
However, if the features are important and cannot be ignored, these are represented on
map by proper conventional signs and colours adopting the ‘Principles of Generalisation' of
Details.

2.3 Accuracy versus Precision

A surveyor strives for both accuracy and precision . Many people use the terms “accuracy”
and “precision” interchangeably. However, for those in the surveying profession (as well as
other technical and scientific fields), these words have different meanings.
To surveyors, “accuracy” refers to how closely a measurement or observation comes to
measuring a "true value," since measurements and observations are always subject to error.
“Precision” refers to how closely repeated measurements or observations come to
duplicating measured or observed values.
To illustrate the distinction between terms using a surveying example, imagine surveyors
very carefully measuring the distance between
two survey points about 30 meters apart 10 times
with a measuring tape. All 10 of the results agree
with each other to within two millimetres (less
than one-tenth of an inch). These would be very
precise measurements. However, suppose the
tape they used was too long by 10mm. Then the
measurements, even though very precise, would
not be accurate. Other factors that could affect
the accuracy or precision of tape measurements
include: incorrect spacing of the marks on the Figure
tape, use of the tape at a temperature different
from the temperature at which it was calibrated, and use of the tape without the correct
tension to control the amount of sag in the tape.

2.4 Contours

A contour line is a line on a map joining points of equal height (e.g. Height above M.S.L) or
a contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining points of equal altitude (height) on the
ground. Contour interval is the term used to denote the difference in height (vertical interval)
between successive contour lines.
The concept of a contour line can readily be grasped if a reservoir is imagined. If the water
is perfectly calm, the edge of the water will be at the same level all the way round the
reservoir forming a contour line. If the water level is lowered by, say, five metres the water's
11
edge will form a second contour.
Further lowering of the water will result in the formation of more contour lines ( Error:
Reference source not found). Contour lines are continuous lines and cannot meet or cross any
other contour line, nor can anyone line split or join any other line, except in the case of a cliff
or overhang.
Error: Reference source not found shows the contour plan and section of an island. The
tide mark left by the sea is the contour line of zero metres value. If it were possible to pass a
series of equidistant horizontal planes 10 metres apart through the island, their points of
contact with the island would form contours with values of 10, 20, 30 and 40m.
Intervals are usually in units of 0,5m to 3,0m which are dependent on the nature of ground,
scale of drawing or the purpose for which the drawing is used.
2.4.1 Degree of Accuracy
The degree of accuracy in locating contours depends on:
Scale of plan being produced.
Contour interval.
Cost involved, type of terrain and purpose for which survey is being used. e.g.
small building site requires only a few spot levels.
2.4.2 Characteristics of contours
Where the relief of the ground is steep, contours are close together.
Where the relief of the ground is gentle, contours are far apart.
Contour lines do not cross.
Contour lines do not split.
Contour lines do not end (they always close back).
The direction of the steepest slope is always at right angles to the contour line.
A contour island indicates either a hill or a depression.
Two islands close together will indicate either two hills with a pass between them
or two depressions with a ridge between them.
Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
The horizontal separation between contour lines indicates the steepness of the
ground. Close spacing defines steep slopes, wide spacing gentle slopes.
Highly irregular contours define rugged, often mountainous terrain.
Concentric closed contours represent hills or hollows, depending on the increase
or decrease in elevation.
The slope between contour lines is assumed to be regular.
Contour lines crossing a stream form V’s pointing upstream.
The edge of a body of water forms a contour line.
2.4.3 Purpose of Contouring
Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a road, a
railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc.
For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or suitable site.
To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.
To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of earthwork
both in cutting and filling should be minimum.
For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or

12
 mountainous.
To find the capacity of a reservoir and volume of earthwork especially in a
mountainous region.
To trace out the given grade of a particular route.
To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression, hill, steep
or small slopes.
2.4.4 Contour Interval
The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the contour
interval. It depends on the gradient and topography of the surface. The vertical interval of the
contour lines on any plan depends on several factors, namely:
The purpose and extent of the survey . Where the plan is required for estimating
earthwork quantities or for detailed design of works a small vertical interval will be
required. The interval may be as small as 0.5 metre over a small site but 1 to 2
metres is more common, particularly where the site is fairly large.
The scale of the map or plan . Generally, on small-scale maps the vertical interval
has to be fairly large. If not, some essential details might be obscured by the large
number of contour lines produced by a small vertical interval.
The nature of the terrain . In surveys of small sites, this is probably the deciding
factor. A close vertical interval is required to portray small undulations on relatively
flat ground. Where the terrain is steep, however, a wider interval would be chosen.
The cost. For the smaller interval the greater the amount of field data required,
resulting in greater expense.
The methods of contouring can be divided into (a) direct and (b) indirect methods. Before
studying the direct method, it is necessary to understand how a point is physically set out, on
the ground, at a predetermined height.
2.4.5 Reading contours.
It should be clear that the gradient is steep where the contours are close together and
conversely flat where the contours are far apart.

Figure : Reading Contours

In Error: Reference source not found three different slopes are shown. The contours are
equally spaced in Error: Reference source not found(a), indicating that the slope has a regular
gradient. In Error: Reference source not found(b) the contours are closer at the top of the
slope than at the bottom. The slope is therefore steeper at the top than at the bottom and
such a slope is called a concave slope. Conversely, Error: Reference source not found(c)
portrays a convex slope. A river valley has a characteristic 'V-shape' formed by the contours
Error: Reference source not found(d). The V always points towards the source of the river, i.e.

13
uphill. In contrast, the contours of Error: Reference source not found(e) also form a V-shape
but point downhill forming a 'nose' or spur.
2.4.6 Gradients.
The height between successive contours is called the vertical interval or contour interval
and is always constant over a map or plan. The horizontal distance between the same two
contours is the horizontal equivalent.
Since the vertical interval is constant throughout any plan, the gradient varies with the
horizontal equivalent, in Error: Reference source not found for example
Vertical Interval
Gradient= Eq. ( 2-6 )
Horizontal Equivalent

Figure

10 1
Gradient along AC = = =1∈10=0.1%
100 10
10 1
Gradient along DE= = =1∈3=0.3 %
30 3
2.4.7 Interpolating the contours
10m
grid
RL 26.23
A

position of 27m
contour line

B
x

5.7
0m
10.0

6
10m

(b)
grid
8.2
8.3

5
7

A
0.77
RL 27.15

m
B

(a) 0.9
2m
Figure
The reduced levels of each point are plotted on the grid which is plotted to a suitable scale.
Select two adjoining points using the one point as the origin. It is very important to note that
one does not interpolate beyond a point. Interpolate the position of the contour.
Plot the interpolated position of the contour according to scale. Join all points of equal
elevation to produce contours. The interpolation may be done arithmetically using a pocket
14
calculator, or graphically. Error: Reference source not found(a) shows a part of the grid, with
its appropriate reduced levels. Contour lines may be interpolated on the grid either
mathematically or graphically

2.4.7.1 Mathematically:
The reduced levels of each point are plotted on the grid to a suitable scale.
Select two adjoining points using the one point as the origin. It is very important
to note that one does not interpolate beyond a point.
Calculate the position of the contour using the following formula:
S∗h
Cp= Eq. ( 2-7 )
H
Where:
Cp=Contour position(distance ¿origin¿ desired contour)
S= Horizontal distance between the two pointsh=Different ∈ Height ¿ Origin¿ Desired Contour
H=Height Difference Between two Points (SpotShots)

Plot the calculated position of the contour according to scale.

Join all points of equal elevation to produce contours.
It is important to note that an assumption is made, viz, that the slope of the ground
between points is even. Any excessive change of slope must be catered for by additional spot
shots.

Consider grid points B2 and B3 with reduced levels

of 30.20m and 34.60m respectively and a horizontal
grid interval of 20m (Error: Reference source not
found). The height difference between B2 and B3 is
4.40m and the 31m contour is 0.80 m above B2. The
horizontal distance of the 31 m contour from B2 = x 1.
From Eq. ( 2-7 ), the contour position (x 1) is calculated Figure 26
as follows:
20∗0.8
x 1= =4.545
4.40
2.4.7.2 Graphically
An alternative to the somewhat tedious
mathematical method is a graphical
interpolator. The graph is drawn on tracing
paper and is constructed as in Error:
Reference source not found. Two mutually
perpendicular lines AB and CD are drawn.
The shorter line CD is divided into twenty
equal parts and radial lines are drawn from
A to each of the divisions.
In Error: Reference source not found, the
graph is shown in use. The 92 m contour Figure
position is required between the stations
15
(x60, y40) and (x60, y60) where the reduced levels are 93.2 and 91.6 m respectively. The
difference in level between the points is therefore 1.6 m. The overlay is laid on the grid with
AB and CD parallel to the grid lines, until 16 divisions are intercepted between the two grid
stations.

Figure
Each division represents 0.1 m in this case and the 92 m contour will therefore be four
divisions from station (x60, y60). A pin-hole is made through the overlay at this point and the
mark denoted by a small circle on the site plan.
It should be noted that the overlay can be
manoeuvred until any convenient number of
divisions is intercepted by the grid stations. If,
for example, eight divisions were chosen, each
would represent 0.2 metre.
Another way would be a sheet of transparent
paper (Error: Reference source not found) with
equally spaced horizontal lines is used. The
paper is placed over the two points and rotated
until B2 obtains a value of 30.20m and B3 a Figure
value of 34.60m. Any appropriate scale can be
used for the line separation. As shown, the 31, 32, 33 and 34 m contour positions can now be
pricked through onto the plan. This procedure is carried out on other lines and the equal
contour points joined up to form the contours required.
2.4.8 Grid Levelling
This is the most common and systematic
method used on smaller less steep sites, and an
automatic level is usually employed for the task.
The area is marked cut with a grid of points
equidistant apart (commonly 10, 20 or 30 m) in
all directions, and levels are taken at the points
of intersection of the grid lines.
The grid is plotted on the survey drawing and
the contours are found by interpolation, which is
the process of locating, in plan, any required
level along a line between two known points. Figure

16
17
 Disadvantages of Grid Levelling System
A large number of levels are observed simply to complete the grid. If part of the area
consists of an even slope, many of the level observations will be unnecessary and
time is wasted in taking them.
The laying out of the grid will take up time, which could be more usefully employed
on actual levelling.
Changes of slope or features may exist within the grid which, if not dealt with, will go
unrecorded. In built-up areas where there are also gardens or in wooded land the
layout of a grid may be exceedingly difficult owing to obstructions.
A theodolite is therefore ideally suited to areas of steep or varying slope or where the
topography is very rough. Heights are determined at random (approximately equating a grid)
and positions of contours calculated in the normal way. This yields a quick and effective way
of establishing contours.
2.4.9 Uses of contour plans
Preliminary road, railways, canal etc.
Positions of reservoirs and dams.
Locating and positioning buildings on sites.
Approximate gradient of roads, railways, drainage etc.
Sections can be obtained along any line across contours.
Calculate approximate earthwork volumes.
Construct longitudinal sections and cross-sections for initial investigation.
Construct route lines of constant gradient.
Delineate the limits of constructed dams, road, railways, tunnels, etc.
Delineate and measure drainage areas.
Inter-visibility: The ability to see directly between two points can be established by
interpolating along a line across contours.
The following are the most relevant uses of contour lines in the construction industry.
2.4.10 Methods of contouring
If the ground is reasonably flat, the optical level can be used for contouring using either
the direct or indirect methods. In steep terrain it is more economical to use other
heighting.
2.4.10.1 Direct contouring
In this method the position of each contour, relative to a control point, (e.g. a bench mark)
is located in height and position on the ground. (Similar to the taking levelling method by
collimation). This is a time-consuming process.
In this method the actual contour is pegged out on the ground and its planimetric position
located. A backsight is taken to an appropriate BM and the HPC of the instrument is
obtained, say 34.800 m AD. A staff reading of 0.800 m would then place the foot of the
staff at the 34 m contour level. The staff is then moved throughout the terrain area, with
its position pegged at every 0.800 m reading. In this way the 34 m contour is located.
Similarly, a staff reading of 1.800 m gives the 33 m contour and so on. The planimetric
position of the contour needs to be located using an appropriate survey technique.
This method, although quite accurate, is tedious and uneconomical and could never be
used over a large area. It is ideal, however, in certain construction projects that require
excavation to a specific single contour line.
18
 2.4.10.2 Indirect contouring
The indirect methods are favoured where levels are taken from the ground and the
position of the contour established on the plan or map from plotting the field information.
This technique requires establishing a grid of intersecting evenly spaced lines over the site.
A theodolite and steel tape may be used
to set out the boundary of the grid. The
grid spacing will depend upon the
roughness of the ground and the
purpose for which the data are required.
All the points of intersection throughout
the grid may be pegged or shown by
means of paint from a spray canister.
Alternatively ranging rods at the grid
intervals around the periphery would
permit the staff holder, with the aid of an
optical square, to align himself with
appropriate pairs and thus fix each grid
intersection point, for example,
alignment with rods B-B and 2-2 fixes
point B2. Alternatively, assistants at
Figure
ranging rods B and 2 could help to line
up the staff holder. When the RLs of all the intersection points are obtained, the contours
are located by linear interpolation between the levels, on the assumption of a uniform
ground slope between each pair of points.

19
 Table 3–1: Spheroids
CHAPTER 3: Axis CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS

3.1 The Geoid, Spheroid & Ellipsoid

The earth's physical surface is a tangible one encompassing the mountains, valleys, rivers
and surface of the sea . It is highly irregular
and not suitable as a computational shape.
A more smoothed representation of the
earth is the Geoid.
The Geoid is defined as the surface of
the earth's gravity field, which is
approximately the same as mean sea level
and perpendicular to the direction of
gravity pull.
To simplify the model, various spheroids Figure
or ellipsoid have been devised. The ellipse
is an oval, with a major axis, and a minor axis. If you rotate the ellipse, the shape of the
rotated figure is the spheroid. A
spheroid is a three-dimensional
shape created from a two-
dimensional ellipse. It is a smooth
mathematical surface that best fits
the shape of the Geoid and is the
next level of approximation of the
actual shape of the earth.
One particular spheroid is
distinguished from another by the
Figure lengths of the semi-major and semi-
minor axes.

Spheroid Semi-Major Axis Semi-Minor Axis

Clarke 1866 6 378 206.400 6 356 584.467
Bessel 6 377 397.155 6 356 078.963
WGS84 6 378 137.000 6 356 752.314
Modified Clarke 1880 6 378 249.145 6 356 514.967

3.2 Map Projections

A great variety of map projections has been devised to provide for the various properties
that may be desired in maps. In effect, a projection is a systematic method of drawing the
Earth’s meridians and parallels on a flat surface. Some projections have equal-area properties,
while others provide for conformal delineations in which, for small areas, the shape is
practically the same as it would be on a globe. Only on a globe can areas and shapes be
represented with true fidelity. On flat maps of very large areas, distortions are inevitable.
20
These effects may be minimized by selecting the projection best suited to the purpose of the
map to be produced.
Most types of projection can be grouped according to their geometric derivations as:
Cylindrical
Conic
Azimuthal.
3.2.1 The Graticule as a Guide to Distortion
Especially for a map in the normal aspect, a quick visual inspection of its graticule provides
obvious clues of whether its projection preserves features. For instance, if the coordinate grid
is uniformly laid (say, one line every ten degrees),
Along any meridian, the distance on the map between parallels should be
constant
Along any single parallel, the distance on the map between meridians should be
constant; for different parallels, should decrease to zero towards the poles
Therefore, any two grid "cells" bounded by the same two parallels should
enclose the same area
The equator and all meridians should be straight unbroken lines, since they
don't change direction on the earth's surface
Any meridian should cross all parallels at right angles
Again, for any particular projection, violation of any or all these properties doesn't
necessarily make it poorly designed or useless; rather, it suggests (and constrains) both the
range of applications for which it is suitable and, for each application, regions on the map
where distortion has significance.
3.2.2 Types of Map Projections
3.2.2.1 Cylindrical Projection
Method of Projection is Cylindrical, this is a normal, perspective projection onto a cylinder
tangent at the Equator.
A cylindrical projection can be imagined in its simplest form as a cylinder that has been
wrapped around a globe at the equator. The points on the spherical grid are transferred to the
cylinder which is then unfolded into a flat plane. The equator is the "normal aspect" or
viewpoint for these projections. This family of projections are typically used to represent the
entire world. When projected from the centre of the globe with the normal aspect, the typical
grid appearance for cylindrical projections shows parallels and meridians forming straight
perpendicular lines. The spacing varies depending on the type of cylindrical projection.

Figure
21
 Points of Intersection: Tangent or secant.

Linear Graticules: Meridians and parallels are straight lines at right angles to each other.
Meridians are equally spaced and 0.32 times the length of the Equator, when the Equator is
the standard parallel. The farther the standard parallel is from the Equator, the greater the
length of the meridians. Poles are lines of length equal to the Equator.
Properties:
Shape: Shape is true along the standard parallels of the normal aspect. Shape
distortion is severe near the poles of the normal aspect.
Area: There is no distortion of area.
Direction: Local angles are correct along standard parallels or standard lines.
Direction is distorted elsewhere.
Distance: Scale is true along the Equator. Scale distortion is severe near the
poles of the normal aspect
Limitations:
Recommended for narrow areas extending along the central line.
Severe distortion of shape and scale near the poles.
General characteristics
Lines of latitude and longitude are parallel intersecting at 90 degrees
Meridians are equidistant
Forms a rectangular map
Scale along the equator or standard parallels (lines of tangency) is true
Can have the properties of equidistance, conformity or equal area
The poles are represented as lines
3.2.2.2 Polar Projection

Figure

3.2.2.3 Planar Projection

The perspective of the Vertical Near-Side Projection views the globe from a specified
distance rather than from an infinite distance as in the Orthographic projection. This
perspective provides the overall effect of a photograph of the earth taken from a satellite or
22
space vehicle.
Method of Projection - Planar: The distance above the Earth is variable and must be
specified before the projection can be calculated. The greater the distance, the more closely
this projection resembles the Orthographic projection. All aspects are circular projections of
an area less than a hemisphere.
Point of Tangency : A single point located anywhere on the globe.

Figure

Properties:
Shape: Minimal distortion near the centre, maximal distortion near the edge.
Area: The arial scale decreases with distance from the centre. Arial scale is zero
at the edge of the hemisphere.
Direction: True direction from the point of tangency.
Distance: The radial scale decreases with distance from the centre and becomes
zero on the edges. The scale perpendicular to the radii decreases, but not as rapidly.
Limitations : The actual range depends on the distance from the globe. In all cases, the
range is less than 90 degrees from the centre.
3.2.2.4 Azimuthal Projection
Azimuthal, or zenithal, projections picture a portion of the Earth as a flattened disk,
tangent to the Earth at a specified point, as viewed from a point at the centre of the Earth, on
the opposite side of the Earth’s surface, or from a point far out in space. If the perspective is
from the centre of the Earth, the projection is called gnomonic; if from the far side of the
Earth’s surface, it is stereographic; if from space, it is called orthographic.
3.2.2.5 Conic Projection
Conic projections are derived from a projection of the globe on a cone drawn with the
point above either the North or South Pole and tangent to the Earth at some standard or
selected parallel. Occasionally the cone is arranged to intersect the Earth at two closely
spaced standard parallels. A polyconic projection, used in large-scale map series, treats each
band of maps as part of a cone tangent to the globe at the particular latitude.

Figure
23
 Method of Projection
Cone is tangential if only one standard parallel is specified and secant for two standard
parallels. Graticules are evenly spaced. The space between each meridian is equal, as is the
space between each of the concentric arcs that describe the lines of latitude. The poles are
represented as arcs rather than points.
Lines of Contact
Dependent upon the number of standard parallels.
Tangential Projections: One line, indicated by the standard parallel.

3.2.2.6 The Transverse Mercator (Gauss Conformal) Projection

Figure

The familiar Mercator projection used on so many world maps is a cylindrical projection,
meaning the globe is encircled by an imaginary cylinder touching at the equator, and the
earth is projected onto the cylinder.
The Mercator projection is a conformal projection, meaning that angles and small shapes
on the globe project as the same angles or shapes on the map. The price paid by all conformal
projections is great variation in scale away from the central portions of the map. (e.g.
Greenland on a Mercator map looks as big as South America, though it has actually only 1/8
the area).
There is no reason the cylinder has to touch at the equator, though. An alternative would
be a Mercator projection whose cylinder touches the earth along a meridian of longitude.
Such a projection is called a Transverse Mercator projection.

3.3 Point positioning

Absolute Positioning:

24
 Here the position of a single point is independently determined with respect to a well-
defined co-ordinate system. The origin of this co-ordinate system is usually located at a large
distance from the point and is never occupied. Field astronomy is a good example of a
Surveying technique that yields absolute positioning. Satellite positioning system which takes
account of the dynamic nature of satellite orbits are modern-day examples of absolute
positioning. The co-ordinate reference frame used for satellite absolute positioning has its
origin at or very close to the centre of gravity of the earth (the Geocenter).
Relative Positioning:
This is by far the most common method of positioning. At least two points are involved in
the determination of their relative positions. All terrestrial Survey operations (Polars,
Traverses, Triangulations, etc) make use of relative positioning. In the case of terrestrial
positioning, the station separation is limited to a line of sight, while space-based relative
positioning system does not have this limitation.

3.4 The South African Co-ordinate Reference System

3.4.1 Introduction
The Chief Directorate: National Geo-Spatial Information (CD: NGI) is mandated, in terms of
section 3A(1)(d) of the Land Survey Act (Act 8 of 1997) to “establish and maintain a national
control survey network”. All cadastral parcels and surveys, as well as most engineering surveys
and Geographic Information System (GIS) based projects are referenced to this national
control survey network.
Numerous map projections and coordinate systems are used in South Africa, especially for
mapping purposes. The official “issue” coordinates of the national control survey network
(and hence most surveys) are reported in the Gauss Conform coordinate system referenced to
the Hartebeesthoek94 datum.
This coordinate system/geodetic datum combination is known as the South African
Coordinate Reference System (SACRS). These two components are inseparable in the
definition of SACRS and a different datum, for example, would constitute and different
coordinate reference system.
There is widely held misconception that the coordinate system has changed in 1999, when
in fact the geodetic datum has changed, resulting in a new definition of the SACRS. This is
perpetuated by the use of the words “Lo” and “WG” for coordinates referenced to Cape
Datum and Hartebeesthoek94 respectively.
The South African coordinate system is
based on the "GAUSS CONFORM PROJECTION"
also known as the Transverse Mercator and it
is an adaption of the ordinary Mercator
Projection, turned about 90 degrees, so that it
may be based on upon any meridian and not
just the Equator. This is a cylindrical
projection, and has the advantage that
directions remain true for short lengths as you Figure
move from the central meridian.
This system consists of belts running NORTH and SOUTH, two degrees of longitude wide,
with the central meridian being the odd meridian.
25
 The Y coordinate is measured positive to the west of the origin and negative to the east.
The X coordinate value
increases from zero at the
equator in a southern
direction and, therefore,
always positive in South
Africa. In South Africa survey
work, angles are always
measured in a clockwise
direction.
The co-ordinate grid is
superimposed onto the
geographical graticule, the Figure
zero Y grid line being collinear with the central meridian. The meridians converge as we move
from the equator towards the poles, and will be symmetrical about the central meridian in
each belt.
The co-ordinates of a point on the boundary meridian between two adjacent systems, i.e.,
the even meridian, will have the same X value, and the Y will have the same numerical value,
but will have opposite signs in the two systems. If a survey falls on or near the boundary
meridian, it is usual to calculate the entire survey in the belt in which the greater portion of
the area falls. For this purpose, the co-ordinates of trig beacons falling within an overlap area
of 15 minutes of longitude on either side of the boundary meridian, are given on both co-
ordinate systems.
It should be noted that the X value
always gives the true distance of the
point, measured along the central
meridian (the equator) and the Y co-
ordinate gives the distance east or
west of the central meridian (the odd
longitude), hence it is here that scale
distortion is present. On the map
these lines are longer than their
actual length on the earth's surface.
Bearings or Azimuths are true
geographical angles of direction and
are related to true north or true
south.
Figure
Hence the bearing of a line and its
direction on the co-ordinate system will only coincide when the point of measurement is
situated on the central meridian. The word "bearing" should thus not be used when dealing
with a rectangular co-ordinate system.
For short lines, their directions on the map are virtually the same as their bearings on the
spheroid, and as a result, the shapes of small figures are similar to their shapes on the
spheroid although, due to scale distortion, their areas are increased proportionally to their
distances away from the central meridian.
3.4.2 Definitions

