Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction to Surveying
The art of surveying is as old as recorded civilization. As long as property ownership was there
in the history of mankind, there had been a means of distributing and distinguishing one’s
property line from the other. Division of land and other constructions can be cited as examples
of early surveying works:
The construction of the great Egyptian pyramids using the 3:4:5 method of right angle
setting and a level made of isosceles triangle and plum bob.
The Development of the science of geometry by Greeks and its usage for precise land
division.
Since beginning of the industrial revolution the importance of “exact boundaries” and the
demand for public improvements (railroads, canals, roads) brought surveying in to a prominent
position. More accurate instruments and science of Geodetic and plane surveying were
developed.
1.1. Definition
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative and absolute position of various points
above, on or below the surface of the earth. The relative positions are determined by measuring
horizontal distance, vertical distances (elevations), horizontal angles and vertical angles accurately
using various surveying instruments. After taking the measurements in the field, computations are
done and the plans and maps are prepared in the office. These plans and maps are used for planning
and designing of engineering works, making of boundaries, computations of areas and volumes, and
various other purposes. Surveying also includes the art of setting out or locating the points on the
ground from the plan or map.
The first stage in all big projects is generally to survey the area and to prepare plans. These plans are
used in the preparation of the detailed drawing, design and estimate of the project cost and time.
After finalizing the drawings, setting out is done by establishing the various points and lines on the
ground from the drawing.
Surveying, although simple in concept, requires great skill and practice for doing the work accurately
and economically. It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines such as mathematics, physics,
geodesy and astronomy. The need for accurate surveying is increasing rapidly with the development in
technology. The construction of modern buildings, highways, railways, high dams, long bridges, and
tunnels requires accurate surveying. As the cost of the land and property is increasing rapidly, high
accuracy is required in making the boundaries and the land subdivision.
Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, layout and construction of our physical
environment and infrastructure. The term infrastructure is commonly used to present all the
constructed facilities and systems which allow human communities to function. Surveying is the
link between design and construction. Roads, Bridges, Buildings, water supply sewerage, drainage
systems and many other essential public works, projects could never be built without the
application of surveying.
In addition to its customary applications in construction and land-use projects, surveying is playing
an increasingly important role in modern industrial technology.
Most commonly for ordinary local projects the surveying process starts with the reconnaissance
survey i.e. on arrival at the site the survey team simply walks over the area with a view to establish
the best sites for survey stations, and other purposes need to be considered.
Next the necessary data for the project will be collected by the principle of basic measurements in
surveying, then computations of the collected data has to be done to produce plans or topographic
maps depending up on the objectives of the project. The produced plans or maps are used for
planning Engineering projects, marking boundary corners or lines, computations of areas &
volumes and other purposes. Surveying also includes the art of setting out the new points on the
ground from the plans or maps according to the design of the project.
To sum up; the first stage in all big projects is generally to be surveyed the area and prepare plans
or maps which will be used in the preparation of detailed drawings, design and cost estimation of
the project .After finalizing the design or detail drawing, setting out will be done.
Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth is considered
or whether the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid. It is
an ellipsoid of revolution, flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator (see figure 1.1). The length
of the polar axis is about 12713.168 km and that of the equatorial axis is about 12756.602 km as
computed by Clark in 1866. Thus the polar axis is shorter than the equatorial axis by about 43.43km.
polar semi-axis = b
equatorial semi-axis = a
oblate spheroid
equator
Figure 1
Because of the curvature of the earth’s surface, the measured distances on earths are actually curved.
However, when the distances are small, compared with the radius of the earth, there is no significant
difference between the curved distances and the corresponding straight-line distances, and the
curvature of the earth can be neglected.
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
1. Plane surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected and it is
assumed to be a flat surface. All distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on to a
horizontal plane. A horizontal plane at a point is the plane, which is perpendicular to the vertical line at
that point.
Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with small portions of the earth’s surface
and the areas involved are less than 250 sq. km or so. It is worth noting that the difference between an
arc distance of 18.5 km on the surface of the earth and the corresponding chord distance is less than
10mm. Further the difference between the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle having an area of
200 sq.km on the earth’s surface and that of the corresponding angles of the plane triangle is only 1
second. In plane surveying, the angles of polygons and triangles are considered as plane angles.