26
 * All definitions from (ISO 19111:2007(E)), unless otherwise stated,
Co-ordinate reference system: A set of mathematical rules for specifying how co-
ordinates are to be assigned to points that are related to the real world by a
datum.
Datum: parameter or set of parameters that define the position of the origin, the
scale, and the orientation of a coordinate system
Easting (E): Distance in a coordinate system, eastwards (positive) and westwards
(negative) from a north-south reference line.
Ellipsoid: Surface formed by the rotation of an ellipse about a main axis.
Geodetic Coordinate System: Coordinate System in which position is specified by
geodetic latitude, geodetic longitude and (in the three-dimensional case)
ellipsoidal height.
Geodetic Datum: Datum describing the relationship of a coordinate system to the
Earth. A set of constants specifying the coordinate system used for geodetic
control. A complete geodetic datum provides, as a minimum, definition for
orientation, scale and dimensions for the reference ellipsoid. The concept is
generally expanded to include the published coordinates of control stations
within the system. (CGCC 1998)
Map Projection: Coordinate conversion from a geodetic/ellipsoidal coordinate
system to a plane.
Northing (N): distance in a coordinate system, northwards (positive) or
southwards (negative) from an east-west reference line
Projected Coordinate System: Two-dimensional coordinate system resulting from
a map projection.
Southing (x): Distance in a coordinate system, southwards (positive) and
northwards (negative) from an east-west reference line.
Vertical Datum: Datum describing the relation of gravity-related heights to the
earth. In most cases the vertical datum will be related to a defined mean sea
level. Ellipsoidal heights are treated as related to a three-dimensional ellipsoidal
coordinate system referenced to a geodetic datum.
Westing (y): Distance in a coordinate system, westwards (positive) and eastwards
(negative) from a north-south reference line.
Distances - are measured on the graticule and must be corrected to sea level and
allowance made for scale distortion.
True North (T.N.) - the true north at a point is the direction of the North Pole
from that point. The meridian through any point is a true North-South line. We
have shown that meridians converge towards the poles. Therefore, true North
directions also converge towards the Poles. The T.N. at two points will only be
parallel lines if they are on the Equator or on the same meridian. It is apparent,
therefore, that the T.N. line is not a good direction on which to base the
directions used in a survey, because it is not a parallel direction from all points in
the survey.
Grid North (G.N.) - the central meridian of each system is a T.N. (T.S.) line, but all
grid lines are made parallel to or at right angles to this line and, for survey
purposes, are oriented from the Grid North (South) as it is called, ie. a line
parallel to the central meridian. The angle of direction or the direction of a line is
always referred to as G.S. in South Africa. Although these directions are fairly
commonly referred to as "bearings", this is a misnomer, as true geographical
bearings refer to T.N.
27
 Meridian Convergence - G.N. coincides with T.N. only at the central meridian of
each zone, e.g. as the 31° meridian passes through Durban, T.N. and G.N. coincide
here. The difference between G.N. and T.N. (G.S. and T.S.) is of opposite sign on
either side of the central meridian. By drawing a figure, the sign of this meridian
convergence can easily be determined. A maximum value for meridian
convergence in South Africa is about 30 minutes of arc.
Magnetic North (M.N.) - is the direction in which a freely suspended compass
needle points.
Direction is the angle measured from a reference object in a clockwise sense. A
direction is always referred to the zero direction of the coordinate system, and
not to any other line, such as true magnetic north. On small local survey
directions are sometimes referred to any arbitrary line and, in such cases, they
are called "Assumed Directions". A line pivoted at the origin and rotated
clockwise starting from the positive direction of the X axis, will sweep out lines of
direction starting from 0° to 360°. Note that sometimes the term "direction" and
"bearing" are used interchangeably; in South Africa we use "bearing" related to
geographical systems and "direction" related to the grid system.
Oriented Direction (Direction Angle) is the angle measured from grid south. At
the central meridian this coincides with geographical or true south.
Functional Angle is the direction minus the preceding right angle, e.g. the
functional angle of 123° is 33° and 327° is 47°.
Orientation is the measure of the rotation of an angle so as to bring the initial
line to zero direction, i.e. grid south.
Zenith is an imaginary point vertically above the instrument.
Zenith Distance is the angle between the zenith and the point sighted. It is the
vertical angle read on most modern theodolites.
The Grid is the representation on a map of a system of equally spaced straight
lines, parallel to the Y and X axes of the coordinate system, the exact distance of
each line from its parent axis being known. The grid thus consists of a system of
squares of known dimensions. Knowing the value (distance from the zero axis) of
the grid lines, the position of a point of known coordinates can be plotted by
scaling the correct distance from two nearby grid lines. The Transverse Mercator
projection has a rectangular grid. The N-S line agrees at the central meridian only.
A Graticule is the representation of the lines of latitude and longitude on a map.
Is a reference system using lines of longitude and latitude, i.e. it is a geographical
system.
3.4.3 Geodetic Datum’s: Cape & Hartebeesthoek94
Prior to 1st January 1999, the co-ordinate system, used in South Africa as the foundation
for all surveying, engineering and georeferenced projects and programmes, was referenced to
the Cape Datum. This datum was referenced to the Modified Clarke 1880 ellipsoid and had its
origin point at Buffelsfontein, near Port Elizabeth. The Cape Datum was based on the work of
HM Astronomers: Sir Thomas Maclear, between 1833 and 1870, and Sir David Gill, between
1879 and 1907, whose initial geodetic objectives were to verify the size and shape of the
earth in the southern hemisphere and later to provide geodetic control for topographic maps
and navigation charts.
From these beginnings this initial network was extended to eventually cover the entire
country and now comprises approximately 29 000 highly visible trigonometrical beacons on
mountains, high buildings and water towers, as well as approximately 20 000 easily accessible
28
town survey marks. As with other national control survey networks throughout the world,
which were established using traditional surveying techniques, flaws and distortions in these
networks have become easily detectable using modern positioning techniques such as the
Global Positioning System (GPS). In addition to these flaws and distortions, most national
geodetic networks do not have the centre of their reference ellipsoids co-incident with the
centre of the Earth, thus making it applicable to the relevant geographic only. The upgrading,
re-computation and repositioning of the South African coordinate system has thus been
driven by the advancement of modern positioning technologies and the globalization of these
techniques for navigation and surveying.
Since the 1st January 1999, the official co-ordinate system for South Africa is based on the
World Geodetic System 1984 ellipsoid, commonly known as WGS84, with the International
Terrestrial Reference Frame 91 (ITRF91, epoch 1994.0) coordinates of the Hartebeesthoek
Radio Astronomy Telescope used as the origin of this system. This system is known as the
Hartebeesthoek94 Datum.
At this stage all heights still remain referenced to mean sea level, as determined in Cape
Town and verified at tide gauges in Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban.
3.4.4 Ellipsoidal Co-Ordinates
The three-dimensional (real world) co-ordinates of a point on the earth’s surface can be
defined in:
(i) Geographic Co-Ordinates (Lat/Long)
 Latitude (Ø): Angular displacement North/South of the Equator.
 Longitude (λ): Angular displacement East/West of the Greenwich Meridian.
 Height (H): Either Orthometric (Height above Mean Sea Level) or Ellipsoidal (Height
above Ellipsoid).
(ii) Geocentric Cartesian Co-Ordinates
A three-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate system (Xg, Yg, Zg) with its origin coinciding with
the centre of the reference ellipsoid/Earth, and axes as shown below.

Figure

(iii) Gauss Conform (Lo System SA)

*** Refer to paragraph 3.4.6

(iv) Ellipsoidal Co-Ordinate (Comparison)

29
Geographic Co-Ordinates (Ø λ H)
29° 57’ 54.042" S 30° 56’ 48.026" E +46.419
Geocentric Cartesian Co-Ordinates (X Y H)
+4 742 985.565 +2 843 868.499 -3167037.434
Gauss Conform Lo 31 Co-Ordinates (Y X Z)
+5 147.033 +3 316 236.077 +46.419

30
 3.4.5 The Transverse Mercator Projection
Johann Heinrich Lambert was a German/French mathematician and scientist. His
mathematics was considered revolutionary for its time and is still considered important today.
In 1772 he released both his Conformal Conic projection and the Transverse Mercator
projection (Error: Reference source not found). The Transverse Mercator projection is the
transverse aspect of the Mercator projection, which is a cylindrical projection, turned about
90 so that the projection is based on meridians and not the parallels.
The Transverse Mercator projection, in its various forms, is the most widely used projected
coordinate system for world topographical and offshore mapping. All versions (e.g. Gauss
Conform, Gauss Kruger, and Universal Transverse Mercator) have the same basic
characteristics and formulas.
The differences which distinguish the different forms of the projection, and which are
applied in different countries arise from variations in the choice of the coordinate
transformation parameters, namely the latitude of the origin, the longitude of the origin
(central meridian), the scale factor at the origin (on the central meridian), and the values of
false easting and false northing, which embody the units of measurement, given to the origin.
Additionally, there are variations in the width of the longitudinal zones for the projections
used in different territories.
3.4.6 The Gauss Conform Coordinate System
The Gauss Conform coordinate system (as used in South Africa), as illustrated in Error:
Reference source not found uses the Transverse Mercator map projection formulae modified
to produce westings (y) and southings (x) instead of northings (N) and eastings (E). Note: The
Gauss Conform projection is used in the southern hemisphere only.
This projection is used for the computation of the plane westings (yLo) and southings (xLo)
coordinates, commonly (but incorrectly) known as the “Lo coordinate system".
3.4.6.1 Coordinate System Conventions
Reference longitude / central meridian (zone/belt)
o These 2 longitude wide zones (belts) are centred on every odd meridian, i.e.
(15 E, 17 E, …. 35 E as well as 37 E for (Marion and Prince Edward Islands) as
central meridian. Example; Longitude 19 E is the central meridian (CM) of the
belt between 18 E and 20 E.
o The origin of each belt is the intersection of each uneven degree of longitude
(longitude of origin = Lo) and the equator.
o Each zone is named after the longitude of origin i.e. Lo 17°, Lo 19°, Lo 21°
etc. and is independent of geodetic datum
Latitude at natural origin /reference Latitude:
o The equator 0°E, is the latitude of reference or origin of the Gauss Conform
Coordinate System.
x (southings)
o Coordinates are measured southwards from the
equator
o Increases from the equator (where x = 0m)
towards the south pole (with a maximum of ± 3
840 000m for continental South Africa).
o Similar to the “northing” coordinates but sign in
Figure
31
 opposite.
y (westings)
o Coordinates are measured from the Central Meridian (Lo) of the respective
zone.
o Increases from the CM (where y=0) in a westerly direction.
o “y” is +ve west of the CM and –ve east of the Central Meridian.
o Since the zone width is 2 0(10 either side of the Central Meridian), the “y”
value should range between +105000 m and -105000 m in South Africa.
o Unless specifically intended, a feature with a “y” ordinate exceeding the
above mentioned values should be referenced to the adjacent Central
Meridian.
False Origin
o There is no false origin (y = 0m at Central Meridian and x = 0m at equator)
Order of Coordinates
o Coordinates are given in the order: y (westings), x (southings), H
(Orthometric height).
Direction Measurement Convention
o Directions are measured clockwise from
south, so if a point (B) is west of point A,
the direction from A to B would be 90°.
Scale at natural origin
o Unity (1) along the central meridian.
Figure 314: Direction
o Scale is constant along any straight line on Measurement Convention
the map parallel to the central meridian
Distortion
o Infinitesimally small circles of equal size on the globe appear as circles on the
map (indicating conformality) but increase in size away from the central
meridian (indicating area distortion).
o The central meridian is the only line of longitude that is a straight line on the
map.
o The equator is the only line of latitude that is a straight line on the map.
o There is a scale distortion that increases from zero as you go away from the
central meridian. i.e. if points A and B are far from the central meridian, and
you walk from A to B and find the distance to be x metres. Then you will find
that the distance as shown by the map will not be exactly x metres.
o This significant distortion of scale as you move away from the central
meridian was the key reason for limiting zone width to 2 0

Figure : Distortion caused by the Gauss Conform

projection of South Africa (Lo27°E)

32
33
 3.4.7 Datum's
A National geodetic co-ordinate system is defined by a Geodetic Datum, which consists of
two parts.
A defined geodetic reference ellipsoid, in terms of the, b or a, f parameters.
A defined orientation, position and scale of the geodetic system in space.
3.4.7.1 Cape Datum
The Modified Clarke 1880 is the reference ellipsoid.
The initial point for this datum is the Buffelsfontein trigonometrical beacon, near
Port Elizabeth.
The orientation and scale characteristics were defined by periodic astronomic
azimuth and base line measurements.
3.4.7.2 Hartebeesthoek94 Datum
The WGS84 is the reference ellipsoid.
The initial point is the Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy telescope, near Pretoria.
The scale and orientation characteristics were defined within the GPS operating
environment and have been confirmed to be co-incident with ITRF91 determination.
3.4.8 Datum Relationships
3.4.9 Geographic Co-Ordinates (Ø λ H)
The Hartebeesthoek94 Datum
latitude is always numerically
greater than its Cape Datum
counterpart at a point of interest.
The magnitude of this difference
ranges from approximately 9" at the
equator to approximately 0" at
latitude 37° South.
The Hartebeesthoek94 Datum
longitude is always numerically less
than its Cape Datum counterpart at
a point of interest. The magnitude Figure
of this difference ranges from
approximately 2" at 15°, east of Greenwich to 0" at approximately 39°, east of
Greenwich
3.4.9.1 Gauss Conform Co-
Ordinates (Y X Z)
The Hartebeesthoek94 Datum X Lo
co- ordinate is between 290 and 300
metres greater than its Cape Datum
counterpart at a point of interest.
This difference is directly related to
the displacement in the equatorial
planes of two ellipsoids.
The Hartebeesthoek94 Datum Y Lo
co-ordinate will always be
Figure
34
 algebraically greater than its Cape Datum counterpart, at a point of interest. The
magnitude of this difference ranges from approximately 70 metres at 15° east of
Greenwich to 0 metres at approximately 39° East.

3.4.10 The effect on South African National System coordinates when used in
International Software
International software such as the ESRI products (ArcGIS) and AutoDesk products
(AutoCad) coordinate values in Universal Transverse Mercator are referred to as Eastings and
Northings (X’s & Y’s). South African National Coordinates are referred to as Y’s and X’s. If our
South African values are simply entered without correction, then the software will interpret
our Y’s as Northings and our X’s as Eastings. In order to view South African National
Coordinate System values in their correct relative positions, it is necessary to enter their
values as follows:
X value ( UTM )=Y value ( SA )∗( – 1 )
Eq. ( 3-1 )
Y value ( UTM ) =X value ( SA )∗( – 1 )

When undertaking survey work it needs to be connected to the National Survey Control
and this is a requirement in cadastral surveys. There are two methods for a point/data to be
referenced to Co-ordinate datum:
 Direct connection : the position/s must be determined relative to any point in the
national control survey network (horizontal), such as the 29 000 trigonometrical beacons and
20 000 town survey marks. This would constitute direct connection.
 Indirect connection: can be achieved by determining positions relative to points that
have already been directly connected.
3.4.11 Coordinates
In survey work measured slope distances are transformed into their horizontal and vertical
components. The horizontal distances are used when plotting a plan, and these horizontal
distances, together with "directions" are transformed into two further components called
COORDINATES. The use of the trigonometrical functions, "sine" and "cosine" will, together
with the horizontal distance, give the component distances along the axes.
The position of any point can be fixed relative to these axes, by measuring the point's
perpendicular distance from each of the axes, the intersection of which is called the ORIGIN.
In mapping and survey work in South Africa, these coordinates are referred to as the Y and X
coordinates of the point. It is usual South African practice for Y, the ORDINATE, to represent
the measurement from East to West, and X, the ABSCISSA, to represent the measurement
from North to South. It is a convention that Y be written before X, thus: - 22 901.14 Y + 3
316 209.06 X
NOTE: A coordinate without a sign is meaningless and, on no account, should the sign be
omitted.
Co-Ordinate list example

35
3.5 Plotting Coordinate and Plan Requirements

3.5.1 Construction of a Grid

Nearly all surveys, at some time or another, have to be plotted on to a plan. The backbone of
any detail plan is an accurate plot of the fixed points from which we work. As these points are
plotted from co-ordinates, the co-ordinate grid is the most important part of the work. It is
therefore absolutely essential that the first stage, i.e., the plotting of the co-ordinate grid, is
accurately carried out.
The first consideration is to make the co-ordinate axes at right angles to each other. The
geometrical theorem on which this construction is based, is that "the diagonals of a rectangle
bisect themselves". In the case of a square, these diagonals bisect themselves at right angles.
The first thing to do then, when a grid is required to be plotted on a sheet of paper, which
normally will be rectangular, will be to draw two diagonals right across the paper from corner
to corner. Whether the paper is square or not makes no difference. (See Error: Reference
source not found).
Take a straight edge that reaches from
corner to corner of the paper, and
with a hard sharp pencil, draw the
diagonals.
From the intersection of the
diagonals, measure equal distances
along them, as long as possible, and
prick these points A, B, C, D.
Join A, B, C, D and produce these sides
of the rectangle to the edge of the
paper. Check the rectangle by scaling Figure
to ensure that AB = CD and BC = DA.
To draw the grid lines parallel to the sides of the rectangle. First mark, with a soft
pencil the approximate positions of the required grid lines, thus ensuring that the
whole of the required area will fall on the sheet. The lines forming the figure ABCD
will normally not be situated suitably for their use as grid lines.
In the figure, the most southerly grid line intersects CD and AB at E and F. so plot CE
at a whole division on the scale and prick in the point E. Scale BF= CE, prick F, join EF
and produce it in each direction.
On CD scale and prick EG, GI and IK, equal to the required squares.
On AB scale and prick the same distances FH, HJ and JL. Check by scaling LA and KO,
which should be equal.
Join and produce GH, IJ, and KL.
Adopt the same procedure for the grid lines running at right angles to those already
constructed.
Check the plotting by measuring the sides and DIAGONALS of each square. The
diagonals should of course be V2 x length of side.
Accurately constructed templates may be obtained, by means of which a grid may be
pricked through onto the paper. As these templates give a far more accurate grid in a fraction
of the time, their use is highly recommended.
3.5.2 Plan to the largest natural scale possible
a) From the points that you want to plot, determine the absolute of the distances
36
 between the largest and smallest coordinate values, and then pick-up the largest
distance.
b) Using the following formula, determine what the scale is for the largest distance
(paper orientation is landscape). Keep in mind that you must allow for a 10mm border.
Largest Distance ( mm )
Plan Scale= Eq. ( 3-2 )
Paper Length ( mm )−10 mm
∴ Scale=Nearest Smaller Natural Scale¿ the calculated one
NB: Natural scales=1 :11 :2 1:2.5 1 :5 1:7.5
c) Determine the co-ordinates for the centre of the page by averaging the largest and the
smallest values of the co-ordinates, and this is represented on the paper by the
intersection of the diagonals.
d) When the size of the grid square has not been specified, the following rules will serve
as a guide:
The sides of the grid squares should be a little shorter than the scale being used
and a whole number of divisions, preferable the scale denominator divided by
10.
Small grid squares are of no particular help, except when the paper distorts.
Thus said, Grid lines should always be 100mm apart. Calculate the Grid values
which are a multiple of the scale
Grid Distance ( m )=Scale∗10 Eq. ( 3-3 )
Check to see if Grid distance is a multiple of Scale
e) Calculate the 1st grid lines from the centre of the page as follows:

( YGrid
GL Y =∫
Distance )
Centre Value
∗Grid Distance
Eq. ( 3-4 )
GL =∫ (
Grid Distance )
X Centre Value
X ∗Grid Distance

f) Calculate the Plotting distance to the 1st Y and X Grid lines from the intersection of
the diagonals.
Y Centre Value−GL Y X Centre Value−GL X
P y= P x= Eq. ( 3-5 )
Scale Scale

Where: Py = Plan Distance to Measure from Y Centre Value

P x = Plan Distance to Measure from X Centre
Value

Note the direction for the plotting distance from the Centre Value’s
Draw the 1 st grid lines perpendicular to one another and then measure and prink
the grid distances on both sides of the frame and join the dots to produce grid
lines.
g) Numbering of Grid Lines
Observe the following points in evaluating grid lines:

37
 Print grid values with their signs at the edge of the sheet.
The name of co-ordinate, Y or X must be attached to the co-ordinate value.
Write co-ordinates thus: Y + 40 000m X + 3 818 000m
h) Plotting Co-Ordinates
Plot all co-ordinates from the pencil grid, and if possible, leave the inking in of the grid until
later or if the grid has been inked, plot from the prick marks.

To plot the position of a co-ordinated point, proceed as follows:

From a comparison of co-ordinates and grid square values, determine the square in
which the point lies.
On the upper and lower X grid lines, plot the value of the Y co-ordinate and join these
points with a straight edge.
On the left and right Y grid lines, plot the value of the X co-ordinate and join these
points with a straight edge. The intersection of these two lines is the position of the
point.
Check the plot by scaling to the Y and X grid lines.
Check the scaled distances between pairs of points against the distances calculated
from their co-ordinates.
Finally, prick the point and ink it in with its conventional symbol.

Example:
Plot the following points on A4 paper.
System : WG 19°
Name Y X
A +380.340 +3 175 490.715
B +451.120 +3 176 215.753
C +506.080 +3 175 328.982
D +465.970 +3 176 278.988
E +458.480 +3 175 230.129
F -532.790 +3 175 684.510
G -555.050 +3 176 228.428
H -545.270 +3 175 203.968
I -624.400 +3 175 259.457
J -623.010 +3 175 374.897
K -601.800 +3 176 201.074

Determine the largest distance:

for Y =506.080−(−624.400 ) =1130.480
for X=3176278.988−3175203.968=1075.020
∴ Lagest Distance is on Y =1 130.48(the paper should be Land Scape )

From: Eq. ( 3-2 ) Plan Scale=1/5000

Error: Reference source not found Grid Distance=500
38
Eq. ( 3-4 ) 1 st GL Y =−500∧GL X =3175500
Note the direction GL Y ∧GL X from the center of the page
Eq. ( 3-5 ) PY =0.079∧P X =0.036

39
CHAPTER 4: GENERAL CALCULATIONS

4.1 Units of measure

In surveying, engineering surveying inclusive, instruments are used in two opposite ways;
Mapping: instruments are used to construct a model of the real world by taking
measurements “in the field”. Such is the case during site surveying for example
Setting out: instruments are used in the constructing of a “planned” project as it
exists in a model, into the field. Such is the case in the setting out of “civil works”
such as roads, dam walls, etc.
Some instruments can only be used for mapping and not for setting out and vice versa.
Many common instruments, however, can be used for both mapping and setting out
Quantities Measured: The major quantities measured in surveying are distances and
angles. From these measured quantities coordinates depicting locations of
geographic features can be determined.
Measurement units used in surveying are distinguished between the distance and
angular units.
4.1.1 Distance Units
The standard unit for distance measurements is an international metre (m). Accordingly,
areas are recorded in square metres (m 2). In cadastral surveying, however, there may be a
requirement that the area be recorded in Hectares (ha) when it exceeds 10 000 m 2.
In the case of South Africa, it is important to note that the Dutch and English settlers used
different units for a foot, in the areas which were under their control. When making
conversions from very old units, the following conversion factors must be used:
Equivalents of Units (Act No 18 of 2006)

4.1.2 Angular units

There are various units of measure for angles in use. These include the following:
Degree (°), Minute (’), and Second (”): This system of measurements is also referred
to as the sexagesimal system of angular units. It is the most commonly used system
for angular measuring instruments and for calculations in engineering and surveying.

40
 In this system, 360 degrees make up a circle, 60 minutes make a degree and 60
seconds make a minute. Angles in this measure are written for example as 13°36’12”
or 13.36.12 which is 13 degrees, 36 minutes and 12 seconds.
Decimal degrees: Decimal degrees are the decimal equivalent of degrees, minutes
and seconds. Most scientific calculators calculate trigonometric functions of angles
expressed as decimal degrees, and similarly for displaying angles calculated from
inverse functions like arcTan. Usually calculators have a function for converting angles
to and from decimal form. In this system 1 revolution = 360 0, 1’ = 1/60 = 0.017° and
1” = 1/3600 = 0.0003°
Grads or Gons: This system is also referred to as the centesimal system of angular
units. These are decimal angles, 400 grads are equal to a circle and therefore equal to
360°. Some European surveying instruments are based on grad measure. Advanced
scientific calculators can be set to work in Grads. For example, on some calculators
you can set MODES, then select GR, then key in angles which the calculator will
assume to be in Grads units.
Radians: This is the natural unit for angles. An arc of one unit in a circle of 1-unit
radius subtends 1 radian. Generally, computer programs expect angles to be in
radians. Whenever an angle appears in a mathematical formula (as opposed to a trig.
function of an angle) one can assume that the angle should be in radians. It is often
necessary to convert an angle from radians to arc degrees, minutes or seconds.
360
1 radian= =57.295 779513 1 Eq. ( 4-1 )
2π
360∗60∗60
No. '' in a radian = = 206 264.806 247 = Cosec 1''
2π
4.1.3 Rounding Off Numbers
Rounding off a number is the process of dropping one or more digits so the answer
contains only those digits that are significant or the number of decimal places. In rounding off
numbers to any required degree of precision in this text, the following procedures will be
observed:
1. When the digit to be dropped is lower than 5, the number is written without the digit.
Thus, 78.374 becomes 78.37. Also 78.3749 rounded to two decimal place becomes
78.37.
2. When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number is used for the
preceding digit. Thus, 78.375 becomes 78.38 and 78.385 is also rounded to 78.38.
3. When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the number is written with the
preceding digit increased by 1. Thus, 78.386 becomes 78.39.
Procedures 1 and 3 are standard practice. When rounding the value 78.375 in procedure 2,
however, some people always take the next higher hundredth, whereas others invariably use
the next lower hundredth. However, using the nearest even digit establishes a uniform
procedure and produces better-balanced results in a
series of computations.
It is an improper procedure to perform two-stage
rounding where, for example, in rounding 78.3749 to four
digits it would be first rounded to five figures, yielding
78.375, and then rounded again to 78.38. The correct
Figure
answer in rounding 78.3749 to four figures is 78.37.

41
 It is important to recognize that rounding should only occur with the final answer.
Intermediate computations should be done without rounding to avoid problems that can be
caused by rounding too early.
Error: Reference source not found illustrate this point. The sum of 46.7418, 1.03, and 375.0
is rounded to 422.8 as shown in the “correct” column. If the individual values are rounded
prior to the addition as shown in the “incorrect” column, the incorrect result of 422.7 is
obtained.

4.2 Co-ordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations

Except for extensive geodetic control surveys, almost all other surveys are referenced to
plane rectangular co-ordinate systems.
Advantages of referencing points in a rectangular coordinate system are: -
the relative positions of points are uniquely defined,
they can be conveniently plotted,
if lost in the field, they can readily be recovered from other available points
referenced to the same system,
computations are greatly facilitated.
Computations involving co-ordinates are performed in a variety of surveying problems. Two
situations will be introduced here, where it will be showed that the length and direction of a
line can be calculated from the coordinates of its end points. Additional problems that are
conveniently solved using co-ordinates are determining the point of intersection of (a) two
lines, (b) a line and a circle, and (c) two circles. The solutions for these and other coordinate
geometry problems are discussed in this chapter. It will be shown that the method employed
to determine the intersection point of a line and a circle reduces to finding the intersection of
a line of known direction and another line of known length. Also, the problem of finding the
intersection of two circles consists of determining the intersection point of two lines having
known lengths. These types of problems are regularly encountered in the horizontal
alignment surveys where it is necessary to compute intersections of tangents and circular
curves, and in boundary and subdivision work where parcels of land are often defined by
straight lines and circular arcs.
The three types of intersection problems noted above are conveniently solved by forming a
triangle between two stations of known position from
which the observations are made, and then solving for
the parts of this triangle. Two important functions
used in solving oblique triangles are (1) the law of
sines, and (2) the law of cosines. The law of sines
relates the lengths of the sides of a triangle to the Figure
sines of the opposite angles. For Error: Reference
source not found, this law is
BC AC AB
= = Eq. ( 4-2 )
sin A sin B sin C
where AB, BC, and AC are the lengths of the three sides of the triangle ABC, and A, B, and C
are the angles. The law of cosines relates two sides and the included angle of a triangle to the
length of the side opposite the angle. In Error: Reference source not found, the following
three equations can be written that express the law of cosines:

42
 2 2 2
BC = AC + AB −2 ( AC ) ( AB ) cos A
2 2 2
AC =BA + BC −2 ( BA ) ( BC ) cos B Eq. ( 4-3 )
2 2 2
AB =CB + CA −2 ( CB )( CA ) cos C
In some co-ordinate geometry solutions, the use of the quadratic formula can be used. This
formula, which gives the solution for x in any quadratic equation of form ax 2 +bx +c=0is
−b ± √ b2−4 ac Eq. ( 4-4 )
x=
2a

4.3 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles

In Error: Reference source not found, straight line AB is referenced in a plane rectangular
Y

Figure
coordinate system.
Error: Reference source not found gives an idea of which quadrant the direction between
the two points will fall into by checking the signs of the deltas.
In Error: Reference source not found, co-ordinates of end points A and B are Y A , X A ,Y Band
X B respectively. The Length (Distance) AB and direction AB of this line in terms of these
coordinates are as follows:-
∆ Y =Y B −Y A
Eq. ( 4-5 )
¿ distance AB∗sin(direction AB)
∆ X=X B− X A
Eq. ( 4-6 )
¿ distance AB∗cos(direction AB )
Distance AB =√ ∆ Y 2+ ∆ X 2 Eq. ( 4-7 )

Direction AB=2 tan

−1
( Distance∆ Y −∆ X )+ D
AB
Eq. ( 4-8 )

where D is the 0° if the result of the function is

positive and 360° if negative.
4.3.1.1 Polars and Joins
The Polar computations involves the
determination of co-ordinates of an unknown Figure
point from a known point where the distance and direction between the two points are

43
known by adding the calculated deltas from Eq. ( 4-5 ) and Eq. ( 4-6 ) to the co-ordinates of
the known point whereas Joins involves the determination of distance and direction between
the co-ordinated points hence the Eq. ( 4-7 ) and Eq. ( 4-8 ) are implemented. The standard
forms for representing Polars and Joins are: -
✓ ✓
Polar : A−B :Y B X B Checked by Join B− A
✓ ✓
Join: A−B : Direction Distance Checked by Polar B−A

Where the tick marks show that the results have been checked and checked by doing either
Join or Polar respectively. The checks should be compared to standard allowable limits as in
paragraph 2.2.1

Example
Calculate the consecutive Joins and Polars from the data below.
A -2 167.59 +303 248.75 AD 90.00.00 4 335.180
B -2 315.81 +303 409.06 CD 222.45.21 218.331
C +2 315.81 +303 409.06

Joins:
A – B: ✓
317.14.39 ✓
218.331
B – C: ✓
90.00.00 ✓
631.620
All Checked by Polars

Polars
A–D +2✓167.590 ✓ +303 248.750
✓ ✓
C–D +2 167.590 +303 248.750
All Checked by Joins
The Polars above represent Double Polars, where a point is computed from
two different points.
4.3.1.2 Straight Lines
The general mathematical expression for a straight line is
X P=mY p +b Eq. ( 4-9 )
∆X
m= =cot( Direction AB ) Eq. ( 4-10 )
∆Y
where Y P is the coordinate of point P on the line whose X coordinate is X P ,m the slope of
the line, and b the y-intercept of the line. Slope m can be expressed as
A common problem encountered in boundary surveying is determining the perpendicular
distance of a point from a line. This procedure can be used to check the alignment of survey
markers on a block and is also useful in subdivision
design. Assume in Error: Reference source not
found that points A and B are on the line defined
by two block corners (K and M) whose co-ordinates
are known. Also assume that the co-ordinates of
point P are known. The slope, m, and x-intercept,
b, of line AB are computed from the co-ordinates
of the block corners. By assigning the Y and X co-
ordinate axes as shown in the figure, the

44
Figure
coordinates of point A are Y A =0, and X A =b .
Calculate Join A-P to determine the distance and direction of line AP. Since the slope of AB
is computed from the bock corners, the direction of line AB is the same as the direction of line
MK. Now angle can be computed as the difference in the direction AP and AB, which for the
situation depicted in Error: Reference source not found is
∝=direction AB−direction AP Eq. ( 4-11 )
Recognizing that ΔABP is a right-angle triangle, length BP is
BP= APsin ∝ Eq. ( 4-12 )
The next problem from Error: Reference source not found is the intersection of two lines
MC and KC. Each has known coordinates for one end point, and each has a known direction to
C. Determining the point of intersection for this type of situation is often called the direction-
direction problem. A simple method of computing the intersection point C is to solve for the
∆ Y MC ∧∆ X KC (Eq. ( 4-13 )) and add these Δ’s to their respective known point.
∆ Y MK −∆ X MK ∗tan(direction KC )
∆ X MC =
tan ( direction MC )−tan(direction KC ) Eq. ( 4-13 )
∆ Y MC =∆ X MC∗tan(direction MC )

Where : M ∧K =the are 1 st∧2 nd known points respectively

C=the Unknown point direction MC =thedirection ¿1 st point ¿ theunknown point
nd
direction KC =the direction ¿ 2 point ¿ the unknown point
Note: reverse the direction of line MK to KM to do the Check. The above equation refers to
the Tan Rule for the Intersection of two lines
Example:
In Error: Reference source not found, co-ordinates of points P, M and K are embedded on it.
Point “C” is the intersection of line KC and MC with the direction 46.41.36 and 306.25.25
respectively. “A” is a point on line KM at the y-intercept. PB is perpendicular to line KM at
point “B”. The figures MBEC and PBEH are both the parallelograms. D, G and N are the tangent
points of the circle with its centre at O. Determine the co-ordinates all the other points with

Figure
checks.
Solution:
45
 Joins: KM 74.06.58
427.201 Checked by Polar
Directions(PB , HE) =DirectionMK + 90=344.06 .58
Directions(EC , BM )=Direction KM =74.06 .58 ( Joins )
Directions(MC , BE , PH )=306.25 .25(Given)DirectionKC =46.41.36 (Given) From Eq. ( 4-10 ):
Gradient KM =cot ( 74.06 .58 )
¿ 0.2845530
From Eq. ( 4-9 ): X A =X K −mY K
¿−68.85551583
⸫ A (Y , X ) :± 0.000−68.856
From Eq. ( 4-13 ):
MB ( ΔY , ΔX ) + M (Y , X ) : −215.303 −130.121
PB( ΔY , ΔX ) + P( Y , X ) : −215.303 −130.121
⸫ B (Y , X ) : −215.303 −130.121

MC ( ΔY , ΔX ) + M (Y , X ) : −224.691 +31.712
KC ( ΔY , ΔX )+ K (Y , X ) : −224.691 +31.712
⸫ C(Y , X ) : −224.691 +31.712

The following points are computed in a similar way

E −376.195 −11.399
F −316.871 −55.174
L −353.826 −90.007
H −343.431 −126.538
J −304.269 −155.436
O −¿202.925 −¿61.802
D −¿185.868 −¿121.745
G −¿165.921 −¿11.655
N −¿239.928 −¿111.950

Since figures MBEC and PBEH are both the parallelograms and share the line BE, the Joins
for lines MC and PH should be the same: -
✓ ✓
Joins: PH 306.25.25 199.952
Checked by Polar

4.4 Areas and Volumes

4.4.1 Calculation of Areas

For calculation purposes, areas on plans and drawings may be classed as either straight-
sided or irregular-sided, and calculation method chosen accordingly. In addition, there are
certain types of areas for which specific calculation methods have been developed. The
fastest and most accurate method of obtaining areas from drawings is to use a planimeter.
4.4.1.1 Straight-Sided Figure
If the base length (b) and the perpendicular height (h) or two of the sides and the included
46
angle of any plane triangle are known, the area of the triangle may be calculated from the
following: -

Area=0.5∗b∗h
Eq. ( 4-14 )
¿ √ s ( s−a )( s−b ) ( s−c )
( a+ b+c )
where s=
2

by Sine Rule :
Area=0.5∗b∗c∗Sine A¿ 0.5∗a∗c∗Sine B¿ 0.5∗b∗a∗SineC
Eq. ( 4-15 )

Any straight-sided figure may be divided into a series of triangles, by drawing appropriate
straight lines, and the area of the figure obtained as the sum of the areas of the triangles
formed by using expressions above as required. On occasion, it is possible to divide an area in
to a series of trapezoids, and this reduces the labour slightly. The area of a trapezoid is
( a+b ) L Eq. ( 4-16 )
Area=
2
where a and b are the parallel sides and L is the
perpendicular distance between them. This form is particularly a
suitable for areas between a chain line and a boundary with a b
L
and b as offsets to the boundary.
Figure
4.4.1.2 Irregular (curvilinear) Sided Figures
(i) Give and take lines
Where the boundary of a figure is irregularly
curved, as in Error: Reference source not
foundError: Reference source not found straight
'give and take' lines may be drawn on the plan to
replace the boundaries for calculation purposes.
These lines should be placed so that the areas
excluded by them are approximately equal (by Figure
eye) to the external areas taken in. When the
boundaries have been 'averaged out' in this way the figure, becomes a straight-sided type and
can be calculated by triangles and trapezoids.
(ii) Counting squares
A suitable method often used for very small areas or figures with highly irregular

47
boundaries is to prepare a grid of squares on a piece of tracing paper or linen and super
impose this on the drawing. If the plan scale and grid scale are known, the area within the
particular figure is obtained by counting the number of squares of the grid within the figure
boundaries. (Part squares may be 'balanced' with one another, or counted as 1/2∨1 /4
squares).
(iii) Trapezoidal rule for areas
This is an adaptation of the method shown above for trapezoids between a survey line and
a boundary. In the Error: Reference source
not found, BC is a chain line (or suitable
line drawn on plan), with offsets
O 1, O 2 ,O 3 , ... ., at regular distances L
apart along the line. (These offsets might
be field-measured or simply located and
scaled arbitrarily on the plan). The distance
L must be sufficiently short for the lengths
of boundary between each pair of offsets Figure
to be taken as a straight line. This method assumes that each small figure is a trapezium of
which the general form of expression is:

( )
n−1
O 1+ O n
A=Strip Length ∑ O+ 2
Eq. ( 4-17 )
2

(iv) Simpson Rule

This method is similar to the Trapezoidal, but gives more accurate results, being based on
the assumption that the irregular boundary consists of a series of parabolic arcs rather than
straight lines. The area must, however be divided into an even number of strips by an odd
number of offsets or ordinates.
Referring again to the Error: Reference source not found, Simpson’s Rule states that the
area is:
Strip Length
A=
3
( O1 +On +4 ∑ EvenO +2 ∑ OddO ) Eq. ( 4-18 )

This method necessitates an even number of divisions and regular intervals.

Note the difference between this result and that obtained using the Trapezoidal rule.
Simpson’s rule will give the more accurate result when the boundary is genuinely irregular,
and the Trapezoidal rule will give the more accurate result when the boundary is almost a
series of straight lines. In general, for irregular-sided figure, Simpson’s rule should be used
4.4.1.3 Area by co-ordinates
Let the co-ordinates of a figure with the sides n be expressed in the form Y 1 X1, Y2 X2, ---, Y n
Xn.

A=
∑ (( Y n +Y n +1 )∗( X n+1 −X n ) ) Eq. ( 4-19 )
2

A=
∑ ( Y n∗(X n +1−X n +3)) Eq. ( 4-20 )
2
Eq. ( 4-19 ) can be used in the following manner:

48
Examples
Calculate the area of the following figures:
Name Y X
A +7 432.260 +2 084.350
B +5 872.080 +1 324.660
C +4 531.820 +3 488.950
D +5 430.750 +4 231.610

49
 By Eq. ( 4-19 )
Calculation Check
Name Y X ( Y n +Y n+1 )∗( X n+ 1−X n() X n+ X n+ 1)∗( Y n +1−Y n )
A +7 432.260 +2 084.350
B +5 872.080 +1 324.660 -10 107 174.055 -5 318 669.222
C +4 531.820 +3 488.950 +22 517 056.731 -6 451 488.939
D +5 430.750 +4 231.610 +7 398 802.236 +6 940 243.001
A +7 432.260 +2 084.350 -27 620 226.853 +12 641 457.100
∑=¿ -7 811 541.940 +7 811 541.940
¿ 2=¿ 3 905 770.970 m2 3 905 770.970 m2
390.5771 Ha 390.5771 Ha

By Eq. ( 4-20 )
Calculation Check
Name Y X Y n∗(X n+1− X n+3 ) X n∗(Y n+1−Y n+3 )
A +7 432.260 +2 084.350
B +5 872.080 +1 324.660 -21 605 208.207 +919 886.186
C +4 531.820 +3 488.950 +8 247 923.568 -3 842 096.850
D +5 430.750 +4 231.610 +13 173 774.149 -1 539 778.304
A +7 432.260 +2 084.350 -7 628 031.450 +12 273 530.908
B +5 872.080 +1 324.660
C +4 531.820 +3 488.950
∑=¿ -7 811 541.940 +7 811 541.940
¿ 2=¿ 3 905 770.970 m2 3 905 770.970 m2
390.5771 Ha 390.5771 Ha
4.4.2 Calculation of Volumes

Figure

In roadwork’s, railways, canals, trenches and similar ‘long’ earthworks, cross-sections are
taken at suitable intervals and the volumes of cut or fill obtained from these together with
measured distances between them.
4.4.2.1 End Areas – Trapezoidal Formula for volumes
Where two successive cross-sections are A 1 and A 2 and they are spaced a distance of L
apart and provided the cross-section at the midway point between A 1 and A 2 is actually the
mean of these two, then volume contained between the sections will be:

50
 and for extended consecutive cross-sections the volume will be:
A +A
V =L 1 2
2 ( ) Eq. ( 4-21 )

and for extended consecutive cross-sections the volume will be:

V =L ( A +2 A +∑ Remainimg )
1 2
A Eq. ( 4-22 )

Note that the result is generally less than the true volume.
4.4.2.2 The Prismoidal\Simpson’s Rule for Volumes
The best results are achieved by assuming that the volume of earth between the two
successive cross-sections is actualy a prismoid, a prismoid is actually a solid consisting of two
parallel plane end-faces(not necessary of the same shape) with the sides joining the faces
formed by continous straight lines running from face to face. The volume of a prismoid is
obtained from:
L
V = ( A 1 +4 M + A 2) Eq. ( 4-23 )
3
L
V= ( A + A +2 ∑ Odd A + 4 ∑ Even A )
3 1 n
Eq. ( 4-24 )

where A1 and A 2 are the end-face areas, A the area of respective end-faces, M the area of
the cross-section midway between the faces, and L the distance between them.
Note that there must be an odd number of cross-sections just as ther are an odd number of
offsets or ordinates in the equivalent area rule.

51
EXERCIZE 4-1

1. Calculate Radial Polars from point A. Co-ords of A are +87 987.344 +1 489 657.433
B 3 456.789 195.43.52
C 7 653.479 52.27.29
D 6 247.865 299.54.37

2. Calculate Joins AC, AD and CB from the data given below

D +7 987.344 +89 657.433
C +12 323.427 +92 479.185
B +3 174.361 +83 316.386

3. The coordinates of a two points P and Q is as follows:

P -8 417.42 +5 672.56
Q -2 941.75 +2 815.92

a) Calculate the Join PQ

b) If the oriented direction of PR = 131.16.50 and the reduced horizontal
distance PR = 847.95m, calculate coordinates for R

4. (a) Explain the following terms briefly

a) An Angle
b) Observed angles of direction
c) Oriented directions
(b) Calculate the Join from the coordinates of two points P and Q
P -9 723.41 +7 164.98
Q -12 098.67 -12 098.67
(c) Use the true direction calculated in (b) to orientate the following observed
directions at P in tabulated form as given below:
Orient
Observed Orientation ed
Name
Directions Correction Directi
ons
@P
Q 297.14.03
R 46.27.37

5. (a) Calculate the Join from the coordinates of two points M and N

- 14 + 5
M
380,21 286,79
-13 + 6
N
209,58 457,42
(b) The point P lies directly East of N so that NP = 1 170,63 meters. Without the use

52
 of your calculator or any calculations, write down the answers to the following
questions with reasons for each
=
a) The coordinates of P
b) The distance MP
c) The angle MPN
d) The direction PM

6. Point C lies on the western side of line AB. The Coordinates of A and B are + 9 643.84 +
18 217.19 and + 16 675.74 + 9 640.92 respectively. Angle BAC = 71.23.47

a) Calculate the oriented direction of the line AC

b) Describe fully how you would manipulate a Tacheometer which has been
setup at A so that oriented directions can be read off with it.

7. The oriented direction from point A to point B is 150 41 10 and the distance AB after it
has been corrected for Slope and Temperature is 1 095,46 meters. The Coordinates of A
are: A -25 265,64 + 24 945,67 Calculate coordinates for B.

8. Point C lies on the western side of line AB. Angle BAC = 60 14 10 and D is a point on line
AB perpendicular from C onto AB and Distance CD = 746,93
Name Y Co-Ordinate X Co-Ordinate
A -1 230.93 +1 524.82
B -7 459.08 +9 459.32
a) Calculate co-ordinates for C
b) Calculate the area of the triangle ACD

9. S & T are two points with the co-ordinates. R is to the north of ST and U is a point on the
line ST. RU = 505.91m. Angles SRU and RUT are 51.11.20 and 86.28.50 respectively.
S -14 567.29 +30 009.86
T -16 312.55 +30 109.39
If line RU is extended by 2/3 to M, plot all points on A4 paper (maximum scale to
fit A4 paper), calculate the area of the figure SRTM by co-ordinates and prove that
the area below line ST is 2/3 of the area above line ST.

10. S AND T are two points with the co-ordinates:

S -14 567.29 +30 009.86
T -16 321.55 +30 109.39
Angles RUT are 51.11.20 and 86.28.50 respectively. Calculate the co-ordinates of R
and U and the area of the triangle SRT.

11. From the given data below, if D is the foot of the perpendicular from A, calculate the co-
ords of D and prove that D is on line BC.
Co-ordinates
A - 9 986.43 +38 545.25
B -15 279.41 +35 675.69

53
 C -13 912.42 +41 517.99

Directions and Distances

AB 241.32.09 6 020.80
AC 307.07.55 4 912.42

12. Given the co-ordinates:

S -7 906.41 +26 102.14
R -11 206.97 +34 216.91
T -8 102.16 +29 109.17

Calculate the angles of the triangle SRT and the co-ordinates of U if the reduced
distance TU is 906.51m and the angle RTU is 79.15.30

13. ABCD is a rectilinear figure with AB = BC and AD = 5 332.85m.

Interior angles: A 87.26.20
B 81.28.20
C 136.28.30
Co-ordinates
C +21 293.47 +4 615.29
D +21 633.64 +7 897.71

Calculate:
a) The oriented directions of AB, CD and DA
b) Co-ordinates of points A and B

14. Given the following information:

Lo. 23 0
Y X
CONSTANT -60 000.00 +3 010 000.00
A -15 560.30 +8 459.75
C -17 205.96 +9 516.89
D -15 246.15 +9 567.26

Observed directions – not oriented

@D @B
B 277.11.30 A 114.59.26
C 289.53.00 C 331.11.27
E 350.57.33 D 75.50.10

a) Make a sketch of relative positions of points A, B, C, D and E.

b) Calculate the Joins AD and CD.
c) Deduce angles ADC, ADB & ABD.
d) Solve the triangle ABD to find the distance DB .
e) Calculate the co-ordinates for E if the distance DE is 501.70m.

54
EXERCIZE 4-2

(a) An old map to a scale of 1: 20 000 is used to compile a new map of scale 1: 50 000. A
line on the old map is measured as 75mm long.
i. What is the length of the line on the ground?
ii. What is the length of the line on the new map?
(b) The error in measuring a line 1 605.360m long was 0.36m. What is the accuracy of
measurement?
(c) What is the plotting distance for a plotting accuracy of 0.25mm and a plan scale of 1:
1000?
(d) Which scale is larger:- 1:5 000 or 1:2 000?
(e) Convert the following:
i. 81.12.42 to radians (round to 6 decimal places)
ii. 279.871326° to deg, min. and secs
(f) The error in measuring a line 2 002.74m long was found to be 0.12m. What is the
accuracy of the measurement?
(g) What is the scale of a plan when 1500m on the ground = 20mm on the plan?
(h) What is the plotting distance for a plotting accuracy of 0.25mm and a plan scale of 1:2
500?

(i) Write a short note on the relationship between the scale of a contour plan and the
accuracy of the fieldwork from which it is produced.

(j) A plan of a building site is required. Contours at 0.5m intervals are required and the
scale of the plan will be 1:200. Will it be sufficiently accurate to determine the position
of spot shots and other detail by using a tacheometer which reads to 20” and a staff
which is graduated to hundredths of a metre? Give reasons.
(k) What is the distance on the ground, if the plotting accuracy is 0.25mm and the scale of
the plan is 1: 36 000?

(l) An old map at a scale of 1:50 000 is used to compile a new map of scale 1:20 000. A line
on the old map is measured as 75mm long.
i. What is the length of the line on the ground?
ii. What is the length of the line on the new map?
(m) A distance AB was taped and found to be 1250.400m long. The true distance however
should have been 1250.200m. What is the accuracy of the taping this distance?
(n) In a levelling reduction, you closed on a BM of height 1421.76m. Your reduced level on
the same point was 1 421.25m. What is your closing error?

(o) What is the natural scale of a plan when 210m on the ground = 30 mm on the plan?
(p) Given an engineers' scale of 1" = 100' (one inch = 100 feet). What is the natural scale?

EXERCIZE 4-3
55
(a) The Mid-Ordinate Rule, the Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s Rule are formulae used to
find irregular areas. State clearly but no derive each rule and each way you consider the
most accurate of them, giving your reasons.
(b) On a survey, offsets were taken at intervals along a straight line AB which cuts off the
irregular side of a field. The table below gives the perpendicular offsets at their
respective intervals along AB. Find the area of this irregular portion using the rules
mentioned above.
Intervals (m) A 0 20 40 60 70 80 100 120 140 160 B
Offsets (m) 0 13 47 50 30 22 19 30 35 0

(c) A series of parallel measurements, 1m apart on a small plot of land were 4.5, 16, 28, 40,
53, 64, 69, 66, 63, 60, 56 and 52. Use the Mid-Ordinate Rule to find the approximate
area of the land if the first and last measurements represent the boundaries of the plot.
(d) The depth of a horizontal cable below the ground varies as follows:
Horizontal Distance X (m) 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

Depth of the cable (m) 2.25 2.50 0.83 3.00 3.08 3.42 3.58 3.17 2.75
Plot a graph showing variation of the depth with the length and assuming the trench
width is 500mm wide, calculate, correct to the nearest cubic metre, the volume of
earth to be dug out to expose the cable throughout the length.
(e) Find the area of the cross-section of the steam if the depth of the stream 20m wide is
measured at different distances from one bank and the results are as given the table
below:
Distance (m) 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Depth (m) 1 3.2 3.7 4.7 5 5.5 6 4.7 3 1
(f) A horizontal trench 1m wide is dug in uneven ground, and the vertical depth of the
trench in mm at 3m intervals is 215, 200, 180, 175, 160, 125 and 105. Find the volume of
earth removed.
(g) A plot of land is bounded on two sides by straight roads at right-angles to each other.
The other boundary line is irregular and the lengths of perpendicular offsets from one
road to the boundary at a common interval of 1.5m are 14, 16, 15, 15, 14, 14, 13, 12, 10,
12, 12, 13, 12, 10, 8, 7, 7, 6 and 6m. Calculate by Simpson Rule the area of the plot of
land.
(h) An open channel has a cross-section which is in the form of a rectangle of which is twice
its depth. The following table shows the depths along a section of the channel taken at
5m intervals.
Length (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Depth of the channel (m) 10 8 8 7 6 6 5
If the top of the channel is horizontal, what volume of earth would have to be
excavated to construct this section of the channel?
(i) A water tower is 28m high and circular in plan. The inside radius of the tower at
different heights is given as follows:
Height (m) 0 7 14 21 28
Radius (m) 10 8 7 6 7
Using Simpson’s rule, find the capacity of the tower in cubic metres.
(j) The area of a horizontal sections of a reservoir at various depths are given in the
56
 following table:
Depth of water (m) 0 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 6 7.5 9 10
Area of section (m 2) 680 630 540 490 425 260 180 120 0
Using the largest possible convenient scales, plot a smooth curve showing the
relationship between the area of the section and the depth. By the use of Simpson’s
Rule, find from the graph the approximate reduction in the volume of water stored in
the reservoir when the depth is decreased from 8m to 2m.
(k) To find the area of a pond situated near a straight road, perpendicular offsets at 10m
intervals were measured to the near and far boundaries of the pond. The results were as
follows:
Offsets distance (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Near boundary offsets length (m) 20 16 4 12 18 23 17 15 20
Far boundary offsets length (m) 20 30 34 48 58 63 54 32 20

Calculate the area of the pond.

(l) Calculate the volume of an embankment from the data given below. Use both the
Trapezoidal and Simpson’s Rules for volume.
Chainage (m) X-Section Area (m 2)
0 1.5
20 3.75
40 12.65
60 18.87
80 22.45
100 13.17
120 3.44

(m) A portion of land defined by the following points:

Co-Ordinates
Points Y System Lo 27 X
Constants + 50.00 +2 750 000.00
A + 9 569.56 + 621.28
B + 5 994.11 + 1 453.28
C + 6 059.42 + 1 834.72
D + 6 537.32 + 1 766.06
E + 7 127.69 + 1 904.64
F + 8 168.85 + 2 276.21
G + 9 345.42 + 2 180.07
H + 9 898.96 + 2 303.80
Draw on A4 paper using the largest possible natural scale to fit the paper. Show the scale
and the True North of the plan. Calculate the area of this portion of land.

57
CHAPTER 5: VERTICAL CONTROL

5.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the Heighting procedures used to obtain the elevation of points
above or below a reference datum. The most commonly used reference datum is Mean Sea
Level (MSL).
The engineer is, in the main, more concerned with the relative height of one point above or
below another, in order to ascertain the difference in height of the two points, rather than a
direct relationship to MSL. It is not unusual, therefore, on small local schemes, to adopt a
purely local reference datum. This could take the form of a permanent, stable position or
mark, allocated such a value that the level of any point on the site would not be negative.
The vertical height of a point above or below a reference datum is referred to as the
reduced level (RL). Reduced levels are used in practically all aspects of construction: to
produce ground contours on a plan; to enable the optimum design of road, railway or canal
gradients; to facilitate ground modelling for accurate volumetric calculations. Indeed, there is
scarcely any aspect of construction that is not dependent on the relative levels of ground
points.
Many methods are in current use for measuring the absolute elevations of points above
MSL, or, alternatively, for measuring differences in elevations between points. As in all survey
operations, the methods to be used for a particular project will depend mainly on the
accuracy required in the results.
Accurate levelling is thus a particularly important part of site establishment, installation
and quality assurance. For instance, the primary reference at water-level recording stations is
a set of stable bench-marks, installed in locations where their level should not change. Upon
initial set-up of a station, the levels of the relevant parts of the installation are established
and recorded by means of accurate levelling. At least every two years, the levels of the staff
gauges, sensor level, internal gauge, tower structure and benchmarks should be measured
relative to each other as a check that records are not in error due to bank subsidence or other
movement.
All staff should be thoroughly familiar with its theory and practice. Levelling and surveying
methods are also used for measurements of river channel and lake configurations. Often, less
accurate methods can be used for this work than for water-level recording stations, although
the techniques are common

5.2 Purpose of Levelling

Levelling is being used for many different purposes. Among them are as listed below:-
Determine the height of a particular point
Determine differences in height between points
Determine the contours of a land profile
Provide data for road cross-sections
Provide data to calculate volumes for earthworks

59
Setting out level surfaces for construction
Setting out inclined surfaces for construction

60
5.3 Differential Levelling

5.3.1 General
Levelling is the most widely used method for obtaining the elevations of ground points
relative to a reference datum and is usually carried out as a separate procedure from that
used for fixing planimetric position. Levelling involves the measurement of vertical distance
relative to a horizontal line of sight. Hence it requires a graduated staff for the vertical
measurements and an instrument that will provide a horizontal line of sight.
Differential levelling also referred to as spirit levelling or ordinary levelling is the most
accurate and important means of determining elevations in engineering surveying. Differential
levelling is based on this principle that, the length of rays used in levelling is comparatively
very short, and the method of observing cancels out the effects of curvature and refraction,
so that we may say that all points on a horizontal plane passing through a point are on the
same level as that point.
5.3.2 Terminology used for levelling
 Differential levelling is the term applied to any method of measuring directly with a
graduated staff the difference in elevation between two or more points.
 Precise levelling is a particularly accurate method of differential levelling which uses
highly accurate levels and with a more rigorous observing procedure than general
engineering levelling. It aims to achieve high orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km
traverse.
 A level surface is a surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of the
force of gravity. An example is the surface of a completely still lake. For ordinary
levelling, level surfaces at different elevations can be considered to be parallel.
 A level datum is an arbitrary level surface to which elevations are referred. The most
common surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL), but as hydrological work is usually
just concerned with levels in a local area, we often use:
 An assumed datum , which is established by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g.
100.000 m) to which all levels in the local area will be reduced. It is not good practice
to assume a level which is close to the actual MSL value, as it creates potential for
confusion.
 A reduced level is the vertical distance between a survey point and the adopted level
datum.
 A benchmark (BM) is the term given to a definite, permanent accessible point of
known height above a datum to which the height of other points can be referred. It is
usually a stainless-steel pin embedded in a substantial concrete block cast into the
ground. At hydrological stations rock bolts driven into bedrock or concrete structures
can be used, but structures should be used warily as they themselves are subject to
settlement. The locations of benchmarks shall be marked with BM marker posts and/or
paint, and recorded on the Station History Form.
 A set-up refers to the position of a level or other instrument at the time in which a
number of observations are made without moving the instrument. The first
observation is made to the known point or previously read point and is termed a
backsight; the last observation is to the final point or the next to be measured on the
run, and all other points are intermediates.
61
  A run is the levelling between two or more points measured in one direction only. The
outward run is from known to unknown points and the return run is the check levelling
in the opposite direction.
 A close is the difference between the starting level of the initial point for the outward
run and that determined at the end of the return run. If the levels have been reduced
correctly this value should be the same as the difference between the sum of the rises
and falls and also the difference between the sum of the backsights and foresights.
 Height of Collimation is the elevation of the optical axis of the telescope at the time of
the setup. The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the elevation.
 Change points are points of measurement which are used to carry the measurements
forward in a run. Each one will be read first as a foresight, the instrument position is
changed, and then it will be read as a backsight.
 Backsight is the first reading taken after setting up the level instrument anywhere.
 Foresight is the last reading taken before the instrument is moved.
 Intermediate sight is any reading that does not qualify as a backsight or foresight.
 Reduced level is the height of a particular point related to bench marks and hence
MSL.