2. Geodetic surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken in to
consideration, and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The main object of geodetic
surveying is to determine the precise location of a system of widely spaced points on the surface of
the earth. In geodetic surveying, the earth’s major and minor axes are computed accurately and a
spheroid of reference is visualized.
The spheroid is a mathematical surface obtained by revolving an ellipse about the earth’s polar axis.
The earth’s mean-sea-level surface, which is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at every point, is
represented by a geoid (see also figure 1.2). Because of variation in the earth’s mass distribution, the
surface of the geoid is irregular. However, if the irregularities of the surface are neglected, the geoid
can be very closely approximated as spheroid. The dimensions of the spheroid are selected so as to
give a good fit to the geoid over large area.
geoid
sea
direction of gravity
ellipsoid
Figure 2
Based on the purpose for which they are conducted, surveys may be classified as follows:
1. Control surveying: It consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of widely spaced
control points using the principles of geodetic surveying.
2. Land surveying: Land surveys are conducted to determine the boundaries and areas of tracts of
land. These are the oldest types, as land surveys have been used since the early civilization. These
are also known as property surveys, boundary surveys or cadastral surveys. These surveys are also
used to provide data for making a plan of the area.
3. City surveys: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban planning. These are
required for the purpose of layout of streets, buildings, sewers, pips, etc.
4. Topographical surveys: Topography is defined as the shape or configuration of the earth’s surface.
These surveys are required to establish horizontal locations of the various points as well as their
vertical locations. Information pertaining to relief and undulations on the earth’s surface is
generally shown in the form of contours of equal elevations.
5. Route surveying: These surveys are special types of surveys conducted along a proposed route for
highway, railway, sewer line etc. Route survey is done along a wide strip. In general, route
surveying also includes the staking out and calculation of the earth work.
6. Mine surveys: These surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions and elevations of
mines, shafts, bore holes etc for underground works. Mine surveys are useful to plan the working of
mines and to compute volumes of materials in mines.
7. Hydrographic surveys: These surveys are conducted on or near the body of water, such as lakes,
rivers, bays, harbors.
8. Engineering surveys: Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for the designing and
planning of engineering works such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and water
supply lines. These surveys generally include surveys discussed above.
9. Astronomic surveys: These surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes, Azimuths,
local time etc. for various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).
10. Satellite surveys: These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental, inter datum and
interisland geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial earth’s satellites.
11. Geological surveys: Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information about different strata
of the earth’s surface for geological studies.
12. Construction surveys: All the above-mentioned survey is conducted to obtain information required
for preparation of maps, plans, and sections etc. After the plans have been prepared and the
structures designed, the construction survey is conducted. The points and lines are established on
the ground, and the layout plan of the structure is marked on the ground.
1. Chain surveying: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are taken
with a chain or tape.
2. Compass surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape.
3. Leveling: This is a type of survey in which a leveling instrument is used for determination of relative
elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical plane.
4. Plane table surveys: In plane table surveys, a map is prepared in the field while viewing the terrain
after determining the directions of various lines and taking the linear measurements with telescopic
alidade.
5. Theodolite surveys: A theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles. The theodolite surveys can be broadly classified in two types:
6. Tachometric surveys: A tachometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a stadia
diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal hair. In
tacheometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are measured with a
tacheometer.
8. EDM Surveys: Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each triangle are
measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are computed indirectly from the known
sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides and angles are determined.
The various techniques of surveying are used for two distinct purposes; namely
i. The measurement of existing land, buildings, and other features (collecting data);
ii. The setting out works (to lay out designs)
Surveying instruments are precious, delicate pieces of equipment varying in Price from a few-to many hundreds
of thousands of Birr even a million.
Proper care & handling or protecting them from damage is necessary in order to keep the instruments in
accurate adjustment and operating conditions. Certain Procedures and requirements must be observed in using
surveying instruments to prevent unnecessary damage and wear & to reduce the occurrences of accidents
during operating, transporting, storing, etc.
By their very nature land surveying instruments must be accurate, reliable and durable. Land surveying
instruments are often exposed to harsh field conditions during use and must be regularly transported over
rough roads and terrain. This drives reputable manufacturers to produce products that are rugged and durable.
However, because land surveying instruments (particularly lasers) may be designed to withstand impacts, this
does not mean that calibration will be preserved or that other problems will not develop later. While surveying
instruments may be good quality, poor care and handling can be costly in terms of downtime, excessive repair
costs and costs associated with premature replacement.
Below are some simple steps you can take to help ensure that your land surveying instruments remain in
service, with minimal downtime, for many years to come.
Use
Handle your land surveying instruments with care like you would handle a newborn baby. Do not jar or drop an
instrument. Just because a manufacturer claims that their instrument can survive a drop from a certain
distance, this does not mean that the claim should be tested. The user should take the claim as a statement of
quality and not a license for rough handling. An instrument may “survive” a fall, but calibration may be lost
and/or other problems or failures may develop in the future.
Even though quality land surveying instruments are designated as weather resistant and sometimes
weatherproof, do not allow instruments to be exposed to excessive dust, heat or moisture. If possible, clean
after each use.
Try to ensure that an instrument set-up in the field is protected from inadvertent impact by heavy construction
machinery, vehicles and personnel. Set up the unit in an out of the way place if possible, and if not use traffic
cones, barriers or flags to provide a buffer from traffic.
Transportation
Always properly place your land surveying instruments in storage cases before transporting, ensuring
that it is cushioned properly. Make sure the inner foam is complete (chunks not missing or removed)
and the foam is secured to the outer case. Put all cords receivers, chargers, spare batteries, clamps,
etc and any other accessories in their proper place. Never encroach on instrument space with
accessories or the case will not be able to serve its intended purpose.
Just because land surveying instruments are properly placed in storage cases, it does not mean that
you can handle the case roughly. The case and instrument should never be dropped or impacted.
When you are transporting land surveying instruments in a vehicle, make sure it is secured properly so
it does not slide or bang around. The best way to protect your instrument during transportation is to
place it on a piece of foam in a storage bin and secure in place with bungee cord to keep the case from
banging around against the truck or compartment body.
Care
Keep the battery terminals clean and free of corrosion. Do not leave batteries in the unit for an
extended period when not in use.
In almost all cases of surveying works, surveyors should have full information about the Project location, road
access, availability of health centres, its objective, and in what scale to do, etc.
1. Desk study and office works- collecting and analysing information, collecting maps, etc.
2. Research, analysis & decision making- selecting the survey methods, equipments, performing
reconnaissance surveys of the site & so on are performed.
3. Fieldwork or data acquisition- Making measurements and recording data in the field.
4. Computing or data processing- performing calculations based on the recorded data to determine
locations, areas, volumes and so on.
5. Mapping or data representation- Plotting measurements or computed values to prepare maps plans or
charts or Portraying the data in a numerical or computer format.
6. Marking or placing monuments- to delineate boundaries or pages to guide construction operations.
7. Reporting- Preparing a concise written report forms, logical conclusions over the entire surveying task,
and finally all the documents should be documented for future study or use.
1.4.2. Field Books & Field Notes
Most surveyors are confused of field books and field notes, this explanation makes clear or avoid the
ambiguities that field notes are figures, remarks, sketches, etc whereas field books are special formats that the
field notes are recorded. In general, they are valuable documents b/c the time and expense involved in
obtaining such data. No Parts of the operations of surveying is greatest important than the field notes.
There are points, which considered in appraising a set of field notes. These are
- Accuracy;
- Integrity;
- Legibility;
- Arrangement and;
- Clarity.
Vertical distances: A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity at that point. The
vertical distances are measured to determine the difference in elevations (height) of the various
points.
Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is horizontal at that
point.
Vertical angle: Vertical angles are measured between two lines in a plane that is vertical at a point.
1.5.1.1. Introduction
The units of scientific measurement have been defined internationally, and have been adopted almost
universally crossing linguistic and cultural boundaries.
The SI was developed in 1960 from the old meter-kilogram-second system, rather than
the centimeter-gram-second system, which, in turn, had a few variants. International System of
Units (abbreviated SI from the French le Système International d'unités) is the modern form of
the metric system and is generally a system devised around seven base units (i.e. meter, kilogram,
second, ampere, Kelvin, candela, and mole) and the convenience of the number ten.
It is the world's most widely used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and in science.