Level line and horizontal line, the Error:

Reference source not found shows
difference between the Level line and
horizontal line.
Benchmarks
i) Definition: A benchmark can be defined as
a fixed point of known height. It is a steel
or copper pin solidly fixed in positions Figure
where they are unlikely to be disturbed or
destroyed. They are usually placed such that they can be easily found, like on the side
of roads, on kerbs, manholes, sidewalks or intersection of roads. A benchmark defines
an accurate height in M.S.L. and is determined by a land surveyor.
ii) Benchmark Information: The survey division of the local City or Town Engineer's
Department will have a locality map showing the exact position and height of these
benchmarks.
iii) Purpose of Benchmarks: Bench marks are placed around the city so that convenient
references are available to M.S.L., which ensures a common datum on design drawings
and facilitates the construction of all civil engineering works.
In urban areas hardened road surfaces, kerbs, manholes are quite suitable as there is no
settlement of these objects. In rural areas a device which consists of a heavy triangular metal
plate, with three sturdy, sharpened pegs for feet, and a fourth, rounded peg, in the centre of
the upper side, on which the staff is held. This peg should be about 2 cm high, to ensure that
the staff does not rest on the plate itself when working on steep slopes. A carrying handle is
desirable. This plate is placed on the ground, preferably where it is firm, level and well settled
into position by treading upon it. Provided the plate is large enough (about 15 cm sides), it
may be used on quite lose ground, and is excellent for all hardened surfaces.

62
 5.3.3 Instruments used in levelling
The instruments used are the Surveyor's Level, the Levelling staff and the Change Plate.
The level consists basically of a telescope with horizontal and vertical cross hairs and usually
stadia hairs. Attached to the telescope is a very sensitive bubble, which enables the line of
sight or collimation line to be set truly horizontal. Both the bubble and diaphragm are capable
of adjustment, so that any instrumental error may be adjusted out. The telescope is mounted,
by means of a vertical axis, on a levelling head with three foot screws.
Many types and patterns have been produced, the most important are:
 Dumpy level, Tilting level and an Automatic level
 Levelling staff
5.3.3.1 Dumpy Level
The Dumpy Level is, to-day, little used as
a surveyor's level, but is still manufactured
in inexpensive and simple form, for the use
of building contractors, farmers, etc. The
distinguishing feature of the dumpy level is
that the telescope is rigidly attached to the
vertical axis, so that the final, accurate
centring of the bubble must be carried out
by means of the foot-screws.

Figure

5.3.3.2 Tilting Level

The Tilting Level has for many years been the most generally favoured level, but is now
rapidly losing popularity in favour
of the automatic level.
Basically it is similar to the
dumpy level, but the telescope is
not rigidly attached to the vertical
axis. It is attached to the vertical
axis by means of a hinge, which
allows a small movement of the
telescope in the vertical plane.
This means that the vertical
axis need not be truly vertical
when the line of sight is truly
horizontal. The front end of the Figure
telescope is spring loaded, so that the rear end bears down on a lifting device controlled by a
very fine pitched tilting screw, which is sometimes graduated in the form of a micrometre
drum to indicate the gradient (or slope) of the line of sight. The tilting screw is capable of
imparting a precisely controlled movement to the telescope. By means of this device, the
bubble may be centred with extreme accuracy. The bubble is usually viewed through a system
of prisms, so that an image of one half of each end of the bubble is seen in adjoining planes.
63
When these two halves are brought into co-incidence, so that they appear as one full end of
the bubble, the bubble is truly centred. Many tilting levels are reversible or self-adjusting, i.e.
the telescope is capable of rotation about its longitudinal axis, so that advantage may be
taken of the principle of the eye level.
5.3.3.3 Automatic Level
The Automatic Level represents the latest, and possibly greatest, advance in visual levelling

since the introduction of the tele-scope. In this truly remarkable instrument, the very
sensitive, and often temperamental, bubble is dispensed with. Only a small circular bubble,
for rough levelling, is supplied, and
this need not even be levelled with
very great care. A small glass prism,
suspended inside the telescope,
swings freely within certain limits.
When the instrument is roughly
levelled, the prism settles in such a
position that the rays of light
entering the telescope, are bent so that the line of sight is truly horizontal. Various designs
have appeared on the market with varying optical details, but basically the principles involved
are similar.
Any experienced leveller knows that
levelling up the bubble occupies
considerably more than half the actual
observing time, and that the concentration
required can be extremely tiring. With the
automatic level, the great bugbear of
levelling is removed, observing time is cut
by more than half and overall speed is
increased by at least 50%. This is no
exaggeration, but a conservative estimate
based on controlled research.

64
 The advantages of the automatic level may be briefly summarised as follows:
The instrument very quickly settles into the observing position.
Less time is wasted due to extraneous circumstances, such as the effect of the sun on
the bubble.
No umbrella is required, whereas this is essential for really good levelling with a
conventional level.
The instrument itself gives a good indication of when operations should be suspended
due to wind conditions, as the image becomes unsteady, and the leveller is unlikely to
remain under an erroneous impression that he is still doing good work.
Fatigue is very greatly reduced.
Speed is greatly increased.
Generally, a superior class of accuracy is attained.
Due to its obvious economic and operational advantages, it is virtually certain that this type
of level will replace all conventional types in the fairly near future, for practically all better-
class survey work.
The Diaphram
The glass disc on which the cross hairs are engraved is mounted on the diaphram, which in
turn is fastened to the telescope by means of capstan screws. The whole diaphram can be

adjusted vertically and horizontally.

65
 The levelling Staff

No matter how high the standard of excellence of the instrument, good results can only be
expected if the accuracy of the staves used is of the highest order, and the graduations are
clear and sharply defined.
Many patterns are available, but that most generally used is the telescopic type. It is made
in sections which telescope together for carrying convenience, and is manufactured in various
lengths, from 3 to 6 metres, the most generally useful lengths being 4 metres and 5 metres.
One great advantage of this staff is that its full length need not be used, the shorter length
minimising the effects of wind.
Care must be taken, however, to check the graduations, as these are not always of the
highest order, and can cause inaccuracy. For very accurate work, extremely precise staves may
be obtained, which are designed to minimise expansion and contraction, and are usually
manufactured in matched pairs. They are usually in one piece, about 3 metres in length, and
are graduated with the utmost accuracy.
Any pair of staves used for levelling should be matched, to ensure that possible error is
equal on the two staves.
5.3.4 Sources of error in levelling
5.3.4.1 Instrumental errors
The line of sight should be parallel to the bubble tube axis (horizontal in automatic
levels); if it is not, the error is proportional to the length of the line of sight. It is good
practice to try and maintain equal lengths of backsights and foresights wherever
possible. Best still, do not use an instrument that suffers from this error, as it is not
always possible in practice to keep sight distances between fore and back sights
equal.
The bubble tube may be unsuitable. It should come to rest quickly, but the slightest
movement or tilting of the foot-screw must alter its position. So always check that the
sensitivity of the bubble tube is adequate for the job.
The level must be stable. Examine the tripod for any looseness in the joints or
damage to the screw threads caused by over-tightening and tighten the tripod joints
66
 firmly.
Staff graduations may be in error or the staff may not be properly extended. It is
advisable to test the graduations of the staff when extended, particularly on either
side of the joints.
5.3.4.2 Errors in handling the equipment
In tilting levels, the telescope bubble must be central or in coincidence each time a
reading is taken. Ensure that the bubble is centred both before and after reading the
staff.
The staff should be held vertically or readings will be too great. Always check lateral
verticality against cross hairs. For particular accuracy the staff man should use a staff
bubble or swing the staff slowly towards and away from the instrument, the lowest
reading being noted.
5.3.4.3 Errors due to displacement of the equipment
If the instrument is set up on soft or marshy ground or on thick matted grass it may
settle and alter the height of collimation. Also, if the instrument is knocked the H.I.
will be altered and errors will arise. Always set up on stable ground, forcing the tripod
shoes down firmly. Never hold, lean on or trip over the tripod.
Change points must be chosen so that when turning the staff round or when replacing
it after removal no alteration of height takes place. Always choose stable change
points. On hard ground mark the staff position with chalk, and on soft ground use a
change plate.
Sometimes inexperienced operators inadvertently move the level forward while the
staff man is also changing position. Never move the staff until a foresight has been
taken.
5.3.4.4 Errors in reading and booking
The most commons mistakes made in reading and booking are the following:
Reading the staff upwards instead of downwards.
Reading an inverted staff downwards instead of upwards.
Reading the staff downwards instead of upwards when using an automatic level.
Concentrating on the decimal reading and noting the metres wrongly.
Omitting a zero, e.g. recording 3.09 instead of 3.009.
Entering a reading in the wrong column.
Forgetting to book an entry.
Noting a reading with the numbers interchanged, e.g. 1.501 instead of 1.105.
Reading against a stadia hair instead of the horizontal cross hair.
Noting a wrong distance or point description in the remarks column.
For these reasons, always read the staff, book the observation and then check that the
recorded entry agrees with a second reading through the telescope.
5.3.4.5 Errors due to natural causes
The wind causes vibration of the level and tripod and of the staff, particularly when
the staff is fully extended, which can make accurate sighting impossible. Therefore, in
windy weather shelter the instrument and. keep sights and the staff short.
The sun causes an apparent vibration of the staff owing to irregular refraction. It also

67
 affects the bubble by causing unequal expansion of the level and tripod and can alter
the curve of the bubble tube itself. Sighting is difficult when the sun shines into the
object glass. Therefore, in hot sun reduce lengths of the sights, keeping them at least
0.5 m above the ground throughout their length. Extend the ray-shade in front of the
object glass and shade the instrument with an umbrella.
Rain makes accurate work difficult and unpleasant; raindrops on, the objective glass
and condensation on the eyepiece make sighting impossible. For precise work it is
advisable to wait for better weather. However, in rainy weather use the ray-shade and
protect the instrument with an umbrella.
Errors arising from refraction and curvature of the earth's surface are small and
generally negligible in ordinary levelling and are eliminated by adopting the
precaution in 1 (a) above. For long sights and in precise work where equality of back-
sights and foresights cannot be maintained adopt the method of reciprocal levelling.
5.3.5 Principles of Differential Levelling
Say the reduced level of point p is known and we want to determine the reduced level of
point t. Then we set up the instrument and take readings on the staff at p = h 1 and on the staff
at t = h2.
The height of the collimation line is the: RL. of p + h l and the reduced level of t is the:
height of collimation - h 2.

In the figure below the height (or reduced level) of A is known and the heights of B and C
need to be estimated.

Figure 5-1
To determine the height of point B a level is set up at position I 1 is between A and B. staff
68
readings R 1 and R2 are taken. Since the reduced level of A is known (RL A) the height of the line
of sight or height of the plane collimation (HPC) at I 1 is:

To obtain the reduced level at B (or RL B):

The direction of the levelling is from A to B. Reading R 1 is taken with the level facing in the
opposite direction, for this reason it is called a back sight (BS). Reading R 2 is taken with the
level facing in the direction from A to B, for this reason it is called a fore sight (FS).
The change in height from A to B, in magnitude and sign, is given by the difference of the
two staff readings. Because R 1 is bigger than R 2, (R1 – R2) is positive and is known as a rise.
To obtain the height of C the level is moved to a new position I 2. A back sight is taken at B
(R3) and a foresight at C (R 4) the reduced level of C is:

In this case R 4 is bigger than R 3, (R3 - R 4) is negative and is known as a fall. At point B, both a
FS (R2) and a BS (R 3) have been taken from different instrument positions this is called a
change point.
When calculating a rise or fall this is always given by (backsight – foresight). If this is
positive a rise is obtained and if negative a fall is obtained.
A back sight is the first reading taken after the level has been set up, a foresight is the last
reading taken at an instrument position.
Any readings taken between a back sight and a foresight are known as intermediate sights.
Example 1

The figure above shows a level correctly set up at a point which is approximately midway
between a BM of RL 72.83m and a point B. A levelling staff is held vertically with its base at
the BM and at point B in turn and readings of 1.762m and 1.931m are obtained respectively.
Calculate:
i) The height difference between the BM and point B.
ii) The reduced level of point B.
Solution:
i) Staff Reading @ B−Staff Reading @ BM =1.931−1.762=0.169
ii) RLBM + 1.762 = 74.592 m = Height of Collimation (HC) of the level at I
∴ RLB=HC at I −1.931=74.592−1.931=72.661
69
 Hence : RLB=72.66 m

Example 2

Instrument at A
Line of collimation=10+1=11m
Reduced level of 1=11−0 . 9=10 . 1 m

Now instrument is moved to B

Line of collimation at B=10 . 1+1. 1=11 .2 m
Reduced level at 2=11.2−1 .2=9 . 0 m

When instrument was moved from A to B there was a change point at 1.

5.3.6 Setting up of levelling instruments
1) Dumpy Level
1. Ensure that the top of the tripod is horizontal and the tripod "feet" are forced
firmly into the ground.
2. Attach the level securely to the tripod.
3. To level up the instrument:

a) Line up the level telescope parallel to two foot-screws "A" and "B".

70
 b) Simultaneously turn foot screws "A" and "B" in opposing directions so as to adjust
the circular bubble (or bubble "tube") to its centre.

4. Turn the level telescope through 90 0 and using only foot screw "C" adjust the
bubble to the centre.
5. Turn the level telescope through 90° and then 90° again, checking or readjusting on
each occasion.
6. To eliminate parallax, focus the crosshairs by placing a sheet of white paper 150mm
from the objective lens. Obtain a sharp image of the crosshairs by adjust ing the
eyepiece.
NOTE: Once the crosshairs have been adjusted, they should remain suitably in adjustment
for the rest of the survey.
Automatic Level
In the automatic level only the circular bubble is centred by means of the foot screws. The
requirement is that the line of sight is horizontal when the circular bubble is centred. To check
this requirement, the two-peg test is carried out. If the calculated reading is not obtained the
adjustment is made by moving the diaphragm in most instruments, as is done for the dumpy
level. Any defects should be repaired only by a recognised service agent.
Tilting Level
In the tilting level, the circular bubble is first centred by
means of the foot screws and then the split bubble is
aligned by using the tilting screw before each staff reading.
There is only one requirement, namely that the collimation
line must be parallel to the bubble tube axis (BA) in one
direction when the instrument is levelled up. Figure

To test for this condition, the two peg test is carried out. Should this indicate an error, the
correct reading is obtained using the tilting screw with subsequent adjustment to the tilting
bubble.
5.3.7 Minimum requirements for field work
Levelling MUST start and end on a fixed known and CHECKED reference point.
Levelling work on a page may not start or end on a loose change point (CP). Make use
of a reference point (BM) that is permanent.
Try to use less the 10 lines per page so that the Levelling and check Levelling are on
the same page.
Levelling and check Levelling must have the same start and endpoint so that total line
and/or page height differences can be compared.
Height differences and checks must be shown in a prescribed manner.
Pages must be cross referenced in a prescribe manner.
The maximum single reading distance for Class A may not exceed 40m and for Class B
and C must not exceed 80m.
The instrument must be checked daily according to the prescribe manner and the
date noted. The maximum collimation error must not exceed 0.002m otherwise
71
 adjust the instrument for collimation error.
Task requirements must be adhered to strictly and this includes the allowable
accuracy.
Re-Levelling must include a number of set-ups on condition that it is done between
two know fixed points.
5.3.8 Practical Considerations
The distance from the instrument to the staff depends on:
The nature of the ground - the steeper the ground, the shorter the sight distance
must be.
The composition of the instrument - longer sight can be taken if the telescope is
powerful, the cross hairs fine and the bubble very sensitive.
The accuracy required - for accurate work short sight distances must be used.
Staff Graduations - a good well graduated clear staff can be seen at longer distances
than an old poorly graduated dirty staff.
The weather - if levelling must be done in windy conditions, then short sights must be
taken.
A good mean sighting distance for average work is 30 to 50 metres. For accurate work the
distance may be limited to less than 30 metres, and whatever the distance the B.S. and F.S. for
each set up must be about the same. This does not necessarily mean that the instrument
should be in-line between the two pegs.
5.3.9 Two-Peg-Test
The two peg test is used to determine if the line of sight of the telescope is exactly parallel
to the bubble tube. This is one of the most important properties of a level and is required to
be checked periodically. Below are the steps to carry out two peg-test.
Set two points with a distance of 40 to 60m
Set up the level half way between the two points (at point C) as illustrated in figure
above.
The staff’s reading at point A & B are taken. The bubbles need to be adjusted each
time before the readings.
The level is then moved to point C and readings are taken for staff at point B and A.
The true difference in elevation between point A and B is computed from the two-
readings obtained from the first setup (a1 – b1).
The elevation difference of the second set-up is computed (a2 – b2). If the plane of
sight is truly horizontal, the elevation difference of the second set is equal to the true
difference in elevation (a1 – b1) = (a2 – b2).
Distance from A to B = 60m
Position 1 Position 2 (Near B) True Readings
A= 2.133 A= 2.477 A= 2.475 Calculated
B= 2.345 B= 2.687 B= 2.687
-0.212 -0.210 -0.212

Correction from 2.477 to 2.475 = -0.002

72
 Adjust crosshairs Downwards from 2.477 to 2.475

Collimation error over 60m = +0.002

Collimation error over 100m = +0.003
5.3.10 Setting out a point of known level
The basic principle of setting out a point on the ground at a predetermined level is
illustrated in Fig. 5.6. Point A is a temporary bench mark (RL 8.55 m AD). Markers, in the form
of pegs or arrows, are to be placed in the ground, in positions where the ground has, firstly, a
level of 9.00 metres and, secondly, a level of 8.00 metres.

Procedure
1. The observer sets up the level at a
height convenient for observing the
TBM (RL 8.55 m) and takes a
backsight staff reading. The reading
is 1.25 m.
HPC=8.55+ 1.25 ¿ 9.80 m AD Figure
2. The staff man walks to an area
where it is estimated that the ground has an approximate level of 9.00 m and turns the
staff towards the instrument. The staff is then moved slowly up or down the ground slope
until the base of the staff is at a height of 9.00 m exactly. This will occur when the
observer reads 0.80 m on the staff,
since HPC=9.80 m
Required level=9.00 m
∴ staff reading=0.80 m(¿ achieve the required level)
3. The ground position (B), is marked with an arrow or peg and the staff is removed to
another location. The operation is repeated and a second peg is placed at C, when the
observer again reads 0.80 m on the staff. This operation can be repeated any number of
times.
4. When a different ground level, say 8.00 m, is to be marked, a new calculation is made, as
follows:
HPC=9.80 m
Required level=8.00 m
Therefore staff reading=1.80 m(¿ achieve therequired level)

5. The observer directs the staffman downhill and directs him or her to move the staff until
the reading becomes 1.80 m, whereupon the staffman marks the position (D) with a peg
of a different colour.
5.3.11 Methods of reduction of observations
5.3.11.1 Rise and fall method:

73
 In the rise and fall method each reduced level is obtained from the previous one by either
adding the rise or subtracting the fall between successive points. In this method the
arithmetic is checked by adding the rises and the falls and subtracting the falls from the
rises which should be the same difference as the total foresights from the total back
sights. This in turn should also be the difference between first reduced level subtracted
from the last reduced level. The sign i.e. +ve or -ve should not be omitted and will
indicate a total rise or fall. These checks are essential and must never be omitted.
∑ BS−¿ ∑ FS=∑ Rises−∑ Falls=Last initial RL−First RL ¿ Eq. ( 5-1 )

5.3.11.2 Collimation method:

In this method, the reduced levels of points are obtained by calculating the reduced levels of the
plane of collimation for each set up of the instrument. The height of collimation is obtained by adding
the staff reading, which must be a Backsight, to the known RL. All other readings are deducted from
the height of collimation, until the instrument setting is changed. Where upon the new height of
collimation is determined by adding the backsight to the RL at the change point.
an error made in the reduction of an intermediate sight is not carried forward and can pass
unnoticed. The reverse of this method is used for setting out levels (staking) required on site.
The arithmetic check applied in this case is:
∑ BS+¿ ∑ FS=Last RL−First RL¿ Eq. ( 5-2 )
This test only checks the FS and BS calculations and another check must be applied to
account for the IS readings:
∑ RLs except 1 st−∑ IS−¿ ∑ FS=∑ each HPC∗¿ applications ¿ Eq. ( 5-3 )

74
 NB: All these checks are essential and must never be omitted
For both methods, the permissible closing error is distributed pro-rationally over the RL's of the
change points, the RL’s of the intermediate sights being corrected by the same amount as the change
point immediately preceding it.
i) Comparison between the two methods:
Rise & Fall Method Height of Collimation Method
Reduction of levels takes This method is simple and easy; reduction of levels is
more time. easy. There are less calculation and is faster.
Complete check is there for There is an extra check for intermediate sight
all readings and for this readings;
reason is used in important This method is generally used where more number
work, as for example in of readings can be taken with less number of change
Bench mark levelling points for constructional work and profile levelling’s.
This method is preferable for It is easier to calculate in the field and useful when
check levelling where placing pegs at given elevations, as for example in
75
 Table 5–2: The Height of Collimation Method
numbers of change points construction work.
are more.

Example: The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a level book
page and reduce the levels by the height of instrument method.
0.578 B.M. (= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P., 1.888, 1.181, (3.679
and 0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.
Solution: The first reading being on a B.M., is a back sight. As the fifth station is a change
point, 2.005 is fore sight reading and 0.567 is back sight reading. All the readings between the
first and fifth readings are intermediate sight-readings. Similarly, the eighth station being a
change point, 3.679 is fore sight reading and 0.612 is back sight reading, and 1.888, 1.181 are
intermediate sight readings. The last reading 1.810 is fore sight and 0.705 is intermediate sight-
readings. All the readings have been entered in their respective columns in the following table
and the levels have been reduced by height of instrument method. In the following
computations, the values of B.S., IS., HI., etc., for a particular station have been indicated by its
number or name.