The older metric system included several groups of units. Because the SI is not static, units are created
and a definition is modified through international agreement among many nations as the technology
of measurement progresses, and as the precision of measurements improves. Metric unit system is
easy to handle because everything is a multiple or a fraction of ten.
The imperial system is one of many systems of English or foot-pound-second units, so named because
of the base units of length, mass and time. Although most of the units are defined in more than one
system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one
area rather than the other.
II. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter square
III. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
Summary:
1 inch = 25.4mm
There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexagesimal graduation, centesimal graduation
and radian.
c. Radian: The radian (rad is the basic unit of measurement of angles; one radian is defined as the
angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle.
The circumference of a circle equals 2π radians in a circle :
We can convert measurements from one unit to another unit within the same system (English or
Metric) or between the two systems. To convert measurements, it is necessary to know conversion
factors between measurements. A conversion factor is a clever way of writing 1 as a fraction in which
the numerator is equal to the denominator but the numerator and the denominator have different
units.
Conversion of Volume
1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
Conversion of Angles
Examples
43.24390 = 430+0.24390
= 430 + 0.2439X60
= 430 +14.6340’
= 430 +14’+0.6340’X60
= 430+14’+38”
=43014’38”
1.1.2. Scale
A plan, graphically represents the features on or near the earth’s surface as projected on a horizontal
plane. A map generally shows Natural and man-made features on the earth’s surface with additional
information such as relief’s, hachure and contour lines to indicate undulation on the ground. The plan
of a house, school, factory, bridge, road, dam or the map of a town, city country cannot be prepared in
full size on a drawing sheet.
Hence, a reduced measuring instrument to measuring instrument to measure the line or measurement
is used which is the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to a reduced size, this operation being
known as drawing to scale.
Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding distance on the
ground. A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface. The scale of the
map permits the user to convert distance on the map to distance on the ground or vice versa. The
ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth's surface, is an important factor in
planning and executing military missions. Scales of a map are generally classified as large, medium and
small. A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than a small scale map. Large denominator
numbers refer to small scale, where as small denominator numbers are indicative of a large scale.
II.By Representative Fraction (RF)-it is the ration between the distance on the map (plan) and the
distance on the ground.
This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is always
written with the map distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure (yards, meters, inches,
and so forth).
Note: The unit in the numerator and denominator must be the same (scale is unit less).
Example: 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map represents 5000 cm on the ground.
III.By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that its map distance corresponds
to a convenient unit of length on the ground and it is used to convert distances on the map to actual
ground distances. It is also used to determine straight line distance between two points on a map.
1. Plain Scale- represents either two units or only one unit and its fraction. It consists of a line
divided in to suitable numbers of equal parts or units, the first of which is subdivided in to
smaller parts.
5km 3hm
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hectometer kilometer
2. Comparative scale- The scales having the common representation fraction but graduated
comparatively to read different units called comparative scales, such as the scales showing
comparatively inches and centimeters, miles and kilometers, degree and radians, time and
distance traveled, etc. The advantage is that measurements are taken directly in the desired unit
without any calculations.
centimeter
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4
inch
3. Diagonal Scale - A diagonal scale represents either three units or only one unit and its fraction
up to second place of decimal point. It consists of a line divided in to suitable number of equal
parts. The first part is subdivided into suitable number of equal parts, each of which is further
divided into smallest parts by diagonals.
325m
4. Vernier Scale - A vernier scale is, an additional, scale which allows a distance or angle
measurement to be read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly divided straight or
circular measurement scale. It is a sliding secondary scale that is used to indicate where the
measurement lies when it is in between two of the marks on the main scale
1.1.3.1. Introduction
In ordinary life, most of us are accustomed to counting but not as much to measuring. Surveying is
concerned with measurements of quantities that are exact or true values may not be determined,
such as distances, elevations, volumes directions etc, if a person were to measure the width of his
desk with a ruler divided in to tenths of an inch, he could estimate the width to hundredths of an inch.
If he were to use a ruler graduated in hundredths of an inch, he could estimate the width to
thousandths of an inch; and so on. Obviously, with better equipment he can estimate an answer that is
closer to the exact value but will never be able to determine the value absolutely.
Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact and the true value of the
quantity being measured is never known. (Exact or true values do exist, but they cannot be
determined).
The surveyor must have the skill and judgment necessary to make very accurate measurements. This
fact is obvious when one is thinking in terms of the construction of long bridges tunnels. Tall buildings,
and missile sites or the setting of delicate machinery, but it can be just as important in land surveying.
A few decades ago land prices were not extremely high except in and around the largest cities. If the
surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot or a few acres in a farm, it was usually not considered to be a
matter of great importance.
The instruments used for surveying before this century were not very good compared to today’s equipment,
and it was probably impossible for the surveyor to do the quality of work expected of today’s surveyor.
Today, land prices are in most areas very high, and evidently the climb has only begun. In many areas of high
population and in many popular resort areas, land is sold by so many dollars per square foot; therefore, the
surveyor must be able to do splendid work.
The reliability of measurements can be expressed through many terms, but the most common ones
are accuracy and Precision, since surveying is a measurement science, it is necessary to distinguish the
two terms accuracy & Precision, which, if not understood, cause unnecessary confusion.
The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying, yet their correct meanings are a
little difficult to grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the following definitions are presented:
1.2.1.1. Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree of conformity with a standard or accepted value. Accuracy relates to the
quality of the result. It is distinguished from precision that relates to the quality of the operation used
to obtain the result. The standard used to determine accuracy can be:
A. An exact known value, such as the sum of the three interior angles of a plane triangle is 180°.
B. A value of a conventional unit as defined by a physical representation thereof, such as the
international meter.
C. A survey or map value determined by superior methods and deemed sufficiently near the ideal
or true value to be held constant for the control of dependent operations.
Although they are known to be not exact, higher order NGS control points are deemed of sufficient
accuracy to be the control for all other less exact surveys.
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements. It denotes how close a given
measurement is to the true value of the quantity.
1.2.1.2. Precision
Precision is the degree of consistency between observations based on the sizes of the discrepancies in
a data set. The degree of precision attainable is dependent on the stability of the environment during
the time of measurement, the quality of the equipment used to make the observations, and the
observer’s skill with the equipment and observational procedures.
If a quantity is measured several times and the values obtained are very close to each other, the
precision is said to be high.
Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a given quantity is measured. In
other words, it is the closeness of one measurement to another.
In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to the
distance measured and it is reduced to fraction having a numerator of unity.
Example:- If a distance of 4200 ft is measured and the error is later estimated to equal 0.7ft, the
precision of the measurement is 0.7/4200 = 1/6000. This means that for every 6000ft
measured, the error would be one ft, if the work were done with this same degree of
precision.
The accuracy of a field survey depends directly upon the precision of the survey. Although through
luck (compensating errors, for example) surveys with high order closures might be attained without
high order precision, such accuracies are meaningless. Therefore, all measurements and results should
be quoted in terms that are commensurate with the precision used to attain them. Similarly, all
surveys must be performed with a precision that ensures that the desired accuracy is attained.
However, surveys performed to a precision that excessively exceeds the requirements are costly and
should be avoided.
The figure above illustrates the difference between accuracy and precision. Target A has poor precision because
the points have a large spread. Target B has good precision because the points are very close to each other. The
average location of the points on Target A would be inside the smallest ring. The average location of the points
on Target B would be close to the outer ring in the top left quadrant. The accuracy of the points on Target B is
not as good as the accuracy of the points on Target A.
1.2.2.1. Errors
Error is the difference, after mistakes have been eliminated, between a measured or calculated value
of a quantity and the true or established value of that quantity. Surveying deals with the measurement
of distance and angles.
Surveying deals with the measurement of distance and angles. The true value of such quantities is
never known. The true value of a quantity is never known. The true value of a quantity is a value,
which is absolutely free from all types of errors. The true value cannot be determined because some
errors always creep in the measured quantities. The errors occur because the instrument cannot be
absolutely perfect. Moreover, a surveyor cannot take the observations correctly because of human
limitations. Further, a change in climatic conditions also limits the accuracy of the measurement. A
major concern in surveying is the precision of the work. The ever present difference between
measured quantities and the true magnitude of those quantities are classified here in as either
mistakes or errors. A mistake (or blunder) is a difference from a true value caused by the inattention
of the surveyor. For instance, he/she may read a number as a 6 when it is actually 9, may record the
wrong quantities in the field notes, or may add a column or numbers incorrectly. An error is a
difference from a true value caused by the imperfection of the person’s senses, by the imperfection of
his equipment, or by weather effects, Errors cannot be eliminated but they can be minimized by
careful work, combined with the application of certain numerical corrections. The result is that all
measurements are imperfect.