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks

1 0.578 58.828 58.250 B.M. = 58.250 m
2 0.933 57.895
3 1.768 57.060
4 2.450 56.378
5 0.567 2.005 57.390 56.823 CP
6 1.888 55.502
7 1.181 56.209
8 0.612 3.679 54.323 53.711 CP
9 0.705 53.618
10 1.810 52.513
+1.757 -8.925 -7.494 -5.737
-7.494
-5.737

From Eq. ( 5-3 ):

499.709−(−8.925)−(−7.494)=∑ ( 58.828∗4 +57.390∗3+54.323∗2 )
516.128=516.128 ∴ OK

Distribution of Error
Error=Calculated Height Diff −True Height Diff
∴ Correction=−Error
Correction
Progressive Correction Distribution( PCD)= Set ¿
∑ SetUps Up
76
 Table 5–3: Distribution of Correction & Reduced Levels
From the Example above, suppose
station 10 is a BM with the elevation of 52.517

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. R/F R.L. Corr. Adj. RL F/Height Remarks
1 0.578 58.250 +0.0000 58.250 58.250 B.M. = 58.250 m
2 0.933 -0.355 57.895 +0.0013 57.896
3 1.768 -0.835 57.060 +0.0013 57.061
4 2.450 -0.682 56.378 +0.0013 56.379
5 0.567 2.005 +0.445 56.823 +0.0013 56.824 CP
6 1.888 -1.321 55.502 +0.0027 55.505
7 1.181 +0.707 56.209 +0.0027 56.212
8 0.612 3.679 -2.498 53.711 +0.0027 53.714 CP
9 0.705 -0.093 53.618 +0.0040 53.622
10 1.810 -1.105 52.513 +0.0040 52.517 52.517 B.M. = 52.517 m
+1.757 -7.494 -5.737 -5.737 -5.733
-7.494
-5.737 Error = -0.004
Correction = +0.004

77
 Survey: Date: Page: 78
Weather, Beacon description, etc :

Points BS + IS - FS - Rise/Fall RL Corr. Adj. Level Final Level Remarks

BM 1 1.717 29.230 29.230 29.230
A 1.432 +0.285 29.515 -0.002 29.513 29.514
B 2.918 1.716 -0.284 29.231 -0.002 29.229 29.230
C 2.272 +0.646 29.877 -0.004 29.873 29.875
D 0.816 0.953 +1.319 31.196 -0.004 31.192 31.194
E 1.436 3.005 -2.189 29.007 -0.006 29.001 29.003
1.246 1.391 +0.045 29.052 -0.008 29.044 CP
F 1.353 -0.107 28.945 -0.010 28.935 28.935
G 1.462 -0.109 28.836 -0.010 28.826 28.826
BM 2 0.628 +0.834 29.670 -0.010 29.660 29.660
+8.133 -7.693 +0.440 +0.440 +0.430
-7.693 Error = +0.010
+0.440 CORR. = -0.010/5 = -0.002

BM 2 0.690 29.660 +0.0000 29.660 29.660

G 1.524 -0.834 28.826 +0.0004 28.826
F 1.415 +0.109 28.935 +0.0004 28.935
1.471 1.318 +0.097 29.032 +0.0004 29.032 CP
E 3.067 1.498 -0.027 29.005 +0.0008 29.006
D 1.015 0.878 +2.189 31.194 +0.0012 31.195
C 2.334 -1.319 29.875 +0.0016 29.877
B 1.778 2.980 -0.646 29.229 +0.0016 29.231
A 1.494 +0.284 29.513 +0.0020 29.515
BM 1 1.779 -0.285 29.228 +0.0020 29.230 29.230
+8.021 -8.453 -0.432 -0.432 -0.430
+8.021 Error = -0.002
-0.432 CORR = 0.002/5 = +0.0004

78
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 79
Weather, Beacon description, etc :

Points BS + IS - FS - HC RL Corr. Adj. Level Final Level Remarks

BM 1 1.717 30.947 29.230 29.230 29.230
A 1.432 29.515 -0.002 29.513 29.514
B 2.918 1.716 32.149 29.231 -0.002 29.229 29.230
C 2.272 29.877 -0.004 29.873 29.875
D 0.816 0.953 32.012 31.196 -0.004 31.192 31.194
E 1.436 3.005 30.443 29.007 -0.006 29.001 29.003
1.246 1.391 30.298 29.052 -0.008 29.044 CP
F 1.353 28.945 -0.010 28.935 28.935
G 1.462 28.836 -0.010 28.826 28.826
BM 2 0.628 29.670 -0.010 29.660 29.660
+8.133 -7.693 +0.440 +0.430
-7.693 ERROR = +0.010
+0.440 CORR. = -0.010/5 = -0.002

BM 2 0.690 30.350 29.660 +0.0000 29.660 29.660

G 1.524 28.826 +0.0004 28.826
F 1.415 28.935 +0.0004 28.935
1.471 1.318 30.503 29.032 +0.0004 29.032 CP
E 3.067 1.498 32.072 29.005 +0.0008 29.006
D 1.015 0.878 32.209 31.194 +0.0012 31.195
C 2.334 29.875 +0.0016 29.877
B 1.778 2.980 31.007 29.229 +0.0016 29.231
A 1.494 29.513 +0.0020 29.515
BM 1 1.779 29.228 +0.0020 29.230 29.230
+8.021 -8.453 -0.432 -0.430
+8.021 ERROR = -0.002
-0.432 CORR. = 0.002/5 = +0.0004
79
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 80
Weather, Beacon description, etc :

Points BS + IS - FS - Rise/Fall RL Corr. Adj. Level Final Level Remarks

BM07 1.737 1122.256
1.765 1.769 -0.032 1122.224
1.787 1.790 -0.025 1122.199
1.958 1.961 -0.174 1122.025
1.916 1.920 +0.038 1122.063
TBM03 1.974 -0.058 1122.005
+9.163 -9.414 -0.251 -0.251
+9.163
-0.251

TBM03 1.977 1122.010

1.923 1.920 +0.057 1122.067
1.965 1.962 -0.039 1122.028
1.793 1.791 +0.174 1122.202
1.774 1.768 +0.025 1122.227
BM07 1.742 +0.032 1122.259
+9.432 -9.183 +0.249 +0.249
-9.183
+0.249

80
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 81
Weather, Beacon description, etc :

Points BS + IS - FS - Rise/Fall RL Corr. Adj. Level Final Level Remarks

TBM03 1.974 1122.005
1.251 1.362 +0.612 1122.617
1.211 1.290 -0.039 1122.578
1.361 1.250 -0.039 1122.539
TBM05 1.978 -0.617 1121.922
+5.797 -5.880 -0.083 -0.083
-5.880
-0.083

TBM05 1.312 1121.916

1.362 1.170 +0.142 1122.058
1.129 1.023 +0.339 1122.397
1.091 1.192 -0.063 1122.334
TBM03 1.415 -0.324 1122.010
+4.894 -4.800 +0.094 0.094
+4.894
+0.094

81
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 82
Weather, Beacon description, etc :

Points BS + IS - FS - Rise/Fall RL Corr. Adj. Level Final Level Remarks

TBM05 1.312 1121.922
1.293 1.088 +0.224 1122.146
1.546 1.211 +0.082 1122.228
1.542 1.129 +0.417 1122.645
1.512 1.362 +0.180 1122.825
TBM06 1.312 +0.200 1123.025
+7.205 -6.102 +1.103 1.103
-6.102
+1.103

TBM06 1.416 1123.006

1.205 1.511 -0.095 1122.911
1.041 1.538 -0.333 1122.578
1.170 1.563 -0.522 1122.056
1.232 1.231 -0.061 1121.995
TBM05 1.311 -0.079 1121.916
+6.064 -7.154 -1.090 -1.090
+6.064
-1.090

82
urvey: Observer: Date: Page: 83
Weather, Beacon description, etc :

Points BS + IS - FS - Rise/Fall RL Corr. Adj. Level Final Level Remarks

TBM06 1.244 1123.025
2.174 0.919 +0.325 1123.350
2.171 0.466 +1.708 1125.058
2.035 0.235 +1.936 1126.994
2.016 0.492 +1.543 1128.537
1.452 0.666 +1.350 1129.887
1.421 1.425 +0.027 1129.914
1.345 1.349 +0.072 1129.986
BM02 1.872 -0.527 1129.459
+13.858 -7.424 +6.434 +6.434
-7.424
+6.434

BM02 2.003 1129.450

1.432 1.435 +0.568 1130.018
1.507 1.511 -0.079 1129.939
0.662 1.542 -0.035 1129.904
0.820 2.018 -1.356 1128.548
0.788 2.289 -1.469 1127.079
0.759 2.193 -1.405 1125.674
1.440 3.294 -2.535 1123.139
TBM06 1.573 -0.133 1123.006
+9.411 -15.855 -6.444 -6.444
+9.411
-6.444

83
 5.3.11.3 Line Levelling Correction Application
Table 5–4: Distribution of Correction & Final Levels
F/H. B/H. Mean
#Set-Ups Corr. H/Diff F/Height
Diff Diff H/Diff
BM07 1122.256
TBM03 5 -0.251 +0.249 -0.250 -0.0007 -0.251 1122.005
TBM05 4 -0.083 +0.094 -0.089 -0.0006 -0.089 1121.916
TBM06 5 +1.103 -1.090 +1.097 -0.0007 +1.096 1123.012
BM02 8 +6.434 -6.444 +6.439 -0.0011 +6.438 1129.450
22 +7.203 -7.191 +7.197 -0.0031 +7.194 +7.194

True Error = +0.0031

Class = A

F / H . Diff −B/ H . Diff Eq. ( 5-4 )

Mean H . Diff =
2

−True Error Eq. ( 5-5 )

Correction= ∗¿ Se tUps per leg
∑ ¿ SetUps
5.3.12 Levelling Diagram
The levelling diagram shows the level route used for calculations and should always be
drowned and when possible to a scale. The Error: Reference source not found represents
the level diagram for field observations.

5.4 Reciprocal Levelling

When obtaining the relative levels of two points on opposite sides of a wide gap such as a
river, it is impossible to keep the length of sights short and equal. Collimation error, Earth
Figure
curvature and refraction affect the longer sight much more than the shorter one. In order to
minimize these effects, the method of reciprocal levelling is used, as illustrated in Figure 3.32. If the instrument near A observes a BS onto A
and a FS onto B, the difference in elevation between A and B is:
Δ H AB =x 2−x 1−(c−r )
84
 where : x 1=BS on A
x 2=FS on B
(c−r)=the combined effect of curvature∧refraction
(withcollimation error intrinsically built into r)
Similarly, with the instrument moved to near B:
Δ H AB = y 1− y 2+(c−r)
where y 1=BS on B
y 2=FS on A
then2 Δ H AB=(x 2−x 1)+( y 1− y 2)
1
Δ H AB = [(x 2−x 1)+( y 1− y 2)] Eq. ( 5-6 )
2
This proves that the mean of the difference in level obtained with the instrument near A and then with the instrument near B is free from
the errors due to curvature, refraction and collimation error. Random errors of observation will still be present, however.
Equation (3.6) assumes the value of refraction is equal in both cases. Refraction is a function of temperature and pressure and so varies
with time. Thus, refraction may change during the time taken to transport the instrument from side A to side B. To preclude this, it is advisable
to use two levels and take simultaneous reciprocal observations. However, this procedure creates the problem of each instrument having a
different residual collimation error. The instruments should therefore be interchanged and the whole procedure repeated. The mean of all the
values obtained will then give the most probable value for the difference in level between A and B.

5.5 Trigonometrical / Tacheometrical Levelling

Trigonometrical levelling is used where difficult terrain, such as mountainous areas, precludes the use of conventional differential levelling.
It may also be used where the height difference is large but the horizontal distance is short such as heighting up a cliff or a tall building. The
vertical angle and the slope distance between the two points concerned are measured. Slope distance is measured using electromagnetic
distance measurers (EDM) and the vertical (or zenith) angle using a theodolite.
When these two instruments are integrated into a single instrument it is called a ‘total station’. Total stations contain algorithms that
calculate and display the horizontal distance and vertical height. This latter facility has resulted in trigonometrical levelling being used for a
wide variety of heighting procedures, including contouring. However, unless the observation distances are relatively short, the height values
displayed by the total station are quite useless, if not highly dangerous, unless the total station contains algorithms to apply corrections for
curvature and refraction.

85
 5.5.1 Short Lines

Figure : Trigonometrical Levelling - Short Lines

from Error: Reference source not found it can be seen that:

when measuring the angle: Δh=S∗sin α Eq. ( 5-7 )
when using the vertical reading : Δh=S∗cos Z Eq. ( 5-8 )
with horizontal distance : Δh=D∗tan α
Eq. ( 5-9 )
¿ D∗cot Z
The difference in elevation ( Δ H) between ground points A and B is therefore:
ΔH =Δh +hi −ht Eq. ( 5-10 )
where hi =height of the measuringinstrumentht =height of the centre of thetarget

5.6 Levelling applications

5.6.1 Levelling in Engineering / Site Surveys

The determination of elevation differences between points.
The determination of the elevation of points to draw longitudinal sections and cross sections.
Production of contour plans.
86
 Staking contours on slopes in the field.
Setting out levels in construction work.
Of all the surveying operations used in construction, levelling is the most common. Practically every aspect of a construction project
requires some application of the levelling process. The more general are as follows.
5.6.2 Controlling Grading Excavation
This type of setting out generally occurs in drainage schemes where the trench, bedding material and pipes have to be laid to a specified
design gradient. Manholes (MH) will need to be set out at every change of direction or at least every 100 m on straight runs. The MH (or
inspection chambers) are generally set out first and the drainage courses set out to connect into them.
The centre peg of the MH is established in the usual way and referenced to four pegs, as in Figure 12.2. Alternatively, profile boards may be
set around the MH and its dimensions marked on them. If the boards are set out at a known height above formation level the depth of
excavation can be controlled, as in Figure 12.16.
5.6.3 Use of sight rails
Sight rails (SRs) are basically horizontal rails set a specific distance apart and to a specific
level such that a line of sight between them is at the required gradient. Thus they are used
to control trench excavation and pipe gradient without the need for constant professional
supervision.
Error: Reference source not found illustrates SRs being used in conjunction with a
boning rod (or traveller) to control trench excavation to a design gradient of 0.5%
(rising). Pegs A and B are offset a known distance from the centre-line of the trench and
levelled from a nearby TBM.
Assume that peg A has a level of 40 m and the Figure formation level of the trench at this point
is to be 38 m. It is decided that a reasonable height for the SR above ground would be
1.5 m, i.e. at a level of 41.5; thus the boning rod must be made (41.5 - 38) = 3.5 m long, as its cross-head must be on level with the SR when its
toe is at formation level.
Consider now peg B, with a level of 40.8 m at a horizontal distance of 50 m from A. The proposed gradient is 0.5%, which is 0.25 m in 50 m,
and thus the formation level at B is 38.25 m. If the boning rod is 3.5 m, the SR level at B is (38.25 + 3.5) = 41.75 m and is set (41.75 - 40.8) =
0.95 m above peg B. The remaining SRs are established in this way and a line of sight or string stretched between them will establish the
trench gradient 3.5 m above the required level. Thus, holding the boning rod vertically in the trench will indicate, relative to the sight rails,
whether the trench is too high or too low.
Due to excessive ground slopes it may be necessary to use double sight rails with
87
various lengths of boning rod as shown in Error: Reference source not found.
5.6.4 Sectional levelling
This type of levelling is used to produce ground profiles for use in the design of roads, railways and pipelines. In the case of such projects,
the route centreline is set out using pegs at 10 m, 20 m or 30 m intervals. Levels are then taken at these peg positions and at critical points
such as sudden changes in ground profiles, road crossings, ditches, bridges, culverts, etc. A plot of these elevations is called a longitudinal
section. When plotting, the vertical scale is exaggerated compared with the horizontal, usually in the ratio of 10 : 1. The longitudinal section is
then used in the vertical design process to produce formation levels for the proposed route design.
Whilst the above process produces information along a centreline only, cross-sectional levelling extends that information at 90 0 to the
centreline for 20–30 m each side. At each centreline peg the levels are taken to all points of interest on either side. Where the ground is
featureless, levels at 5 m intervals or less are taken. In this way a ground profile at right angles to the centre-line is obtained. When the design
template showing the road details and side slopes is plotted at formation level, a cross-sectional area is produced, which can later be used to
compute volumes of earthwork. When plotting cross-sections, the vertical and horizontal scales might be the same, to permit easy scaling of
the area and side slopes.
From the above it can be seen that sectional levelling also requires the measurement of horizontal distance between the points whose
elevations are obtained. As the process involves the observation of many points, it is important to connect to existing BMs at regular intervals.
In most cases of route construction, one of the earliest tasks is to establish BMs at 100 m intervals throughout the area of interest.
Levelling which does not require the measurement of distance, such as establishing BMs at known positions, is sometimes called ‘fly
levelling or line levelling’.
5.6.5 Setting out of points at a predetermined level
The basic principle of setting out a point
on the ground at a predetermined level is
illustrated in Error: Reference source not
found. Point A is a temporary bench
mark (RL 8.55 m AD). Markers, in the form
of pegs or arrows, are to be placed in the
ground, in positions where the ground
has, firstly, a level of 9.00 metres and,
secondly, a level of 8.00 metres.
Procedure
The observer sets up the level at a

88
 height convenient for observing the TBM (RL 8.55 m) and takes a backsight staff reading. The reading is 1.25 m.
HPC=8.55+ 1.25=9.80 m
The staffman walks to an area where it is estimated that the ground has an approximate level of 9.00 m and turns the staff towards
the instrument. The staff is then moved slowly up or down the ground slope until the base of the staff is at a height of 9.00 m exactly.
This will occur when the observer reads 0.80 m on the staff,
since HPC=9.80 m
Required level=9.00 m
∴ staff reading=0.80 m(¿ achieve the required level)
The ground position (B), is marked with an arrow or peg and the staff is removed to another location. The operation is repeated and a
second peg is placed at C, when the observer again reads 0.80 m on the staff. This operation can be repeated any number of times.
When a different ground level, say 8.00 m, is to be marked, a new calculation is made, as follows:
HPC=9.80 m
Required level=8.00 m
Therefore staff reading=1.80 m(¿ achieve therequired level)
The observer directs the staffman downhill and directs him or her to move the staff until the reading becomes 1.80 m, whereupon the
staffman marks the position (D) with a peg of a different colour.
Examples:
In order to find the rail levels of an existing railway, a point A was marked on the rail, then points at distances in multiples of 20m from A,
Tabulate the reading below on the collimation system; then assuming the levels at A and A + 120 were correct,
Backsight 3.93 on BM 23.01, Intermediate sights on A, A + 20 and A + 40, 2.81, 2.51 and 2.22 respectively. A + 60: change point:
foresight, 1.88 backsight 2.61. Intermediate sights on A + 80 and A + 100, 2.32 and 1.92 respectively; and finally a foresight of 1.54 on A + 120,
all being in meters.
a) Calculate the amounts by which the rail would have to be lifted or lowered at the intermediate points to give a uniform gradient
throughout.
Rail Lifted/
Pnt. BS IS FS HI RL
Levels Lowered
BM 3.930 26.940 23.010
A+0 2.810 24.130 24.130 +0.000
A+ 20 2.510 24.430 24.463 +0.033
A + 40 2.220 24.720 24.797 +0.077
89
 A+ 60 2.610 1.880 27.670 25.060 25.130 +0.070
A + 80 2.320 25.350 25.463 +0.113
A+ 100 1.920 25.750 25.797 +0.047
A + 120 1.540 26.130 26.130 +0.000
+6.540 +11.780 -3.420 +3.120
-3.420
+3.120
From
26.130−24.130
The Gradient= =+0.016666667
120
b) The level was subsequently placed half-way between A and A+120, and the Backside to the BM is 3.645, determine the staff
reading for all the stake values in order to maintain the gradient of the rail line.

90
 Pnt. BS IS FS HI RL
BM 3.645 26.655 23.010
A+0 2.525 24.130
A+ 20 2.192 24.463
A + 40 1.858 24.797
A+ 60 1.525 25.130
A + 80 1.192 25.463
A+ 100 0.858 25.797
A + 120 0.525 26.130
+3.645 +10.150 -0.525 +3.120
-0.525
+3.120

c) Draw a long section showing the above tables.

91
 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. A datum surface in levelling is a

(a) horizontal surface.
(b) vertical surface.
(c) level surface.
(d) non of the above.

2. Reduced level of a point is its height or depth above or below

(a) the ground surface.
(b) the assumed datum.
(c) assumed horizontal surface.
(d) the line of collimation.

3. The correction for the atmospheric refraction is equal to

(a) +1/7 of the correction for curvature of the earth.
(b) 1/7 of the correction for curvature of the earth.
(c) +6/7 of the correction for curvature of the earth.
(d) 6/7 of the correction for curvature of the earth.

4. If the back sight reading at point A is greater than the fore sight reading at point B then
(a) A is higher than B.
(b) B is higher than A.
(c) height of the instrument is required to know which point is higher.
(d) instrument position is required to know which point is higher.

5. Change points in levelling are

(a) the instrument stations that are changed from one position to another.
(b) the staff stations that are changed from point to point to obtain the reduced levels of the points.
(c) the staff stations of known elevations.
(d) the staff stations where back sight and fore sight readings are taken.

92
6. Balancing of sights mean
(a) making fore sight reading equal to back sight reading.
(b) making the line of collimation horizontal.
(c) making the distance of fore sight station equal to that of the back sight station from the instrument station.
(d) taking fore sight and back sight readings at the same station.

7. The height of instrument method of reducing levels is preferred when

(a) there are large numbers of intermediate sights.
(b) there are no intermediate sights.
(c) there are large numbers of fore sights.
(d) there are no fore sights.

8. Sensitivity of a bubble tube depends on

(a) the radius of curvature.
(b) the length of the vapour bubble.
(c) the smoothness of the inner surface of the bubble tube.
(d) all the above.
9. Reciprocal levelling is employed to determine the accurate difference in level of two points which
(a) are quite apart and where it is not possible to set up the instrument midway between the points.
(b) are quite close and where it is not possible to set up the instrument midway between the points.
(c) have very large difference in level and two instrument settings are required to determine the difference in level.
(d) are at almost same elevation.

10. When a level is in adjustment, the line of sight of the instrument is

(a) perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument and parallel to the bubble tube axis.
(b) perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument and bubble level axis.
(c) perpendicular to the bubble tube axis and parallel to the vertical axis.
(d) none of the above.

11. A Dumpy level is preferred to determine the elevations of points

(a) lying on hills.
93
 (b) lying on a line.
(c) lying in moderately flat terrain.
(d) on a contour gradient.

12. ANSWERS

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c)

7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (c)

94
Exercises

1. A sewer line is to be laid between two points 90m apart. The elevation of point A which is close to the start of the line is 1 148.726m
above mean sea level. The staff reading above 2.500m traveler which is 40m from the end of line is 1.537.
Determine the staff readings for 0m, 15m, 30m, 45m, 60m, 75m and 90m chainages if the gradient is to be -2.5%.

2. From the data given below, if the elevation @ A is 1 250.023m and assuming that the height at F is correct,
Point BS IS FS
A 2.461
B 1.841
C 1.841
D 1.920 1.053
E 0.920 3.123
F 3.372 3.044
E 2.915 1.261
D 2.624 1.702
C 1.952 3.423
B 1.954
A 2.554

a) Calculate the amount of cut or fill required at each of the points B, C, D and E if interval between the points is 15m.
b) A level was subsequently set-up near C with the purpose to place point FF with the elevation 1 248.121m. If the staff reading @ C is
1.015, what must the reading on FF be?
3. In order to find the rail levels of an existing railway, a point A was marked on the rail, then points at distances in multiples of 20m from A,
Tabulate the reading below on the collimation system; then assuming the levels at A and A + 120 were correct, calculate the amounts by
which the rail would have to be lifted or lowered at the intermediate points to give a uniform gradient throughout.

Backsight 3.93 on BM 23.01, Intermediate sights on A, A + 20 and A + 40, 2.81, 2.51 and 2.22 respectively. A + 60: change point:
foresight, 1.88 backsight 2.61. Intermediate sights on A + 80 and A + 100, 2.32 and 1.92 respectively; and finally a foresight of 1.54 on A

95
 + 120, all being in meters.

4. The following readings were taken after a Dumpy Level was set up and 30m was measured to either side of the instrument with a tape to
A or B. The first set of readings were, A = 1.111 and B = 1.211. Then the instrument was moved close to B, and the second set of readings
were A = 1.733 and B = 1.839. Re write the readings and determine the Collimation error in the instrument.

5. The following figures were extracted from a level field book, some of the entries being illegible owing to exposure to rain.
Pnt. BS IS FS HI RL Remarks
OBM A 279.080 277.650
2.010 E
B 278.070
3.370 0.400 D 278.680
2.980 F
1.410 280.640
TBM C 281.380

Replace the alphabets A to F and check your results.

6. A sewer line is to be laid at a uniform gradient of 1 in 200, between two points X & Y, 240m apart. The reduced level of the invert at the
outfall X is 1 150.82. In order to fix the sight rails at X & Y, readings were taken with a level in the following order:
BS 0.81 TBM ( near X), RL 1 153.81
IS ‘a’ Top of sight rail @ X
IS 1.07 Peg @ X
FS 0.55 CP between X and Y
BS 2.15 CP between X and Y
IS ‘b’ Top of sight rail @ Y
FS 1.88 Peg @ Y

a) Draw up a level book and find the reduced levels of the pegs.
b) If the boning rod of length 3m is to be used, find the level readings at a and b.

96
 c) Find the height of the sight rails above the pegs X and Y

7. Levels are taken to determine the height of two pegs a and b, and to determine the soffit level of an overbridge. Using the values of
levels indicated in Table, and given that the first backsight is taken on a BM at a church, and the final foresight is on a BM at a school,
determine the closing error and the height between the underside of the bridge and the ground immediately below it. Use the
collimation level method and apply the usual checks. [ 10 ]
Level Reading (m) Remarks
1.275 Backsight to BM on church (RL 60.270 m)
2.812 Foresight. Change Point 1
0.655 Backsight. Change Point 1
3.958 Inverted staff to soffit of bridge
1.515 Ground level beneath centre of bridge
1.138 Foresight. Change Point 2
2.954 Backsight. Change Point 2
2.706 Peg a
2.172 Peg b
1.240 Foresight to BM on school (RL 59.960m)

8. Describe how you would avoid Collimation error when levelling, without adjusting the instrument
9. Fill in the necessary answers to determine the collimation error of a levelling instrument:
A to B = 40m Instrument set up close to B

A = 2.133 A =2.477
B = 2.345 B =2.687

Correction from to =
Adjust crosshairs from to

Collimation error over 40m =

Collimation error over 100m =

10. Give 2 reasons why is it necessary to test the level for collimation error before you use it?

97
11. If the collimation error over 90m = +0.035m. You are standing near to A, and you have just finished taking the second set of readings
(reading to A = 2.222 and B = 2.465, A and B are 60m apart), and you take another reading to a Manhole cover which is 83.2m away =
3.333. A is incidentally a survey beacon with a height = 1223.242
a) What is the collimation error over 83.2m?
b) What is the right height of the Manhole's cover?
12. The following readings were taken after the levelling instrument was set up for the purpose of adjusting the collimation error of the
instrument. The measured distance between A and B is 90m. Then the instrument was moved close to A, and a second set of readings
were taken.
SET 1 SET 2
A 2.038 A 2.541
B 2.777 B 3.305

Explain how you would do the adjustment. /10/

13. When will the collimation error effect your readings the most?
14. Explain, with the aid of a sketch, which method would be used to level over a wide river. The example must show how to obtain the
correct readings.

98
CHAPTER 6: EDM TRAVERSING

6.1 Objective:

To determine the horizontal position and height of points (survey stations) by measuring
angles and distances

6.2 The Total Station

The modern theodolite is a highly complex and delicately assembled mechanism. It is,
however, very reliable and will maintain its accuracy if properly cared for. Hence periodic
inspection and overhaul is essential, the latter only to be carried out by qualified personnel.
Various makers produce theodolites that differ in physical appearance, yet their internal
workings are essentially the same.

6.2.1 General description

The theodolite/total station consists primarily of a horizontal circle, a vertical circle and a
telescope mounted centrally with regard to both circles. The horizontal circle is capable of
99
being rotated in a horizontal plane by 360 0 together with the telescope, and can be clamped
in any desired position.
The telescope is also capable of being rotated
3600/00
independently so that it can be set in any desired Top Stadia
Middle Hair
Hair
position relative to the circle, or the direction in
which the telescope is pointing may be accurately
read in relation to the horizontal circle. 2700 900
The vertical circle is normally rigidly fixed in
relation to the telescope, which is capable of
rotation in a vertical plane, and a reading device is
Cross Hairs Bottom Stadia
controlled by means of a level tube or spirit level, 1800
Hair
commonly referred to as a bubble, so that accurate
vertical angles may be read.