There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature. Accordingly, errors in measurement
are generally said: personal, instrumental, and natural, however, some errors do not clearly fit in to
one of these categories and may be due to a combination of factors.
1. Personal errors occur due to human limitations, such as sense of sight and touch.
For instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor cannot read it perfectly and will
always be either a little large or a little small.
2. Instrumental errors occur because instruments cannot be manufactured perfectly and the different
parts of instruments cannot be adjusted exactly with respect to each other. Moreover, with time the
wear and tear of the instruments causes errors.
3. Natural errors are caused by changes in natural phenomena, such as temperature, wind, humidity,
refraction, and magnetic field. For example if a tape has been calibrated at 20c, but the field
temperature is 30 c there will be a natural error due to temperature variation.
In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into the following two types.
1. Systematic errors: Systematic errors follow some well-defined mathematical or physical law or
system. The magnitude and the sign of the systematic errors can be determined and a suitable
correction can be applied to the measured quantity. A systematic error will always have the same sign
and magnitude under the same conditions. For example, if a 30m steel tape has been standardized at
a temperature of 20c but the field temperature is 30c the tape will be about 3.5mm too long. This
means when the measured distance is 30m, the actual (real) distance is 30.0035m.
There is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every 30m-tape length. The systematic errors are cumulative
in nature. For example, if in the above case the total distance is 300m (i.e. 10 tape lengths) the total
systematic error will be 35mm for a field temperature of 30c.
2. Accidental errors: Accidental errors are random in nature and occur beyond the control of the
surveyor. Random errors do not follow any fixed pattern or law. These errors can be positive or
negative. These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series of measurements, and are, therefore, also
called compensating errors. For instance, when a person reads an angle with a surveying instrument,
he or she cannot read it perfectly, one time he or she will read a value that is too large and the next
time will read a value that is too small since these errors are just as likely to have different signs as the
other, they tend to a certain degree to cancel each other or compensate for each other.
Human limitation or
Errors, which remain in the measured quantities after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminated or corrected, are generally the accidental errors.
For example, if the surveyor reads 13m on a tape as 31m, it would be a mistake.
Probability
The theory of probability can be used to study the behavior of random errors and is applicable in many
sociological and scientific fields such as surveying. Probability may be defined as the ratio of the
number of times a result should occur to its total number of possibilities. Because of equipment and
observe imperfection, measurements will always contain random errors, and the frequency and
magnitude with which these errors occur follow the laws of probability.
Small errors (residuals) occur more often than large random errors.
Large errors happen infrequently
Positive and negative errors of the same size occur with the same frequency
When a very large number of measurements are taken in order to establish the value of a specific
dimension, the results will be grouped around the true value, much the like the case of a range target
as illustrated the figure below. When all systematic errors and mistakes have been removed from the
measurements, the residuals between the true value ( dead center of the bull’s eye) and the actual
measurements (shot marks) will due to random errors, and the figure below illustrates.
The number of relief shots hitting the left and right side of each ring are shown in the ring frequency
summery.
Residual, υ: The difference between any individual measured quantity and the most probable value
for that quantity. Residuals are the values that are used in adjustment computations since most
probable values can be determined. The term error is frequently used when residual is meant, and
although they are very similar and behave in the same manner, there is this theoretical distinction. The
mathematical expression for a residual is
Where υi is the residual in the ith observation, yi, and ӯ is the most probable value for the unknown.
The standard deviation is also known as the root-mean square (R.M.S) error, is a measure of spread of
a distribution and for the population, assuming the observations are of equal reliability. The standard
deviation is generally used as an indicator to describe the reliability of a set of repeated
measurements.
It is the probability of the error to occur between + and - , it has a percentage of 68.3%. This
error is called the standard error. It is also represented as E68.3. In other words, the standard error is
the same as the standard deviation.