Target
Target

Circle Left Circle Right

Figure : Vertical Circle Reading
The vertical circle is always fixed in the following manner:
When this circle is on the left of the telescope, it is termed circle left (or face left), and
readings will be between 0 0 and 180 0 (usually in the vicinity of 90°) and with the circle on the
right of the telescope, it is termed circle right (or face right), and readings will be between
180° and 360° (usually in the vicinity of 270°) as illustrated in the figure above. When swinging
the telescope through to change from circle left to circle right it is called transiting the
telescope. The telescope is fitted with fine cross hairs, so that the object may be accurately
sighted. In all modern theodolites, additional hairs are fitted known as stadia hairs, which
enable the observer to deduce distances when sighting a suitably graduated staff. When so
fitted the instrument is known as a tacheometer.
Levelling screws, usually referred to as foot screws, are provided so that the instrument
may be accurately levelled, with the aid of the bubbles. Clamps and setting screws, often
referred to as fine adjusting screws or slow motion screws, but more commonly, as tangent
screws, are provided, so that the line of sight may be accurately set on the object and
clamped in position.
Various adjustments are provided, so that the essential geometrical relationship between
the component parts of the theodolite may be maintained. If these were not provided, the
instrument would soon permanently lose the perfection of adjustment made at the factory,
through normal handling and usage. This would result in avoidable errors being introduced
100
into the measurements made with it.
Reading devices, either of the micrometre, vernier or optical scale type, enable both
horizontal and vertical circles to be read with great precision. In many modern theodolites,
optical devices are employed to make the reading more convenient and accurate. When in
use, the instrument is firmly mounted on a tripod or trig plate when observing from a beacon
or the top of a wall, on a wall tripod or beacon plate which is simply a tripod head mounted
on three short metal pegs.
A few terms not mentioned in the above description may be of value.
The lower plate is the mounting for the horizontal circle.
The upper plate is the mounting for the reading device, and rotates horizontally with
the telescope at all times.
The lower plate clamp clamps the lower plate immovably, except for the movement
allowed by the lower plate tangent screw.
The upper plate clamp clamps the upper and lower plates rigidly together, except for
the movement allowed by the upper plate tangent screw.
The upper plate spindle rotates within the lower plate spindle, and these spindles
have a common axis known as the vertical axis. In some theodolites, particularly the
more precise models, the upper and lower plate bearings are entirely independent of
each other.
The tribrach is the mounting for the foot screws, whose lower ends rest in the trivet
stage, and the whole levelling device is called the levelling head. The standards are
the two vertical supports for the upper portions of the instrument. They are rigidly
attached to the upper plate.
Two trunnion arms support the telescope, their ends rotating in bearings fitted to the
standards. The axis about which the telescope and vertical circle rotate is known as
the horizontal axis or trunnion axis or transit axis.
The telescope clamp or vertical circle clamp clamps the telescope and vertical circle
immovably, except for the movement allowed by the telescope tangent screw or
vertical circle tangent screw.
The plate bubble is attached to the upper plate, and its function is to control the
verticality of the vertical axis.
The altitude bubble is usually attached to the reading device for the vertical circle. Its
purpose is to ensure that true vertical angles are read. It can be adjusted to the
horizontal by means of the bubble setting screw or bubble tangent screw.
The telescope bubble is attached to the telescope. It enables the telescope to be set
truly horizontal. On most modern instruments it is not fitted.
The object glass or objective is the large forward lens through which rays of light
enter the telescope.
The eyepiece is the rear end of the telescope, through which the observer views the
sighted object. It consists of a series of lenses which provide the main magnification
of the telescope, and is capable of rotation, within a threaded sleeve, so that the
cross hairs may be clearly focussed.
A separate focussing screw enables the sighted object to be clearly focussed.
The diaphragm is an adjustable ring just forward of the eyepiece, within which are
fixed the cross hairs and stadia hairs. In earlier instruments, spider webs were glued
directly onto the diaphragm ring as sighting marks, but, in modern instruments, fine
101
 lines at etched onto a thin glass disc which forms part of the diaphragm. In some
instruments this glass disc, or spider webs, are mounted in a separate cell, which may
be readily withdrawn from the diaphragm ring and replaced. The glass disc with its
arrangement of hairs or wires, as they are often called, is known as the graticule or
reticule.
The alidade is the whole upper part of the instrument, and includes the upper plate,
standards, vertical circle and telescope.
6.2.2 Function of the theodolite/total station
The theodolite/total station is used to measure both vertically and horizontally readings.
Thus we gather information with it that will determine not only the relative height differences
between points, but also their positions relative to each other. The theodolite/total station
therefore finds particular application in topographical surveys, traverse surveys and
contouring.
6.2.3 Setting up procedure over a station
i) Extend the tripod legs but ensure that approximately 200mm of extension is still
available on each leg before you clamp it.
ii) Carefully place the theodolite on the tripod head and secure.
iii) Secure one tripod leg in the ground approximately 600mm to 1000mm beyond the
station and away from you (see "A" on sketch).
iv) Using tripod leg "A" as a pivot, lift the other two tripod
legs and by looking through the optical plummet,
position the instrument as accurately as possible over
the station. (The tripod head should be kept as level as
possible). Secure the other two legs in the ground.
v) Centre the circular bubble by means of the telescopic
action of the tripod legs.
vi) Use the foot screws to centre the plate bubble in two directions in plan.
vii) Check through the optical plummet, to see if the instrument is still directly over the
station. If not, loosen the instrument slightly from the tripod head and by means of
right-angled motions, slide it in the desired direction to centre it.
viii) Check that the plate bubble is still central and repeat from step (vi) if necessary.
The machine is now set up to be used in any direction.
6.2.4 Accurate Levelling
If the circular bubble is in adjustment the Total Station Instrument will be nearly level. To
get it accurately level requires using the tube bubble. Not only is tube bubble more sensitive
than the circular one, it also rotates with the instrument so the level can be accurately
checked in various directions.
Each step is accompanied with an illustration of a top view of the tube bubble and tribrach
showing bubble orientation and levelling screws used.

Step (1)
Rotate the Total Station Instrument so the ABT is parallel with the
line through two levelling screws.
Using just those two screws, centre the tube bubble.
102
 Step (2)
Rotate the instrument 180° so the Total Station Instrument’s
position is reversed.
If the bubble runs off centre, use the same two levelling screws to
bring it halfway back. For example, if it runs two divisions, bring it
back one division.

Step (3)
Rotate the Total Station Instrument 90° so the ABT is at a right
angle to the first two screws.
Using only the third levelling screw, centre the bubble.

Step (4)
Rotate the Total Station Instrument 180° so
the Total Station Instrument’s position is
reversed.
If the bubble runs, bring it back halfway using the third levelling
screw only.
If the bubble ran in Step (2), it should run the same amount in this
step. This indicates a systematic error.

Step (5)
 Check the level in all directions by rotating the Total Station Instrument.
 If the bubble stayed centred throughout the levelling process, then it should stay
centred regardless where the Total Station Instrument is rotated.
 If the bubble ran in Step (2) and (4) and was corrected back half the run, it should
be off that same amount wherever the Total Station Instrument is rotated.
 If it doesn't meet either of these conditions, then there was either a levelling
process error or the instrument set up isn't stable.

Step (6)
But wait ... the optical plummet could also be out of adjustment so it should be checked.
Check the optical plummet to see if it is centred on the ground mark.
If it is off the mark, loosen the instrument screw and slide the Total Station Instrument (to-
from, left-right) until it is over the point. Re-tighten the screw. The Total Station Instrument
should now be accurately levelled and centred over the ground mark.
6.2.5 Good habits
It is important to establish good procedural habits right away and follow them
consistently. Although there are a lot of things to remember learning to set up and
use a Total Station Instrument, continued practice helps these become second nature.
103
 When measuring horizontal angles, always turn the Instrument in the direction of the
angle measurement. Do this even if it's a longer way to go. On a digital Instrument,
the angle readings generally increase as it is turned right and decrease as turned left.
Most can be set to increase left and decrease right. Using a consistent measuring and
turning direction can avoid confusion later on.
Horizontal and vertical circle locks need only be finger-tight. Over-tightening can
damage the locks. They can also freeze up if tightened in cold operation conditions
then used later in warmer conditions.
To rotate the telescope vertically or horizontally, use a single finger to impart the
motion. It doesn't take much force to rotate if the respective lock is open, if it doesn't
freely rotate, that means the lock is set. This doesn't apply to instruments’ which use
a friction-drive system.
Before beginning an angle measurement set, position the horizontal and vertical
slow-motion screws at mid-run. This will allow sufficient movement in either direction
when accurately sighting.
Don’t lean on or grab the tripod. The tripod’s sole purpose is to provide a stable
platform for the instrument, not the surveyor. Be careful to not kick a tripod leg when
moving around the instrument.
If setting up on frozen ground, make sure the legs are firmly planted. Over time the
pressure of the leg tips will thaw the ground beneath them causing potential
settlement. This can be prevented by piling snow around the legs to insulate them. (If
you've never surveyed in the winter, you're missing quite a treat.)
6.2.6 Errors and adjustments
Only three errors will be dealt with in this module. Although the adjustments are given for
each error, they are to be noted only and not attempted by the student.
Plate bubble error
Aim: To determine whether the bubble tube axis and the vertical axis are of right angles to
each other.
Test and adjustment: Same as for the dumpy level.
Collimation error
Aim: To determine whether the collimation line and the horizontal axis are at right angles
to each other.
Test: Sight a well-defined object with the centre of the cross hairs in the middle distance at
about the same level as the instrument and read the horizontal circle. Transit and again read
the horizontal circle on the other face. The two readings should differ by exactly 180°. If not, a
collimation error exists,
Adjustment: Half the difference from 180° must be added to one reading and subtracted
from the other to give the correct reading. For example:
¿˚ :27 ° 31' 00
¿˚ reading :207 ° 32' 40
Difference ¿ :180 ° 01' 40
Add 50 to circle left reading : 27° 31' 50
Subtract 50 from circle right reading : 207° 31' 50
104
 Using the slow-motion screw set the circle right reading correct. This will move the
telescope off the point. Move the line of sight back on to the point by adjusting the
diaphragm screws. Transit and check that the adjusted line of sight provides a reading
differing from the previous reading' by just 180°.
Note: This is the practical field test and adjustment. It only provides a line of sight
perpendicular to the horizontal axis if there is no eccentricity in the relation between
the vertical axis and the centre of the horizontal circle. In modern instruments this
error is almost negligible and is eliminated by observing on both faces.
Index error
Aim: To determine whether the 90° - 270° line on the vertical circle, and the collimation
line is parallel when the latter is horizontal. (The importance of this requirement cannot be
overstressed as the reduction of tachy observations depends essentially on the angle of
elevation or depression, called θ).
Although a modern TOTAL STATION uses compensation to minimize index error, it's still
worth describing this error in order to understand it. A traditional non-digital theodolite uses
glass circles marked with angular value divisions for its horizontal and vertical circles (think
really expensive and accurate protractors). To correctly orient the vertical circle when the
instrument is level was done in one of two ways:
 A separate vertical circle bubble, or,
 A compensator which aligned the circle to gravity
In either case, the goal was to align (or index) the circle so that 0° and 180° were along a
vertical line while 90° and 270° were along a horizontal line. Error: Reference source not found
shows a correctly indexed vertical circle used to make direct and reverse readings to a target.

Figure 2: Incorrectly Indexed Vertical Circle

If the vertical circle isn't correctly oriented, an index error exists. The incorrect orientation
can come from a maladjusted circle bubble or compensator. Error: Reference source not found
below shows measurements to the same target but with a vertical circle index error of 4° (this
is a very large error, used here only for illustrative purposes).
Measuring only in direct or reverse position alone does not provide sufficient data to
determine if index error is present nor how to compensate for it. Reading the circle in both
direct and reverse positions allows the index error to compensate
Test:
105
 Set up and level the instrument. Sight a definite mark on circle left, centre the vertical
bubble and read the angle of slope.
Repeat on circle right, again reading the vertical circle.
If the instrument is in adjustment, the two angles read on each face will be equal. If
the two angles are not equal, the mean value provides the true angle of slope. Half
the difference between the readings is the index error, the amount by which either
reading must be corrected to give the true reading.
Adjustment
With the telescope still clamped on to the mark, set the true reading with the clip
screw. This will cause the vertical bubble to run off centre, but the vertical circle
reading defines the actual angle of slope so the bubble should be in the centre of its
run.
By means of the bubble-adjusting screws, bring the bubble back to its central
position.
Repeat the test to check the adjustment.
Note: Meaning readings obtained on both faces results in a true angle of elevation
or depression even when an index error exists.

6.2.7 Determination of the index error

The following formula applies:
CL+ CR−360
Index Error( e)= Eq. ( 6-1 )
2
and the corrected vertical circle readings are always CL−(e)∨CR−(e).
Example:
Determine the index error, corrected vertical circle readings and Ɵ for the following:
CL = 94° 06' 12" CR = 265° 51' 42"
Solution: ( e )=½ ( ( 359 °57 ' 54 ” – 360 ° ) ) =−01' 03 ”
CL=94 ° 06 ' 12 - (- 01' 03¿=94 ° 07 ' 15
and CR=265 ° 51' 42 - (- 01' 03 ¿=265 ° 52 ' 45
¿ˇ 360 ° 00' 00
'
Ɵ= 90° 00' 00 - 94 ° 07 15=−4 ° 07 ' 15
or Ɵ=265° 52' 45 - 270 ° 00' 00=−4 ° 07 ' 15
Ɵ can also be obtained without determining the index error first, provided readings are
taken on both CL and CR, as follows:
Ɵ from original CL = 90°00'00” - 94°06'12" ¿ −¿ 4°06'12"
Ɵ from original CR = 265°51'42" - 270°00'00" ¿ −¿ 4°08'18"
Total¿ −¿ 8°14'30"
The average of this total yields the true Ɵ=−8° 14 ' 30 /2 = - 4°07'15
Ɵ=0.5 (−CL+CR−180 )=0.5 (−94 ° 06 ' 12+265°51'42−180 )=−4 ° 07 ' 15

106
6.3 EDM Distance Measurements

All EDM instruments measure the distance from the instruments to the prism, which must
be reduced to the horizontal equivalent or its grid equivalent at mean sea level.
6.3.1 The corrections applied to EDM measured distances
6.3.1.1 Atmospheric correction:
The speed of a carrier wave varies with temperature, humidity and pressure of the
atmosphere, and the longer the distance the more significant these factors become. The
correction, in parts per million (ppm) of the distance measured is then taken from a
nomogram supplied with the equipment or the supplied equation for that instrument. The
measured temperature and atmospheric pressure or the mean height above MSL (elevation)
of the area are used to get a ppm value from the nomogram. In some cases, the atmospheric
correction may be dialled into the instruments and the measured length automatically
corrected. This correction is applied to the slope distances taken.
Alternatively, the meteorological correction for electro-optical EDMs can be determined by
the following formula: - For Pentax R400V Series Total Stations, the Correction:

(
C met =S (1+ 276.26713−
78.565271∗p
273.14941+t )
∗10−6) Eq. ( 6-2 )

where : S=measured Slope Distance∈meters

p=measured Pressure∈milibars
t=Temperature∈degrees Celsius
C met =Atmosphereic Corrections∈mm

6.3.1.2 Zero/Instrument Error

In most EDM instruments, the electronic centre, the point from which the signal can be
considered to be transmitted, may differ from the geometric centre referred to when locating
the instrument over a station. This gives rise to-a constant, which must be applied to all
distances measured with that instrument. This constant may vary after servicing or repair or
even unexpectedly. It is thus essential that regular checks be carried out to ensure the
stability of the instrument and to take due cognisance of the constant or change in such a
constant.
6.3.1.3 Prism constant
Reflectors or prisms have a difference between their
optical and geometrical centres; this is known as the
prism constant. The use of a different reflecting prism
can also give rise to this error. The prism constant is the
added distance that the beam travels through the prism
on its way back to the transmitter.
NB.: The prism constant and the zero error can be treated as a single
constant

6.3.1.4 Scale Error of EDM

107
 This is an EDM factor that affects all measurements measured by that instrument. NB.: The
Zero error, Prism constant and the Scale error can be determined by calibrating the EDM.
6.3.1.5 Slope corrections
To reduce the measured slope distance to
horizontal distance the vertical angle or zenith
distance of the line must be measured or calculated.
The latest theodolites with EDM units built in have the
light axis of the EDM and optical axis of the theodolite
coincident. This permits the horizontal and vertical
angles and distance measurement to be made
simultaneously with a single sighting and presents no Figure
problem.
All slope distances are to be corrected to horizontal distances after the EDM scale factor
and zero correction has been applied.
H Dist =S∗cos ( α ) H Dist =S∗sin ( θ ) H Dist =√ S 2−Ht Comp2 Eq. ( 6-3 )

6.3.1.6 Chord/Arc Correction

This correction is normally only required for distances longer than 10km. Modern surveying
equipment automatically apply this correction during measurement.
2
K
S= K+ 2
Eq. ( 6-4 )
43 R
where : S=spherical distanceK=chord distance R=earth' s radius (Refere¿datum used )
6.3.1.7 Mean Sea Level and Scale Enlargement
The mean height above sea level and mean Y-co-ordinate of the area under survey is to be
used in the combined formula to reduce the measured distance to a common plane.
2
−DH DY
Height above datum ( Mean Sea Level ) Correction= Scale Enlargement =
R 2R
2

( )
2
Y H
Grid Distance=D∗ 2
− Eq. ( 6-5 )
2R R

where : D=Horizontal DistanceH=meanheight above sea level R=radius of the earth

Y =meanY co−ordinate
Note: The EDM user manual must always be studied prior to surveying to ensure
that certain distance reductions are not repeated and that the user is familiar with
the correct use of the instrument. EDM devices are an integral part of the surveyors’
equipment and must be mastered in all aspects to ensure reliable and consistent
results.

Example:
Given the following, calculate the reduced EDM distance:

108
 Zeroerror =0.004 EDM scale factor=0.999 998Temperature=20 o Celsius Pressure=876 mb
Measured slope distance=8 199.444 mHeight of instrument @ B=1.500 m
Height of target @T =0.200 m

Y co−ordinate of B=−96 657.890 Height of B=1 808.400

Y co−ordinate of T =−92 788.980 Height of T =1 648.500

Answer:
Slope distance+ Zero error=8199.444 +0.004
¿ 8 199.448
Meteorological ¿ the equation=41.5∴ Corr=41.5∗10−6∗8 199.444−8199.444 ¿ 0 . 340

Distance corrected for temp∧ pressure=8199.448+ 0.340

¿ 8 199 .788
Dist corrected for scale factor of EDM =8 199.788∗0.999 998
¿ 8 199 .771

Reducing Distance to the Horizontal:

δh=(1.5+1808.4)−(1648.5+0.3)=161.100
HD=√ 8 199.7712−161.102=8198.188

109
110
 EDM distance reduction sheet
Set-Up Observed Slope Instrument Meteorological Reduced Vertical Reduced MSL & Scale
Final H/Distance
Station Station Distance Correction Correction (m) S/Distance Angle H/Distance Enlargement

111
6.4 Traverse

A traverse is a continuous series of connected lines of known lengths related to one another
by known angles. The lengths of the lines are determined by direct measurement of horizontal
distances, slope measurement, or by indirect measurement using the methods of stadia or the
subtense bar. The line courses run between a series of points are called traverse stations. The
angles at the traverse stations, between the lines are measured by tape, transit, theodolite,
compass, plane table, or sextant. These angles can be interior angles, deflection angles, or
angles to the right. The lengths and azimuths or bearings of each line of the traverse are
estimated through field measurements. The lengths are horizontal distances, and the azimuths
or bearings are true, magnetic, assumed, or grid.
There are two types or classes of traverses. An open traverse is called a first class traverse.
It starts at a point of known or assumed horizontal position with respect to a horizontal datum,
and terminates at an unknown horizontal position. Thus, open traverses end without closure.
Open traverses are used on route surveys, but should be avoided whenever possible since they
cannot be properly checked. Measurements in open traverses should be repeated to minimize
mistakes. A closed traverse is called a second class traverse. It starts at a known or assumed
horizontal position and terminates at that point (i.e., loop traverse), or it starts at a known
horizontal position and terminates at another known horizontal position (i.e., connecting
traverses). Both the measured angles and lengths in a closed traverse may be checked. A known
horizontal position is defined by its geographic latitude and longitude, its Y- and Xcoordinates
on a grid system, or by its location on or in relation to a fixed boundary. Traverses are used to
find accurate positions of a small number of marked stations. From these stations, less precise
measurements can be made to features to be located without accumulating accidental errors.
Thus, traverses usually serve as control surveys. When drawing construction plans, the stations
can be used as beginning points from which to lay out work. When new construction of any
kind is to be made, a system of traverse stations in the area must be established and surveyed.
Traverse surveys are made for many purposes to include: · To determine the positions of
exiting boundary markers. · To establish the positions of boundary lines. · To determine the
area encompassed within a boundary. · To determine the positions of arbitrary points from
which data may be obtained for preparing various types of maps (i.e., establish control for map
making). · To establish ground control for photographic mapping. · To establish control for
gathering data regarding earthwork quantities in railroad highway, utility, and other
construction work. · To establish control for locating railroads, highways, and other
construction work. A natural resource professional may need to run a boundary survey for a
recreation site, research plot, forest stand, or wildlife habitat area. The shape of the area may
be a polygon with 3 or more sides. The boundary may be located in the field as it is surveyed.
Then the polygon is drawn on a map sheet with the area in acres being determined for planning
purposes. Open traverses may be run to establish preliminary trail and road locations. 2 An
open traverse cannot be checked for accuracy of field measurements as errors or mistakes are
not revealed. A closed traverse immediately affords a check on the accuracy of the measured
angles. The position closure gives an indication of the accuracy in measuring distances as well
as azimuths. Traverse field work consists of the following steps: · Select station positions as
close as possible to the objects to be located. · Mark the stations with stakes with tacks or with
stone or concrete monuments set flush with the ground with a precise point marked on the top
by a chiseled cross, drilled hole, or bronze tablet. · Make angle and distance measurements. ·
Place signals at each station such as a range pole to be used for taping and angle measurement.
The forward and backward directions for any traverse need to be defined. The order in which

112
measurements are made usually is called the forward direction. Loop traverses should be
measured counterclockwise around the loop. The angles of the traverse should be measured
clockwise from the backward direction to the forward direction. Most highway surveys and
other connecting or open traverses are based on measurement of deflection angles. Either
interior or deflection angles can be used for a closed traverse -- we will use interior angles. If
angle and distance measurements are done separately, the field notes for each operation will be
kept separately. If both measurements are done together, you might want to keep the field notes
together.
A traverse is a survey where the boundaries of something is established or set up. In survey
explanation, traverse is defined as the field operation of measuring the lengths and directions
of a series of straight lines connecting a series of points on the earth. Each of these straight
lines is called a traverse leg, and each point is called a traverse station or control point.
Traverse can be divided into two types, open traverse and closed traverse. Open traverse does
not close or end at a point of known coordinates which should be avoided in conducting
traversing. Closed traverses are consecutive lines that begin and end in points of known
coordinates. When the starting and ending points are the same, we may refer it as loop
traverse. The accuracy of traverses is dependable to the instruments or equipment and
measuring techniques.
For first class traverse, the maximum misclosure or allowable misclosure is 1’15” and the
fractional error is 1:8000. However, for second class traverse, the maximum misclosure is
2’30” and the fractional linear error is 1:4000. The control traverses we conducting should be
a first class traverse.
OBJECTIVE: To make a traverse survey, reduce the field data and plot the results graphically.
APPARATUS needed are Total Station, Tripods, Prisms, Prism Rods, Nails, Tape, Hammer and
Pegs
6.4.1 Types of Traverse
The Closed Traverse
A closed traverse starts and closes on previously fixed points. A closed traverse can run
between two previously fixed points:

Figure

or a closed traverse can close back on itself. This type of traverse should be avoided since a

113

Figure
swing in the traverse can be caused by initial error in orientation.

The Open Traverse

Figure
the open traverse does not close on a fixed known point and is therefore unchecked and is
to be avoided.
6.4.2 Field Procedure
The Theodolite is set up over the starting point. As the co-ordinates of this point are
known, the true directions to other two or more known points can be calculated by Join
calculation. The known direction to one of these points (preferable the furthest one but
clearly visible ) is set on the Theodolite. When the cross-hair bisect this point and still on the
inserted direction, the theodolite is said to be oriented to this point. The orientation is
checked by other co-ordinated point/s.
The order of observations for horizontal directions is that, the furthest but clearly visible
point should be observed first and then the rest of the points to be observed for that set-up in
a clock-wise order till the first observed point (RO). This completes the circle left observations
and the instrument is now transited and the circle right observations taken in the reverse
order
The rest of the traverse stations are oriented by the direction from the previous station (i.e.
the reverse of the mean of CL and CR reading on the previous station). When the co-ordinated
(known) end point is reached, the Theodolite is oriented on the last traverse station as before.
At least two other known points are observed. The observed directions are compared with the
known (join) directions. The difference is called the directional closing error which must not
exceed the standards laid down in the specification
For the vertical reading CR reading is taken immediately after CL for every point were
necessary (i.e. known to unknown, unknown to known and unknown to unknown).
When the reduced horizontal distances have been determined, the traverse can be
computed.
6.4.3 Precautions to be observed
 The traverse should be as direct as possible (should not wander).
 A traverse leg which is short relative to the average length of legs should be avoided.
 The line of sight should not be close to the ground to minimize horizontal refraction
(avoid grazing rays).
114
  Observe the traverse directions in close orientation (where exact orientation
impossible). At the closing point a rough field check can be obtained by comparing the
observed and computed directions.
 Apply those corrections to the measured distances to give the required accuracy (i.e.
the accuracy laid down in the specifications.
 Signals (ranging rods, flags) should be perfectly vertical above the points.
6.4.4 Mistakes and Errors
Mistakes and Errors Elimination of

Instrumental errors Check and adjust instruments and adopt

the correct observational procedure.
Errors of manipulation

 Defective centring. Adopt a methodical procedure in

 Slip (orientation disturbed). handling the instrument
 defective levelling
Observational errors

 Inaccurate bisection of signal

 none verticality of signal Being constant aware of the possible
 Errors in reading sources of error and guarding against
them
 Errors in booking .
 Errors due to displacement of pegs or
signals

6.4.5 Field Book Reduction

Before entering directions to the direction sheet, observations must be meaned out as
follows: This can be done in the field book or on a separate sheet. For every set-up in the
traverse follow the following steps:
Step 1: Mean the remaining CL & CR horizontal observations.

STATION CL CR MEAN CORR. ADJ. DIR

@A
B 70.14.15 250.14.25 70.14.20
T1 140.12.38 320.12.46 140.12.42
C 310.18.34 130.18.44 310.18.39
RO (B) 70.14.22 250.14.30 70.14.26

115
 Step 2: Determine the Error for each set-up (last mean - 1 st mean) and put
that under the last mean.

STATION CL CR MEAN CORR. ADJ. DIR

@A
B 70.14.15 250.14.25 70.14.20
T1 140.12.38 320.12.46 140.12.42
C 310.18.34 130.18.44 310.18.39
RO (B) 70.14.22 250.14.30 70.14.26
+0.00.06

Step 3: Calculate corrections to all the points except the first one. Note
that the correction for the 1 st observation for each setup is always
0.00.00, therefore the correction need to be applied to the remaining
observations of that set-up.

STATION CL CR MEAN CORR. ADJ. DIR

@A
B 70.14.15 250.14.25 70.14.20 0.00.00
T1 140.12.38 320.12.46 140.12.42 -0.00.02
C 310.18.34 130.18.44 310.18.39 -0.00.04
RO (B) 70.14.22 250.14.30 70.14.26 -0.00.06
+0.00.06

−Error Eq. ( 6-6 )

correction=
¿¿
Step 3: Apply corrections to all the points to determine the adjusted
directions.

STATION CL CR MEAN CORR. ADJ. DIR

@A
B 70.14.15 250.14.25 70.14.20 -0.00.00 70.14.20
T1 140.12.38 320.12.46 140.12.42 -0.00.02 140.12.40
C 310.18.34 130.18.44 310.18.39 -0.00.04 310.18.35
RO (B) 70.14.22 250.14.30 70.14.26 -0.00.06
+0.00.06

Step 4: Calculate the corrected vertical readings and/or angles and mean
all the remaining bookings (i.e. temperature, pressure and slope
distances) where applicable.
6.4.6 Traverse Direction Sheet
Note that the direction sheet makes use of Joins to obtain a provisional orientation
correction at the starting and closing points of the traverse. For intermediate stations, the
surveyor has to rely on back orientation (to the previous traverse station), or/and where s/he

116
could rely on observations to external control points at the intermediate traverse stations.
6.4.6.1 Without Outside Orientation
Step 1:

From the field book enter the station names and the reduced field observations in
column [1] and [2].

STATION DIRECTION BACK " CORR " FWD " F/CORR " F/DIRECTION
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
@ Tr A
Tr B 70.14.20
T1 140.12.40
Tr C 310.18.35

@ T1
Tr A 320.12.50
T2 165.17.53

@ T2
T1 345.17.37
Tr D 150.00.04

@ TrD
Tr E 6.27.44
Tr F 142.18.28
T2 330.00.20

117
 Step 2:

At the known points enter the join directions in [7] and underline. Find the correction
[7-2] to be applied to the observed directions. Enter this correction in 6. Find the mean
correction using all the rays. Apply this mean correction to the remaining rays and enter
in [5]. This value gives the oriented forward (outgoing) directions which when reversed
will be the incoming ray at the next station.