The standard error establishes the limits with in which measurements are expected to fall 68.3% of the
time.
The smaller the value of the standard deviation, the greater the precision and vise versa. It is
expressed as:
∑
√
Where n is the number of observations and ∑ is the sum of the squares of the errors.
The error in the mean computed from a sample set of measured values those results because all
measured values contain errors. The standard deviation of the mean is computed from the sample
standard deviation according to the following equation:
The standard error of the mean ( m) of a number of observations of the same quantity is given by:
∑
√ Or
√
It is also known as root- mean - square (R-M-S) error of the mean. The standard error of the mean
indicates that the probability of the mean value to be between
+ m and - m is 68.3%.
Most probable value, (e): that value for a measured quantity which, based on the observations, has
the highest probability of occurrence. It is derived from a sample set of data rather than the
population and is simply the mean if the repeated measurements have the same precision.
The most probable error is defined as that errors for which there are equal chances that the true error
will be less than the probable error or will be less than the probable error or will be more than the
probable error. In other words, the probability of the true error being less than the probable error is
50% and the probability of the true error being greater than the probable error is also 50%.
Em 0.6745
v 2
n n 1
Example-1 There is a standard error of +10 seconds for a measured angle of 710 30' 20". Determine
the range for which there are 50% chances that the true value would lie in that range
Also determine the range for the standard error and 99.7% error
0.6745
v2
Soln. Most probable error = n 1
0.6445 X 10 7"
There are 50% chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20" + 7" or 710 30' 13" to 710 30' 27"
Obviously, there are 68.3% chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20" +10" .There are 99.7 %
chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20" + 3X10" or 710 29' 50" or 710 30' 50".
any measurement deviates from the mean by more than ±3.29 it is considered as a mistake, and
that measurement is rejected.
1.2.3.6. Variance, V:
It is a value by which the precision for a set of data is given. Population variance applies to a data
set consisting of an entire population. It is the mean of the squares of the errors and is given by:
∑
Or
The relative precision or the degree of precision is used to express the precision of the various
measurements it is usually expressed as a ratio of the standard error of the mean ( m) to the mean
value (M) of the quantity
Example - if the standard deviation is ± 0.03m for the mean value of the length of the line of 615.41m
0.03
,the relative precision = 1
615.41 20,500
Example- Measurements of a line were taken ten times with a steel tape and found to be as under
Assuming that the measurements have been corrected for all systematic errors, determine:
1. Standard deviation( )
3. 95.5% error
Solution:
100.448
100.448m
Most probable value = mean value =
100.45m
The residuals have been calculated in column (3) the values of V2 are given in column (4)
=+ v2
n 1
Or
=+ 60 x10 3 = + 0.08m
10 1
60 x10 3
Or m=+ 10 10 1 = + 0.025m
Example
An angle is measured with a standard deviation of + 2" calculate the most probable error determine
95% error and the maximum error
v2
Most probable error = 0.6745 X n 1
= 0.6745 X = + 1.349"
Example
A distance is measured a large number of times and its 90% error is ± 0.8225cm. What is the standard
deviation? What is the percentage error for ± 1.50 cm?
Solution:
E90 = + 1.645
= ± 0.50 cm
The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in the measurements .It is usually expressed as
the ratio of the error to the measured quantity. For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000
indicates that there is an error of 1 unit in 10,000 units.
1. Linear measurements. The degree of accuracy of the linear measurement is usually expressed as
the ratio of the standard deviation to the measured distance for example if there is a standard
deviation of + 0.05m in a measured distance of 584.65m, the degree of accuracy is 1 in 11700 as
s tan dard devation
Measured dis tan ce
degree of accuracy
0.05 1
1
584.65 11693 11700
These days the trend is to express the degree of accuracy as the ration of the standard error ( ) stead
of he probable error thus.
Traverse. The degree of accuracy of a traverse is usually expressed as the ratio of the
error of closure to the perimeter of the traverse thus:
Error of closure
D.of . Accu
Total Perimeter of traverse
2. Angular measurements- For angular measurements, the degree of accuracy is usually expressed
as k N
140
K 44" : - degree of acc = 44 N seconds.
10
K
K=
0.24
K= 0.0024 Degree accuracy = 0.0024 L W/r L is in meters
10, 000