STATION DIRECTION BACK " CORR " FWD " F/CORR " F/DIRECTION
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
@ Tr A
Tr B 70.14.20 +10 70.14.30
T1 140.12.40 49
Tr C 310.18.35 +08 310.18.43
+09

@ T1
Tr A 320.12.50
T2 165.17.53

@ T2
T1 345.17.37
Tr D 150.00.04

@ TrD
Tr E 6.27.44 +12 6.27.56
Tr F 142.18.28 +18 142.18.46
T2 330.00.20 35
+15

118
 Step 3:

Treat the observations at the traverse stations in sequence. Enter the oriented incoming
ray from the previous station in [3]. Find the orientation correction [3-2] and enter in
[4]. Apply this correction to the outgoing rays and enter in [5]. This oriented outgoing
ray will now become the incoming ray at the next station. Repeat this procedure until
the penultimate station.

STATION DIRECTION BACK " CORR " FWD " F/CORR " F/DIRECTION
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
@ Tr A
Tr B 70.14.20 +10 70.14.30
T1 140.12.40 49
Tr C 310.18.35 +08 310.18.43
+09

@ T1
Tr A 320.12.50 49 -01
T2 165.17.53 52

@ T2
T1 345.17.37 52 +15
Tr D 150.00.04 19

@ TrD
Tr E 6.27.44 +12 6.27.56
Tr F 142.18.28 +18 142.18.46
T2 330.00.20 19 35
+15

119
 Step 4:

We now have an oriented outgoing ray from the penultimate station to the known point
on which the traverse closes. We also have an oriented outgoing ray from the closing
point to the penultimate station.

These corrections are entered in [6], applied to [5] and entered in [7]

STATION DIRECTION BACK" CORR" FWD" F/CORR" F/DIRECTION

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
@ Tr A
Tr B 70.14.20 +10 70.14.30
T1 140.12.40 49 +04 140.12.53
Tr C 310.18.35 +08 310.18.43
+09

@ T1
Tr A 320.12.50 49 -01
T2 165.17.53 52 +08 165.18.00

@ T2
T1 345.17.37 52 +15
Tr D 150.00.04 19 +12 150.00.31

@ TrD
Tr E 6.27.44 +12 6.27.56
Tr F 142.18.28 +18 142.18.46
T2 330.00.20 19 35 -04 330.00.31
+15

CLOSURE +16"

Closure=Outgoing Ray – Incoming Ray Eq. ( 6-7 )

¿ 330.00 .35 – 330.00 .19 ¿+16 ”

Check if your directional closure is within the limits provided by applying Eq. ( 2-2 )
2000
Class A= ( 2+3 )=53.308
187.59

Closure
Correction= Eq. ( 6-8 )
¿ . of Se t −¿Ups ¿

120
 + 16
¿ =+04 ” per set up
4
At the closing station the sign of the correction at the first set-up must be reversed and
entered in [7]. These oriented adjusted directions from [7] can now be used in the traverse
calculation.
To check your arithmetic, the Final outgoing ray must be exactly the same as the incoming
ray from the penultimate station.
6.4.7 Co-Ordinate Calculations
Regulation 5
FROM THE REGULATIONS PROMULGATED IN TERMS OF SECTION 10 OF THE LAND SURVEY
ACT, 1997 (ACT No. 8 OF 1997)
When the position of a point is determined by Polars, traverse, triangulation, trilateration,
GPS or a combination of these methods, the displacement between any observed rays,
measured distance or GPS vector and the equivalent quantity derived from the final co-
ordinates of the point fixed shall not exceed (Refer to paragraph 2.2.1)
Step 1
Copy the Station Names to Stations column, the directions (from the Traverse
Direction Sheet) and distances (from Traverse Distance Reduction sheet) to Dir/Dist
column and the relevant co-ordinates of start and end points to the last two
columns.
Determine the ∆’s by doing Polars and enter them in their columns respectively
aligned with the directions
Sum-up distances and ∆’s, and determine ∆’s from the known station’s co-ordinates
(last station co-ords - first station co-ords) enter them in their respective columns
just underneath the last station row.
Determine the differences between the calculated ∆’s and the true ∆’s and place
them underneath the calculated sum of ∆’s respectively.
Y Error =∑ ∆Y Calculated−∆ Y
Eq. ( 6-9 )
X Error =∑ ∆ X Calculated −∆ X

Determine the linear closure of the traverse by computing Joins distance (use the
differences between the calculated ∆’s and the true ∆’s).

√ 2
Linear Closure= ( Y Error ) + ( X Error )
2
Eq. ( 6-10 )

Note: Provided that the linear closure is within the allowable limit (Regulation mention
above), the error can be then distributed otherwise check for errors and/or repeat fieldwork.
Determine the Accuracy of the Traverse by the equation below.

Total Distance of the Traverse

Accuracy= Eq. ( 6-11 )
Linear Closure

121
 ∆Y ∆X
Stn. Dir/Dist Joins Y X
ey ex
Tr A -7 345.270 +3 927.580
140.12.53 +130.740 -157.002
204.310
T1
165.17.00 +44.348 -168.843
174.57
T2
150.00.31 +91.921 -159.267
183.89
Tr D -7 078.200 +3 442.600
562.770 +267.009 -485.112 +267.070 -484.980
+0.061 +0.132

Linear Closure : 0.145

Accuracy : 3875.2
Traverse Class : C

6.4.8 Blunder Detection

Since traverse measurements involve angular and distance measurements, it is possible for
blunders to exist in the measurements that are not detected until the final co-ordinate
computations are made.
Angular blunders manifest themselves in the angular closure and distance blunders in the co-
ordinate closure, provided that the traverse is properly closed. In both cases it is possible to
localise the blunder.
To find an angular blunder, the traverse is computed without distributing the angular errors first in
the forward direction, and then in the reverse direction. The point of intersection (where the co-
ordinates are virtually the same) between the forward and reverse computations represents the
location where the angular blunder was made, provided that only one blunder was made.

A distance blunder causes a shift in the traverse section in the direction of the incorrect length.
This is detected by checking the size and direction of the linear misclosure. If the linear misclosure
is near a round figure (e.g. 1m or 5m) then a blunder probably exists within the measurements.

122

error
The direction of the misclosure is then computed by Eq. ( 6-12 ).

Direction=arctan
( )
y Error
x Error
Eq. ( 6-12 )

If the direction is similar to any of the traverse legs, then it is likely that the distance blunder
occurred when measuring this leg, and it can be corrected by re-measuring the line.

123
 6.4.9 Distribution of Closing Error
6.4.9.1 Bowditch rule:
Bowditch rule assumes that the error accumulates progressively throughout the length
of the traverse and the corrections are applied to the respective ∆Y and ∆X.
y −Y error∗Leg Length
e = Eq. ( 6-13 )
Total Length
x −X error∗LegLength
e= Eq. ( 6-14 )
Total Length
! Compute the next station co-ordinates by adding-up sum of calculated ∆ ‘s
and the corrections between the stations to the co-ordinates of the previous
station. The ticks  at Tr D above indicates that the calculation is
arithmetically correct and does not necessarily mean that your Traverse is
correct

∆Y ∆X
Stn. Dir/Dist Joins y x Y X
e e
Tr A -7 345.270 +3 927.580
140.12.53 140.12.05 +130.740 -157.002
204.310 204.287 +0.022 +0.048
T1 -7 214.507 +3 770.626
165.17.00 165.16.26 +44.348 -168.843
174.57 174.535 +0.019 +0.041
T2 -7 170.141 +3 601.824
150.00.31 149.59.48 +91.921 -159.267
183.89 183.863 +0.020 +0.043
Tr D -7 078.200 +3 442.600
562.770 +267.009 -485.112 +267.070 -484.980
+0.061 +0.132

Linear Accuracy : 0.145

Accuracy : 3875.2
Traverse Class : C

The ticks  at Tr D above indicates that the calculation is arithmetically correct

124
 6.4.9.2 Transit rule:
The Transit Rule assumes that the directions are measured with higher precision than
the distances therefore after adjustments; the directions are disrupted less than the
distances. The disadvantage of this method is that it treats random errors systematically; not
compatible with contemporary measurement methods and the advantage is that it is simple
and repeatable.
y −Y error∗∆ Y
e = Eq. ( 6-15 )
∑ ∆Y
x −X error∗∆ X
e= Eq. ( 6-16 )
∑∆X
! Compute the next station co-ordinates by adding-up sum of calculated ∆ ‘s
and the corrections between the stations to the co-ordinates of the previous
station
∆Y ∆X
Stn. Dir/Dist Joins y x Y X
e e
Tr A -7 345.270 +3 927.580
140.12.53 140.12.02 +130.740 -157.002
204.310 204.296 +0.030 +0.043
T1 -7 214.500 +3 770.621
165.17.00 165.16.35 +44.348 -168.843
174.57 174.528 +0.010 +0.046
T2 -7 170.142 +3 601.824
150.00.31 149.59.46 +91.921 -159.267
183.89 183.863 +0.021 +0.043
Tr D -7 078.200 +3 442.600
562.770 +267.009 -485.112 +267.070 -484.980
-0.061 -0.132

Linear Accuracy : 0.145

Accuracy : 3875.2
Traverse Class : C

The ticks  at Tr D above indicates that the calculation is arithmetically correct

125
 6.4.9.3 Scale and Swing rule:
! Compute True Joins from start to end of the Traverse by using the co-
ordinates of the start and end points.
! Compute calculated Joins from start to end of the Traverse by using the co-
ordinates of the start and end points.
! Compute Swing of the directions and distances computed above
start → end : DirectionT , DistanceT
¿
DistanceT
Swing=DirectionT −DirectionC Scale Factor=
Distance C
** Apply the scale factor and swing to the reduced observations.

∆Y ∆X
Stn. Dir/Dist Joins Y X
ey ex
Tr A -7 345.270 +3 927.580
140.12.53 140.12.09 +130.740 -157.002
204.310 204.278
T1 -7 214.517 +3 770.630
165.17.00 165.16.16 +44.348 -168.843
174.57 174.543
T2 -7 170.169 +3 601.787
150.00.31 149.59.47 +91.921 -159.267
183.89 183.861
Tr D -7 078.200 +3 442.600
562.770 +267.009 -485.112 +267.070 -484.980
+0.061 +0.132

Linear Accuracy : 0.145

Accuracy : 3 875.2
Traverse Class : C

The ticks  at Tr D above indicates that the calculation is arithmetically correct

126
 6.4.10 Computation of Heights

Station Horizontal Reduced Mean Final

HI HS ∆Z Corr.
Name Distance V/Angle ∆Z Heights
Tr A 1 358.578
-0.35.19 1.553 1.600 -2.150
204.728 -2.169 -0.009
+0.38.45 1.579 1.700 +2.187
T1 1 356.401
-1.05.22 1.579 2.000 -3.740
174.543 -3.723 -0.007
+1.15.51 1.654 1.800 +3.706
T2 1 352.671
-3.51.59 1.654 2.000 -12.772
183.861 -12.783 -0.008
+4.07.03 1.558 2.000 +12.794
Tr D 1 339.880
563.132 +0.024 -18.674 -0.024 -18.698

True Correction = -0.024

Allowable Error (Class B) = 0.072

Example for traverse computations

Co-Ordinates List
LO 290

Point Y X Z Description
KAN + 64 919.662 + 2 835 788.922 1 225.587
LEER + 64 848.882 + 2 835 804.972 1 221.115
TRIG 5 + 64 793.917 + 2 835 813.447 1 223.990
TRIG 7 + 64 834.032 + 2 835 717.302 1 222.210
PEG 1 + 64 841.523 + 2 835 685.975 1 219.952
PEG 2 + 64 767.213 + 2 835 720.842 1 218.165
PEG 3 + 64 744.953 + 2 835 684.888 1 215.277
PEG 4 + 64 754.728 + 2 835 669.209 1 217.788
PEG 5 + 64 675.595 + 2 835 704.775 1 215.211
PEG 6 + 64 676.992 + 2 835 778.784 1 217.451
PEG 7 + 64 698.201 + 2 835 795.556 1 221.075
A + 64 800.002 + 2 835 660.001 1 219.825
B + 64 720.000 + 2 835 720.003 1 219.654
C + 64 770.004 + 2 835 780.003

127
 Joins for start and End Set-up Stations

LEER + 64 848.882 + 2 835 804.972

278.45.55
+ 64 793.917 + 2 835 813.447
TRIG 5 
55.615

LEER + 64 848.882 + 2 835 804.972

102.46.35
+ 64 919.662 + 2 835 788.922
KAN 
72.577

TRIG 5 + 64 793.917 + 2 835 813.447

98.455.53
+ 64 848.882 + 2 835 804.972
LEER 
55.615

TRIG 5 + 64 793.917 + 2 835 813.447

157.21.09
+ 64 834.032 + 2 835 717.302
TRIG 7 
104.178

128
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 129
Weather, beacon description, etc.
OL OR Mean Corr. Reduced HI/TH Slope Distance Description

@LEER 1.553 29 0C / 878 hPa

TRIG 5 278.45.56 98.45.55 278.45.56 +0.00.00 278.45.56
KAN 102.46.30 282.46.33 102.46.32 +0.00.01 102.46.32
PEG 1 183.33.55 3.33.51 183.33.53 +0.00.02 183.33.55
RO 278.45.54 98.45.52 278.45.53 +0.00.02
0.00.02

PEG 1 90.35.38 269.25.00 90.35.19 -0.35.19 1.500 119.256 119.261 119.259

@PEG1 1.579 24 0C / 878 hPa

LEER 3.33.51 183.33.53 3.33.52 +0.00.00 3.33.52
KAN 37.12.18 217.12.18 37.12.18 -0.00.01 37.12.18
A 237.58.20 57.58.20 237.58.20 -0.00.01 237.58.19
PEG 2 295.09.45 115.09.45 295.09.45 -0.00.02 295.09.44
TRIG 5 339.32.56 159.32.56 339.32.56 -0.00.02 339.32.54
RO 3.33.52 183.33.57 3.33.55 -0.00.03
-0.00.03

LEER 89.21.08 270.38.49 89.21.10 +0.38.51 1.800 119.297 119.297 119.297

PEG 2 91.05.46 268.54.24 91.05.41 -1.05.41 1.800 82.112 82.109 82.111
A 90.13.27 269.46.36 90.13.26 -0.13.26 1.500 48.977 48.978 48.978
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 130
Weather, beacon description, etc.
OL OR Mean Corr. Reduced HI/TH Slope Distance Description
@PEG2 1.654 25 0C / 878 hPa
PEG 1 115.09.45 295.09.50 115.09.48 +0.00.00 115.09.48
PEG 3 211.47.20 31.47.20 211.47.20 -0.00.01 211.47.19
TRIG 5 16.07.30 196.07.30 16.07.30 -0.00.01 16.07.29
KAN 65.56.49 245.56.49 65.56.49 -0.00.02 65.56.47
RO 115.09.45 295.09.55 115.09.50 -0.00.02
-0.00.02

PEG 1 88.44.22 271.16.04 88.44.09 +1.15.51 1.700 82.129 82.129 82.129

PEG 3 93.48.39 266.11.29 93.48.35 -3.48.35 1.700 42.284 42.287 42.286
C 91.16.30 268.43.46 91.16.22 -1.16.22 1.500 59.223 59.223 59.223

@PEG 3 1.558 30 0C / 878 hPa

PEG 2 31.47.20 211.47.20 31.47.20 +0.00.00 31.47.20
TRIG 7 70.01.28 250.01.28 70.01.28 +0.00.00 70.01.28
PEG 4 148.05.15 328.05.05 148.05.10 +0.00.00 148.05.10
B 324.36.08 144.36.07 324.36.08 +0.00.00 324.36.08
TRIG 5 20.53.10 200.53.10 20.53.10 +0.00.00 20.53.10
RO 31.47.20 211.47.20 31.47.20 +0.00.00
0.00.00

PEG2 85.53.12 274.07.17 85.52.58 +4.07.03 1.500 42.318 42.322 42.320

PEG 4 82.28.28 277.31.21 82.28.34 +7.31.27 1.500 18.325 18.324 18.325
B 84.10.50 275.49.19 84.10.46 +5.49.15
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 131
Weather, beacon description, etc.
OL OR Mean Corr. Reduced HI/TH Slope Distance Description

@PEG4 1.432 31 0C / 878 hPa

PEG3 328.05.16 148.05.26 328.05.21 +0.00.00 328.05.21
TRIG 5 15.14.02 195.14.03 15.14.03 -0.00.00 15.14.02
TRIG 7 58.47.28 238.47.28 58.47.28 -0.00.01 58.47.27
A 101.29.48 281.29.49 101.29.49 -0.00.01 101.29.47
PEG5 294.13.55 114.13.55 294.13.55 -0.00.02 294.13.53
RO 328.05.19 148.05.27 328.05.23 -0.00.02
-0.00.02

PEG3 97.34.38 262.25.31 97.34.34 -7.34.33 1.500 18.638 18.637 18.638

PEG 5 91.38.37 268.21.15 91.38.41 -1.38.41 1.500 86.789 86.792 86.791
A 87.33.23 272.26.35 87.33.24 +2.26.36 1.500 46.200 46.203 46.202

@PEG5 1.717 32 0C / 878 hPa

PEG4 114.13.58 294.13.54 114.13.56 +0.00.00 114.13.56
PEG6 1.06.42 181.06.43 1.06.43 +0.00.00 1.06.43
TRIG 5 47.28.24 227.28.23 47.28.24 +0.00.00 47.28.24
KAN 70.59.43 250.59.43 70.59.43 +0.00.00 70.59.43
B 71.04.32 251.04.32 71.04.32 +0.00.00 71.04.32
RO 114.13.56 294.13.55 114.13.56 +0.00.00
0.00.00

PEG4 88.14.49 271.45.17 88.14.46 +1.45.14 1.800 86.796 86.798 86.797

PEG 6 88.12.51 271.47.21 88.12.45 +1.47.15 1.800 74.070 74.072 74.071
B 84.13.45 275.46.18 84.13.44 +5.46.17
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 132
Weather, beacon description, etc.
OL OR Mean Corr. Reduced HI/TH Slope Distance Description

@PEG6 1.459 31 0C / 876 hPa

PEG5 181.06.32 1.06.39 181.06.36 +0.00.00 181.06.36
PEG7 51.41.43 231.41.43 51.41.43 -0.00.02 51.41.41
TRIG 5 73.32.06 253.32.06 73.32.06 -0.00.04 73.32.02
KAN 87.37.42 267.37.42 87.37.42 -0.00.06 87.37.36
RO 181.06.48 1.06.38 181.06.43 -0.00.07
-0.00.07

PEG5 91.38.39 268.21.08 91.38.46 -1.38.46 1.600 74.042 74.036 74.039

PEG 7 82.18.17 277.41.59 82.18.09 +7.41.51 1.500 27.068 27.070 27.069

@PEG7 1.550 29 0C / 878 hPa

PEG6 231.41.43 51.41.43 231.41.43 +0.00.00 231.41.43
TRIG5 79.28.17 259.28.12 79.28.15 +0.00.00 79.28.15
LEER 86.27.25 266.27.25 86.27.25 +0.00.00 86.27.25
KAN 91.44.13 271.44.13 91.44.13 +0.00.00 91.44.13
RO 231.41.43 51.41.43 231.41.43 +0.00.00
0.00.00

PEG6 97.45.37 262.14.12 97.45.43 -7.45.43 1.500 27.027 27.027 27.027

TRIG 5 88.18.16 271.42.12 88.18.02 +1.41.58 1.500 97.420 97.422 97.421
C 93.01.57 266.58.12 93.01.52 -3.01.52 1.500 73.464 73.464 73.464
Survey: Observer: Date: Page: 133
Weather, beacon description, etc.
OL OR Mean Corr. Reduced HI/TH Slope Distance Description

@TRIG5 1.720 29 0C / 878 hPa

PEG7 259.28.12 79.28.17 259.28.15 +0.00.00 259.28.15
LEER 98.45.40 278.45.40 98.45.40 -0.00.02 98.45.38
TRIG7 157.21.49 337.21.49 157.21.49 -0.00.03 157.21.46
RO 259.28.16 79.28.23 259.28.20 -0.00.05
-0.00.05

PEG7 91.32.59 268.27.11 91.32.54 -1.32.54 2.000 97.377 97.377 97.377

From / To Vertical Slope Corr. for Instr. & Corr. for temp Reduced to Reduced Final
Temp Pressure
Point Angle Distance Zero Error & press H/Distance MSL Distance
LEER 90.35.19 119.259 119.263 29 878 119.268 119.262 119.261
119.280
PEG1 89.21.10 119.297 119.301 24 878 119.306 119.299 119.299

PEG1 91.05.41 82.111 82.115 24 878 82.118 82.103 82.113

82.122
PEG2 88.44.09 82.129 82.133 25 878 82.137 82.117 82.132

PEG2 93.48.35 42.286 42.290 25 878 42.291 42.198 42.289

42.306
PEG3 85.52.58 42.320 42.324 30 878 42.326 42.217 42.324

PEG3 82.28.34 18.325 18.329 30 878 18.329 18.172 18.328

18.485
PEG4 97.34.34 18.638 18.642 31 878 18.642 18.480 18.641

PEG4 91.38.41 86.791 86.795 31 878 86.799 86.763 86.794

86.797
PEG5 88.14.46 86.797 86.801 32 878 86.805 86.765 86.800

PEG5 88.12.45 74.071 74.075 32 878 74.079 74.043 74.074

74.058
PEG6 91.38.46 74.039 74.043 31 876 74.047 74.016 74.042

PEG6 82.18.09 27.069 27.073 31 876 27.074 26.830 27.073

27.052
PEG7 97.45.43 27.027 27.031 29 878 27.032 26.785 27.031

PEG7 88.18.02 97.421 97.425 29 878 97.430 97.387 97.424

97.402
TRIG5 91.32.54 97.377 97.381 29 878 97.386 97.350 97.380

PEG 1/A 90.13.26 48.978 48.982 24 878 48.984 48.983 48.981

PEG 4/A 87.33.24 46.202 46.206 31 878 46.208 46.166 46.205

PEG 2/C 91.16.22 59.223 59.227 31 878 59.230 59.215 59.226

PEG 7/C 93.01.52 73.464 73.468 31 878 73.472 73.369 73.467

135
 DIRECTION SHEET WITHOUT OUTSIDE ORIENTATION
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
@LEER
TRIG5 278.45.56 +0.00.00 278.45.55
KAN 102.46.32 +0.00.02 102.46.35
PEG1 183.33.55 183.33.56 -0.00.00 183.33.56
+0.00.01

@PEG1
LEER 3.33.52 3.33.56 +0.00.04
KAN 37.12.18 37.12.21 -0.00.00 37.12.21
A 237.58.19 237.58.23 -0.00.00 237.58.23
PEG2 295.09.44 295.09.47 -0.00.00 295.09.47
TRIG 5 339.32.54 339.32.58 -0.00.00 339.32.58
+0.00.04

@PEG2
PEG1 115.09.48 115.09.47 -0.00.00
PEG3 211.47.19 211.47.19 -0.00.00 211.47.19
TRIG 5 16.07.29 16.07.28 -0.00.00 16.07.28
KAN 65.56.47 65.56.47 -0.00.00 65.56.47
-0.00.00

@PEG3
PEG2 31.47.20 31.47.19 -0.00.01
TRIG 7 70.01.28 70.01.27 -0.00.00 70.01.27
PEG4 148.05.10 148.05.09 -0.00.00 148.05.09
B 324.36.08 324.36.07 -0.00.00 324.36.06
TRIG 5 20.53.10 20.53.09 -0.00.00 20.53.09
-0.00.01

@PEG4
PEG3 328.05.21 328.05.09 -0.00.12
TRIG 5 15.14.02 15.13.50 -0.00.00 15.13.50
TRIG 7 58.47.27 58.47.15 -0.00.00 58.47.15
A 101.29.47 101.29.35 -0.00.00 101.29.35
PEG5 294.13.53 294.13.41 -0.00.00 294.13.41
-0.00.12

@PEG5
PEG4 114.13.56 114.13.41 -0.00.15
PEG6 1.06.43 1.06.28 -0.00.00 1.06.28
TRIG 5 47.28.24 47.28.09 -0.00.00 47.28.09
KAN 70.59.43 70.59.29 -0.00.00 70.59.28
B 71.04.32 71.04.18 -0.00.00 71.04.17
-0.00.15

136
 @PEG6
PEG5 181.06.36 181.06.28 -0.00.07
PEG7 51.41.41 51.41.34 -0.00.01 51.41.33
TRIG 5 73.32.02 73.31.55 -0.00.01 73.31.54
KAN 87.37.36 87.37.29 -0.00.01 87.37.28
-0.00.07

@PEG7
PEG6 231.41.43 231.41.34 -0.00.09
TRIG5 79.28.15 79.28.05 -0.00.01 79.28.05
LEER 86.27.25 86.27.16 -0.00.01 86.27.15
KAN 91.44.13 91.44.04 -0.00.01 91.44.03
-0.00.09

@TRIG5
PEG7 259.28.15 259.28.05 259.28.04 0.00.00 259.28.05
LEER 98.45.38 0.00.17 98.45.55
TRIG7 157.21.46 -0.00.37 157.21.09
-0.00.10
Closing Error = -0.00.01
Allowable Class A Error = +/-0.00.36

137
 DIRECTION SHEET WITH OUTSIDE ORIENTATION
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
@LEER
TRIG5 278.45.56 +0.00.00 278.45.55
KAN 102.46.32 +0.00.02 102.46.35
PEG1 183.33.55 183.33.56 183.33.58
+0.00.01

@PEG1
LEER 3.33.52 3.34.01
KAN 37.12.18 37.12.22 +0.00.04
A 237.58.19
PEG2 295.09.44 295.09.53 295.09.55
TRIG 5 339.32.54 339.33.08 +0.00.14
+0.00.09

@PEG2
PEG1 115.09.48 115.09.57
PEG3 211.47.19 211.47.29 211.47.28
TRIG 5 16.07.29 16.07.48 +0.00.19
KAN 65.56.47 65.56.48 +0.00.01
+0.00.10

@PEG3
PEG2 31.47.20 31.47.26
TRIG 7 70.01.28 70.01.25 -0.00.03
PEG4 148.05.10 148.05.16 148.05.24
B 324.36.08
TRIG 5 20.53.10 20.53.26 +0.00.16
+0.00.06

@PEG4
PEG3 328.05.21 328.05.32
TRIG 5 15.14.02 15.14.20 +0.00.18
TRIG 7 58.47.27 58.47.31 +0.00.04
A 101.29.47
PEG5 294.13.53 294.14.05 294.14.04
+0.00.11

@PEG5
PEG4 114.13.56 114.14.03
PEG6 1.06.43 1.06.50 1.06.44
TRIG 5 47.28.24 47.28.36 +0.00.12
KAN 70.59.43 70.59.46 +0.00.02
+0.00.07

138
 @PEG6
PEG5 181.06.36 181.06.37
PEG7 51.41.41 51.41.43 51.41.39
TRIG 5 73.32.02 73.32.04 +0.00.01
KAN 87.37.36 87.37.39 +0.00.02
+0.00.02

@PEG7
PEG6 231.41.43 231.41.35
TRIG5 79.28.15 79.28.07 79.28.06
LEER 86.27.25 86.27.17 -0.00.08
KAN 91.44.13 91.44.06 -0.00.07
-0.00.08

@TRIG5
PEG7 259.28.15 259.28.04
LEER 98.45.38 +0.00.17 98.45.55
TRIG7 157.21.46 -0.00.37 157.21.09
-0.00.10

Provincial Co-ordinates

LEER PEG 1 183.33.56

119.280 + 64 841.464 + 2 835 685.923

PEG 1 PEG 2 295.09.53

82.122 + 64 767.136 + 2 835 720.843

PEG 2 PEG 3 211.47.28

42.307 + 64 744.847 + 2 835 684.883

PEG 3 PEG 4 148.05.16

18.484 + 64 754.618 + 2 835 669.192

PEG 4 PEG 5 294.14.05

86.798 + 64 675.470 + 2 835 704.821

PEG 5 PEG 6 1.06.49

74.057 + 64 676.909 + 2 835 778.864

PEG 6 PEG 7 51.41.43

27.052 + 64 698.138 + 2 835 795.632

139
 BOWDITCH RULE: Directions from the Direction Sheet without outside orientation

Station Directions & ∆Y ∆X

Joins Y Co-Ordinate X Co-Ordinate
Name Distances ey ex
LEER +64848.882 +2835804.972
183.33.56 183.33.45 -7.418 -119.049
119.280 119.275 +0.006 +0.005
PEG 1 +64841.471 +2835685.928
295.09.47 295.09.59 -74.329 +34.918
82.122 82.120 +0.004 +0.003
PEG 2 +64767.146 +2835720.849
211.47.19 211.47.14 -22.287 -35.961
42.307 42.305 +0.002 +0.002
PEG 3 +64744.861 +2835684.890
148.05.09 148.04.55 +9.772 -15.690
18.484 18.484 +0.001 +0.001
PEG 4 +64754.634 +2835669.200
294.13.41 294.13.53 -79.153 +35.619
86.798 86.795 +0.005 +0.003
PEG 5 +64675.486 +2835704.823
1.06.28 1.06.39 +1.432 +74.043
74.057 74.060 +0.004 +0.003
PEG 6 +64676.922 +2835778.869
51.41.33 51.41.34 +21.228 +16.769
27.052 27.054 +0.001 +0.001
PEG 7 +64698.151 +2835795.639
79.28.05 79.27.59 +95.761 +17.804
97.402 97.408 +0.005 +0.004
TRIG 5 64793.917 2835813.447
547.504 -54.995 +8.453 -54.965 +8.475
+0.030 +0.022

Linear Accuracy = 0.037

Accuracy = 1 : 14850
Traverse Class = A

140
 BOWDITCH RULE: Directions from the Direction Sheet with outside orientation

Station Directions & ∆Y ∆X

Joins Y Co-Ordinate X Co-Ordinate
Name Distances ey ex
LEER +64848.882 +2835804.972
183.33.58 183.33.48 -7.419 -119.049
119.280 119.275 +0.006 +0.005
PEG 1 +64841.469 +2835685.928
295.09.55 295.10.07 -74.328 +34.921
82.122 82.120 +0.004 +0.003
PEG 2 +64767.146 +2835720.852
211.47.28 211.47.23 -22.288 -35.960
42.307 42.305 +0.002 +0.002
PEG 3 +64744.860 +2835684.894
148.05.24 148.05.10 +9.771 -15.691
18.484 18.484 +0.001 +0.001
PEG 4 +64754.631 +2835669.203
294.14.04 294.14.16 -79.149 +35.628
86.798 86.795 +0.005 +0.003
PEG 5 +64675.487 +2835704.835
1.06.44 1.06.55 +1.437 +74.043
74.057 74.060 +0.004 +0.003
PEG 6 +64676.928 +2835778.881
51.41.39 51.41.40 +21.228 +16.769
27.052 27.054 +0.001 +0.001
PEG 7 +64698.158 +2835795.651
79.28.06 79.28.19 +95.761 +17.803
97.402 97.399 +0.005 +0.004
TRIG 5 64793.917 2835813.447
547.504 -54.995 +8.453 -54.965 +8.475
+0.030 +0.022

Linear Accuracy = 0.037

Accuracy = 1 : 14850
Traverse Class = A

141
 TRANSIT RULE: Directions from the Direction Sheet without outside orientation

Station Directions & ∆Y ∆X

Joins Y Co-Ordinate X Co-Ordinate
Name Distances ey ex
LEER +64848.882 +2835804.972
183.33.56 183.33.16 -7.418 -119.049
119.280 119.585 +0.004 -0.306
PEG 1 +64841.468 +2835685.617
295.09.47 295.13.54 -74.329 +34.918
82.122 82.124 +0.040 +0.090
PEG 2 +64767.179 +2835720.625
211.47.19 211.42.32 -22.287 -35.961
42.307 42.379 +0.012 -0.092
PEG 3 +64744.904 +2835684.571
148.05.09 148.09.56 +9.772 -15.690
18.484 18.516 -0.005 -0.040
PEG 4 +64754.671 +2835668.841
294.13.41 294.17.41 -79.153 +35.619
86.798 86.797 +0.043 +0.092
PEG 5 +64675.561 +2835704.552
1.06.28 1.06.15 +1.432 +74.043
74.057 74.248 -0.001 +0.190
PEG 6 +64676.992 +2835778.785
51.41.33 51.36.21 +21.228 +16.769
27.052 27.070 -0.011 +0.043
PEG 7 +64698.208 +2835795.598
79.28.05 79.26.09 +95.761 +17.804
97.402 97.359 -0.052 +0.046
TRIG 5 64793.917 2835813.447
547.504 -54.995 +8.453 -54.965 +8.475
+0.030 +0.022

Linear Accuracy = 0.037

Accuracy = 1 : 14850
Traverse Class = A

142
 TRANSIT RULE: Directions from the Direction Sheet with outside orientation

Station Directions & ∆Y ∆X

Joins Y Co-Ordinate X Co-Ordinate
Name Distances ey ex
LEER +64848.882 +2835804.972
183.33.58 183.33.19 -7.419 -119.049
119.280 119.585 +0.004 -0.306
PEG 1 +64841.467 +2835685.617
295.09.55 295.14.02 -74.328 +34.921
82.122 82.124 +0.040 +0.090
PEG 2 +64767.179 +2835720.628
211.47.28 211.42.41 -22.288 -35.960
42.307 42.379 +0.012 -0.092
PEG 3 +64744.903 +2835684.575
148.05.24 148.10.12 +9.771 -15.691
18.484 18.516 -0.005 -0.040
PEG 4 +64754.668 +2835668.844
294.14.04 294.18.04 -79.149 +35.628
86.798 86.797 +0.043 +0.092
PEG 5 +64675.562 +2835704.564
1.06.44 1.06.31 +1.437 +74.043
74.057 74.248 -0.001 +0.190
PEG 6 +64676.998 +2835778.797
51.41.39 51.36.27 +21.228 +16.769
27.052 27.070 -0.011 +0.043
PEG 7 +64698.215 +2835795.609
79.28.06 79.26.30 +95.761 +17.803
97.402 97.350 -0.052 +0.046
TRIG 5 64793.917 2835813.447
547.504 -54.995 +8.453 -54.965 +8.475
+0.030 +0.022

Linear Accuracy = 0.037

Accuracy = 1 : 14850
Traverse Class = A

143
 SCALE AND SWING RULE: Directions from the Direction Sheet without outside orientation

Station Directions & ∆Y ∆X

Joins Y Co-Ordinate X Co-Ordinate
Name Distances ey ex
LEER +64848.882 +2835804.972
183.33.56 183.32.19 -7.418 -119.049
119.280 119.224
PEG 1 +64841.523 +2835685.975
295.09.47 295.08.11 -74.329 +34.918
82.122 82.084
PEG 2 +64767.213 +2835720.842
211.47.19 211.45.42 -22.287 -35.961
42.307 42.287
PEG 3 +64744.953 +2835684.888
148.05.09 148.03.32 +9.772 -15.690
18.484 18.476
PEG 4 +64754.728 +2835669.209
294.13.41 294.12.05 -79.153 +35.619
86.798 86.757
PEG 5 +64675.595 +2835704.775
1.06.28 1.04.51 +1.432 +74.043
74.057 74.023
PEG 6 +64676.992 +2835778.784
51.41.33 51.39.57 +21.228 +16.769
27.052 27.040
PEG 7 +64698.201 +2835795.556
79.28.05 79.26.28 +95.761 +17.804
97.402 97.356
TRIG 5 64793.917 2835813.447
547.504 -54.995 +8.453 -54.965 +8.475
+0.030 +0.022

Linear Accuracy = 0.037

Accuracy = 1 : 14850
Traverse Class = A

Calculated Swing &

True Joins
Joins Scale factor
Direction
98.45.55 98.44.19 0.01.36
s
Distances 55.615 55.641 0.99953050

144
 1

SCALE AND SWING RULE: Directions from the Direction Sheet with outside orientation

Station Directions & ∆Y ∆X

Joins Y Co-Ordinate X Co-Ordinate
Name Distances ey ex
LEER +64848.882 +2835804.972
183.33.58 183.33.05 -7.419 -119.049
119.280 119.236
PEG 1 +64841.496 +2835685.965
295.09.55 295.09.02 -74.328 +34.921
82.122 82.092
PEG 2 +64767.187 +2835720.854
211.47.28 211.46.35 -22.288 -35.960
42.307 42.292
PEG 3 +64744.916 +2835684.902
148.05.24 148.04.31 +9.771 -15.691
18.484 18.477
PEG 4 +64754.687 +2835669.219
294.14.04 294.13.11 -79.149 +35.628
86.798 86.766
PEG 5 +64675.558 +2835704.813
1.06.44 1.05.50 +1.437 +74.043
74.057 74.030
PEG 6 +64676.976 +2835778.830
51.41.39 51.40.46 +21.228 +16.769
27.052 27.042
PEG 7 +64698.192 +2835795.597
79.28.06 79.27.13 +95.761 +17.803
97.402 97.366
TRIG 5 64793.917 2835813.447
547.504 -54.995 +8.453 -54.965 +8.475
+0.030 +0.022

Linear Accuracy = 0.037

Accuracy = 1 : 14850
Traverse Class = A

Calculated Swing & Scale

True Joins
Joins factor
145
Directions 98.45.55 98.45.02 0.00.53
Distances 55.615 55.635 0.999629366

146
 DOUBLE POLARS
PEG 1 - A 237.5823 48.981 + 64 799.998 + 2 835 660.000
PEG 4 - A 101.2935 46.205 + 64 800.006 + 2 835 660.003
Mean = + 64 800.002 + 2 835 660.001
+/-0.004 +/-0.002

In Triangle Peg3, B & Peg 5

285.59.58
Join Peg 3 - Peg 5 
72.153
dir Peg 3 - B 324.36.06
dir Peg 5 - B 71.04.17

angle @ Peg 3 38.36.08 dist Peg 3 - B 43.078

angle @ Peg 5 34.55.41 dist Peg 5 - B 46.943
angle @ B 106.28.11
179.59.60

PEG 3 - B 324.36.06 43.078 + 64 720.000 + 2 835 720.003

PEG 5 - B 71.04.17 46.943 + 64 720.000 + 2 835 720.003
Mean = + 64 720.000 + 2 835 720.003
+/- 0.000 +/- 0.000

In Triangle Peg 2, Peg 7 & C

317.16.19
Join Peg 2 -Peg 7 
101.706
dist Peg 2 - C 59.22.64 angle @ Peg 2 45.25.45
dist Peg 7 - C 73.46.72 angle @ Peg 7 35.03.01

dir Peg 2 - C 2.42.04

dir Peg 7 - C 102.13.18

PEG 2 - C 2.42.04 59.226 + 64 770.004 + 2 835 780.003

PEG 7 - C 102.13.18 73.467 + 64 770.004 + 2 835 780.003
Mean = + 64 770.004 + 2 835 780.003
+/- 0.000 +/- 0.000

147
 Height Difference Table
Point Distance V/Angle HI TH H_diff
LEER
119.275 -0.35.19 1.553 1.500 -1.172
+0.38.51 1.579 1.800 +1.127
PEG 1
82.120 -1.05.41 1.579 1.800 -1.790
+1.15.51 1.654 1.700 +1.766
PEG 2
42.305 -3.48.35 1.654 1.700 -2.863
+4.07.03 1.558 1.700 +2.903
PEG 3
18.484 +7.31.27 1.558 1.500 +2.499
-7.34.33 1.432 1.500 -2.526
PEG 4
86.795 -1.38.41 1.432 1.500 -2.560
+1.45.14 1.717 1.800 +2.575
PEG 5
74.060 +1.47.15 1.717 1.800 +2.228
-1.38.46 1.459 1.600 -2.269
PEG 6
27.054 +7.41.51 1.459 1.500 +3.616
-7.45.43 1.550 1.500 -3.638
PEG 7
97.399 +1.41.58 1.550 1.500 +2.940
-1.32.54 1.720 2.000 -2.913
TRIG 5

Final Height Table

Forward Back Mean Error
Point Distance Final Height
H_diff H_diff HV Distribution
LEER 1 221.115
PEG1 119.275 -1.172 +1.127 -1.150 -0.0133043 1 219.952
PEG2 82.120 -1.790 +1.766 -1.778 -0.0091599 1 218.165
PEG3 42.305 -2.863 +2.903 -2.883 -0.0047188 1 215.277
PEG4 18.484 +2.499 -2.526 +2.513 -0.0020618 1 217.788
PEG5 86.795 -2.560 +2.575 -2.567 -0.0096814 1 215.211
PEG6 74.060 +2.228 -2.269 +2.249 -0.0082609 1 217.451
PEG7 27.054 +3.616 -3.638 +3.627 -0.0030177 1 221.075
TRIG5 97.399 +2.940 -2.913 +2.926 -0.0108642 1 223.990
547.287 -2.696 +2.708 -2.702 +0.025 -2.677

Allowable error (Class B) +/-0.072

True error -0.061
148
PEG 1/A 48.976 -0.13.26 1.579 1.500 -0.112 1219.840 1219.825
PEG 4/A 46.201 +2.26.36 1.432 1.500 +2.022 1219.810

PEG 3/B 43.078 +5.49.15 1.558 1.600 +4.349 1219.626 1219.654

PEG 5/B 46.943 +5.46.17 1.717 1.600 +4.471 1219.681

149
CHAPTER 7: SITE SURVEYING/DETAIL SURVEYING

7.1 Background

Detail survey involves the fixing of ground detail such as roads, fences and buildings for
inclusion on a map or a plan. It may also involve a contour survey.
Methods of detail survey follow the basic survey principle of 'working from the whole to
the part'. First a precise control survey is carried out, which is then followed by the less
accurate methods of the detail survey. The less accurate methods of the detail survey are,
however, sufficient to meet the requirements for the map or plan. This follows the survey
principle of ‘economy of accuracy’.
Linear survey illustrates this with the trilateration control framework and the short offset
measurements to pick up the detail. In this case control and detail survey are carried out
simultaneously, but in other methods a control traverse or triangulation survey would come
first.
Plane tabling was a traditional method used in the 19th and early 20th centuries. A control
plot was fixed on a table which was set up on a tripod set up over a control point. The table
was rotated to orientate the plot with a neighbouring station and detail was fixed by direction
and distance (radiation) or by direction (intersection). The method had the advantage that the
map could be seen in the field, but the wet climate was a distinct disadvantage.
Stadia tacheometry was a method widely used in the 20th century. The difference between
the top and bottom stadia hair readings in the theodolite telescope onto a staff when
multiplied by 100 gave the distance, and horizontal and vertical angles allowed positions to be
fixed by radiation. A theodolite with special stadia hairs called a self-reducing tacheometer
was developed to minimize the calculations. Detail was recorded from the control stations. To
conserve accuracy, the length of sights was limited. This method was the forerunner of the
modern method of radiation survey using total stations.
Today there are three methods commonly used for detail survey:
1. radiation with total station,
2. real-time kinematic GPS,
3. photogrammetry.
In this chapter, the first of these methods is described.

7.2 Purpose

The main purpose of Site Surveying is to produce a contour plan of an area, with all the
natural and man-made features in their correct positions and shape, depending on the scale
used.
Contour positions are interpolated between adjacent spot shots, the ground between the
shots being regarded as evenly sloping, it is imperative that shots be taken at every change of
slope, otherwise a completely misleading picture of the Country may be produced.
150
 Therefore, the rule is that shots must be taken at the tops of hills, bottoms of valley, and at
all intermediate changes of slope. The first necessity is a clear appreciation of what detail is to
be shown, and what is to be omitted. This is governed by the scale of the plan and the
purpose for which it is required.
A common mistake is the omission of necessary detail, particularly features flush with the
ground, such as manholes, and the Surveyor should train himself to notice all detail, and his
assistant men to draw his attention to anything he has overlooked. Another common mistake
is the inability to make one spot shot perform several functions; with the result that far too
much spot shots are taken. The great majority of shots used for locating detail can also be
used for contouring, but often they are not placed so as to serve both purposes. Simple
houses can be located by taking three corners, and taping the lengths of all the walls. A small
sketch must be drawn. Where the detail is more complicated, one or two additional corners
will be found useful.

7.3 Accuracy of reading:

In all branches of Survey work it is a waste of time to take readings to an accuracy which
cannot be used, or to attempt to take readings beyond the capabilities of the instrument
being used.
The following have been noticed:
Reading angles to single seconds on a 20" micrometre theodolite, where the utmost
accuracy of setting is 5" to 10", and reading directions for spot shots to single seconds. These
readings are quite solemnly booked and vigorously defended as being accurate and useful.
They are neither, and simply indicating lack of experience and reasoning.
In tacheometry work, the limits of accuracy are dictated by the office work. For a scale of
1/5000, accuracy to nearest 1,25m. For a scale of 1/2000, accuracy to nearest 0,5m. For a
scale of 1/500, accuracy to nearest 0,125m. Vertical angles are normally read to the nearest
minute, this is ample for calculation of heights to single decimals.

7.4 Procedure

This section will deal with the planning and organisation of the job. The first step is to
determine the exact requirements and no Surveyor should accept vague or incomplete
instructions.
Instructions should include:
Locality and exact boundaries of job. Vast sums of money are wasted on the
unnecessary surveying of areas which cannot possibly affect the job in hand.
Purpose of the job. The surveyor should know this so that he can exercise his own
discretion where necessary.
Required scale of the final plan.
Limits of accuracy required.
Contour interval required.
Whether full detail is required, and if not, a clear statement in writing of the
requirements.
Whether details of underground services, if any, are required.

151
 If no co-ordinated points and level data are available, whether time should be spent in
carrying these to the area, or whether assumed data should be used. The latter should,
however, never be used, unless it is quite unavoidable, except for very small surveys.
Whether property boundaries are required or not.
The urgency of the job, which, of course, dictates the quality of the work.
Instructions sometime include details of trig and level control available, cadastral
(boundary) data and details of underground services. If this information is not given, the
surveyor must, himself, institute the necessary research. When all the necessary information
has been obtained a careful reconnaissance of the area should be carried out. The surveyor
must make sure that all the required detail has been surveyed and located, with sufficient
spot shots, clarity of descriptions and sketches, to ensure that plotting can be carried out
without confusion and that shapes are not distorted. The entire area must also be covered
with sufficient spot shots to ensure that the contours will be accurate and reliable.
The Selection of spot shots
The tops of hills and outcrops and bottoms of valleys.
All changes of slope.
All intervals along water courses. Where possible take "top bank" and "bottom
bank"
All outstanding features e.g. buildings, windmills, manholes etc.
Necks between hills

7.5 Possible mistakes and errors

A. IN THE FIELD
Measuring and booking the height of instrument incorrectly.
Mis-orientation -check orientation on to two known points.
Reading and booking wrong vertical and horizontal angles or distance
Wrong identification of spot shot especially when only the top portion of the
rod can be seen.
Missing changes of slope.
The mistakes can be minimised by adopting the correct procedure, taking sufficient shots
as checks, adequate description and sketches.
B. IN REDUCTION AND PLOTTING
In computing the horizontal distance.
In computing the difference in elevation.
In computing the final elevation.
Entering the wrong level for the station.
These mistakes can be avoided by:
Checking the reductions
Checking the contours e.g. when the contours are distorted by one spot-shot
only, that spot shot should be investigated.
Checking linear features, e.g. fences should be straight, buildings square etc.
By taking the first spot-shot from a new station set-up in the same place as the
last spot shot from the previous station.

152
7.6 The practical procedure for taking a spot shot

Set up the instrument over a point with xyz Co-ordinates.

Measure the distance from the top of the peg to the horizontal axis of the
instrument by means of a tape and record on your field book.
Measure the height of your plumbing pole or set your plumbing pole height to
be equal to the height of the instrument and record.
Orientate your instrument and check with another ray to see if you are in
orientation.
Make sure your chain man understands exactly what you want him to do and
direct him where you want to start. Sight the prism on the plumbing pole and take
measurements.
Signal the chain man to move to the next point as you record the observations
on your field book. (Horizontal direction, Vertical direction, Distance and the point
description)

7.6.1 Standard Abbreviations to use

Bridge Bdg Land Ld
Borehole Bh Pipe Pp
Bush Bs Pipeline bend PI
Canal C Power line PL
Centre line CL River R
Corner Cr Right bank RB
Downstream Ds Road Rd
Edge Ed Rocky Rky
Fence F Soil S
Full supply FS Ditch Sl
Foot Ft Spillway spw
House Hs GTS TG
In water InW Trek Tk
Iron peg IP Telephone line TL
Iron peg in concrete IPC Top Tp
Irrigated Irr Upstream Us
Island Is Wall Wl
Left bank LB Wooden peg WP

7.7 Principles of radial positioning

(a) Orientation of survey

Error: Reference source not found illustrates the principles. Point A is a survey station with
known (or assumed) coordinates. The reference object (RO) is the point chosen as the starting
point, from which the bearings of all lines of the survey will be measured. The RO may be a
second survey station or some prominent object such as the spire of a church, a pylon or a

153
road sign. The direction
(bearing) from station A to the
RO must be known or
assumed. The direction may be
relative to magnetic, true or
Grid north, or may simply be
assumed to point to north, in
which case the bearing from
station A to the RO is zero
degrees.
Points 1 to 24 are the points of
detail of the survey, e.g. spot
heights, manholes, etc. The
three (3) dimensional
coordinates of the points are
required.
(b) Objectives
A minimum of two surveyors is
required to conduct a radial survey. Their duties are:
1. To select suitable survey stations. The only criterion for the selection is that as many
detail points as possible should be visible from anyone survey station. If all of the points
of detail are not visible from a single station, a traverse is made to establish more survey
stations, e.g. in Error: Reference source not found the required traverse stations are A,
B, C.
2. To measure the horizontal angle, the vertical or zenith angle and slope distance, using
EDM means, to every point (numbered 1 to 24), of the survey.
3. To record the survey data, either manually or automatically, on an electronic field book
and to process these data. The data may be calculated manually or post-processed on
computer.
(c) Fieldwork

Figure

154
 is assumed to be the north point, bearing zero degrees (000 0 00' 00").
The ROTable
7–5
1. The theodolite/EDM is set over the point A and accurately centred and levelled.
2. The height of the instrument, (i), from point A to the transit axis is measured, using a
tape or rule, and noted in the field book (Table 10.1).
3. The coloured target, or the actual reflector if the EDM telescope is coaxial, is set to this
height and taken to point B (Error: Reference source not found) by an assistant, where
it is held vertically by utilizing the attached spirit level. The target height is noted in the
field book on the same line as station B.
4. The RO is sighted by the observer and the instrument is set to zero by means of the
zero-set key (electronic theodolite or total station) or by means of the upper and lower
plate clamps (optical theodolite). This reading of (0000 00' 00") is recorded in the field
book on line 1. The horizontal circle reading to any other point will therefore be the
whole Circle bearing from station A to the point.
5. Point B is then sighted and the horizontal circle reading and vertical circle reading are
noted in the field book. The slope distance is then measured to the reflector, using the
EDM, and also noted. This completes the field work for point B.
6. The assistant is directed to the next point and the procedures 3 and 4 are repeated for
that point. The field data for points 1 and 2 are shown in Error: Reference source not
found
From/To H/ Angles
S/Dist HI/TH HI-TH Remarks
Dist Horizontal Vertical
@A 1.350
RO 0.00.00 Reference object

B 8.325 1.350 36.30.00 71.30.10 Survey Station

1 1.110 1.350 147.29.10 92.04.00 Fence
2 4.673 0.850 231.15.30 87.13.40 Fence

7.8 Calculation and plotting of survey (manually)

There are various methods of reducing spot shots, one is to feed the information from the
field book directly into the computer, which would undertake the necessary computations,
and store this information for future use. It is essential that the print-out of the information
fed into the computer is obtained, together with a print-out of the calculations (i.e. co-
ordinates, horizontal distances and reduced heights). Before any use is made of the
information stored in the computer, the input data must be checked against the field book
and any errors corrected.
The latest advances in data capture electronically, coupled with the latest combined
electronic circle reading theodolite and electronic distance measurement (i.e., "Total Station")
will make the field book obsolete. The information stored in a data terminal can be
transferred directly to a computer where all computations are carried out.
For the purpose of this course, all field observation will be reduced manually.
(a) Derivation of formulae
Calculations are carried out in the following order since each part-calculation depends
upon the result from the previous part.
155
 1. Plan length (P): In the right-angled triangle Error: Reference source not found(b)
formed by the slope length (S), the plan length (P) and the vertical (V),

P=S sin Ɵ Eq. ( 7-1¿

2. Vertical height (V): In the triangle, the vertical dimension (V) is the height from the
transit axis of the theodolite/EDM to the target:

V =S cos Ɵ Eq. ( 7-2¿

For angles of depression (ie. downhill sights) the vertical dimension (V) is negative. Since
the zenith angle (Ɵ) in such a case would be greater than 90°, the calculation Error: Reference
source not found would naturally result in a negative answer.
3. Difference in height (∆H): The difference in height between the ground at instrument
station A and the ground at target station B is ∆ H . In Error: Reference source not
found(b),

∆ H =i+ V −h Eq. ( 7-3¿

In order to reduce the calculation of ∆ H =i+ V −h, the target height (h) is made equal to
the instrument height (i), as in this case.
∆ H =V
4. Reduced level of target station: In Error: Reference source not found(b) station B lies at
a higher level than station A.

RL(B)=RL( A)+ ∆ H Eq. ( 7-4¿

(b) Calculations

156
 The calculations of point B are shown in Table 10.2.Table 7–6
Angles
From/
S/Dist H/Dist HI/TH Horizonta Vertical V ∆H RL Remarks
To
l
@A 1.350 35.210
RO 0.00.00 Reference object

B 18.325 17.378 1.350 36.30.00 71.30.10 +5.814 +5.814 41.024 Survey Station
1 21.110 21.096 1.350 147.29.10 92.04.00 -0.761 -0.761 34.449 Fence
2 14.673 14.659 0.850 231.15.30 87.13.40 +0.710 +1.210 36.420 Fence

157
 (d) Field data/calculation table
Usually, the calculations are processed on the field data table as in Table 10.3, which
should be self-explanatory.
Exercise: Error: Reference source not found shows the layout of part of a radial positioning
survey and Table 10.5 shows the partially completed field data of the survey. Calculate the
height of each point, given that station A is the origin of the survey and the bearing from A to
the RO is zero degrees, plot the survey to scale 1 : 250.

Figure

158
Survey: Surveyed by: Date: Page:
Beacons Descriptions:
From/ Slope Horizontal Angles
HI/TH V ∆H RL Remarks
To Distance Distance Horizontal Vertical

159
160
161
162