DRAWING

Notes for the UNED PCE test

OCTOBER 10, 2019

AAB

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 PCE Drawing Notes

DRAWING.
Content
1. Bow capable. Applications..................................................................................................3
a. Procedure.........................................................................................................................3
b. Application.......................................................................................................................3
2. Investment concept. Application to the resolution of tangents...........................................4
a. Concept................................................................................................................................4
b. Application to the resolution of tangents.........................................................................5
c. Power of a point with respect to a circle..........................................................................6
3. Cyclic curves, identification of their main elements...........................................................8
a. Definition.....................................................................................................................8
b. Items.............................................................................................................................8
c. Classification................................................................................................................8
4. Layer concept in an assisted design system......................................................................10
5. The golden rectangle. Applications...................................................................................10
a. Nature.............................................................................................................................11
b) Art..................................................................................................................................11
b. Origin, determination and layout of the ellipse.................................................................11
a. Origin and determination...............................................................................................11
b. Focuses and guidelines of an ellipse..............................................................................13
c. Definition of the ellipse.................................................................................................13
d. Ellipse layout.................................................................................................................13
e. Qualities of the Ellipse...................................................................................................14
7. Graphic construction of the ellipse.......................................................................................15
to. Introduction......................................................................................................................15
Definition of the ellipse.........................................................................................................15
c. Graphic construction of the ellipse....................................................................................15
8. Origin, determination and layout of the parabola..............................................................16
a. Origin.............................................................................................................................16
b. Construction of the parabola..........................................................................................17
c. Qualities of the parable..................................................................................................17
10. Origin, determination and layout of the hyperbola........................................................19
d. Plot of the hyperbola......................................................................................................21
e. Qualities of the hyperbola..............................................................................................21
9. Scales.................................................................................................................................22

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 PCE Drawing Notes

a. Concept..........................................................................................................................22
b. Normalized scales. Examples........................................................................................22
c. Graphic scales. Examples..............................................................................................23
10. The reduction coefficient in the isometric system.........................................................24
11. Standards regarding technical drawing. Advantages and disadvantages.......................25
12. Construction of regular polygons from the side. Examples...........................................27
13. Representation systems. Examples................................................................................28
14. Division of a segment in equal sections. Example and Applications............................29
15. Conical perspective. Examples......................................................................................30
a. Concept..........................................................................................................................30
b. Items...............................................................................................................................30
16. Choice of point of view in the conical perspective........................................................31
17. Knight Perspective. Practical example..........................................................................32
18. Dihedral System. Practical example..............................................................................33
7.

These notes contain the topics that have appeared most frequently in the UNED PCE drawing exams.

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 PCE Drawing Notes

1. Bow capable. Applications.

Arch . It is a piece of a circle, that is, a segment of a circle. The arc of a circle is defined by:
• three points not aligned, or
• two distant points (they should be the end points of
the arc) and the radius, or
• by the length of a chord and the radius
A capable arc is the locus of points that subtend the same
angle at the ends of a segment.
Therefore, to construct it, the input data is the segment AB,

and the value α of the angle

a. Procedure
1. Segment AB is drawn and its bisector is found.
α
2. The angle is constructed on the segment.
3. At point A, a perpendicular ar (side of the constructed
angle) is drawn, cutting the bisector at O.
4. Centering at O (center of the capable arc), the arc is
drawn that passes through A and B.

b. Application.
Its theoretical application is the determination of the position
in a plane by cutting two capable arcs, which translates in
practice into the determination of the position of a ship,
knowing the bearings at three lighthouses. By difference in
bearings, the angles subtended by the lighthouses are
obtained, which are represented on the nautical chart. On the
segment that joins each pair of lighthouses closest to each
other, the arc capable of the angle obtained is drawn. The
intersection of the two arcs is the position of the ship. The
position thus obtained is highly precise, which is why in the
past it was used in navigation through minefields.
Use of the computer in technical drawing. Advantages and
disadvantages.

Drawing is a technique that allows you to represent any type of

graphics, plans or something you have in mind, to express it and
present it to other people, in addition to being a way to capture ideas.
More specifically, technical drawing is the branch of drawing that graphically represents one or more objects,
in order to provide useful information for a possible and consequent analysis, which will allow future
construction and maintenance of the object.

There are different types of drawing techniques and among the most used in the industry is computer-aided
design, in English CAD, Computer Aided Design . The program mostly used is AutoCAD.

In general, the use of the computer in technical drawing provides a large number of advantages due to the
available tools and the quality of the designs prepared when presenting a formal work, in addition to saving
time by avoiding doing it by hand. However, it also has some disadvantages.

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 PCE Drawing Notes

Advantages:

• A computer with a CAD program allows you to create, manipulate and represent products in two and
three dimensions. The model can appear on the screen as a realistic image, in motion, and observable
from 360º.
• Improvement in the design process: you can view details of the model, check collisions between parts,
ask about distances, weights, inertias, etc.
• Availability of libraries with already designed figures that can be incorporated into a project.
• Ease of editing and introducing changes. Work in progress is easily editable, reduced
the time invested in modifying plans and in their final presentation the amendments will not be
visible.
• Ease of reproduction. With a printing device (plotter), you can obtain as many paper copies as
necessary of different views of the geometric model.
• Ease of distribution. The files with the plans are easily distributed over the Internet.
Disadvantages.
In general, the disadvantages are associated with the resources necessary to implement this technique in a
company:

• The most mentioned disadvantage is the cost of licenses to use CAD programs.
• Also noteworthy is the need to learn these complex tools, which requires time and is associated with
another additional cost, which must fall on the company or the job seeker.
• The machines (computers) on which the CAD programs run must be very powerful in graphic
processing capacity, again leading to a high associated cost. This also hinders the possibility of self-
learning, since it is difficult to invest specifically in this type of machines.
Conclusion .
In summary, the use of the computer in technical drawing is especially appropriate for industrial and business
use, since it optimizes the process of creating a new product, gaining quality and reducing design time. The
initial investment to provide these systems at a business level is compensated in the short-medium term by the
optimization of the entire process of design, editing, filing and presentation of a project. However, the cost of
licenses and powerful machines to run these programs makes access difficult for individuals.

2. Investment concept. Application to the resolution of tangents.

a. Concept.
The inversion is a non-projective and anamorphic geometric transformation that does not preserve
the shapes but does preserve the angular relationships and points of tangency. Knowledge of it
makes it easier for us to solve the problem of tangents between circles and straight lines with a circle,
which would otherwise be complex.
In order to establish an investment, an investment center O and a constant K, also called the
investment ratio or power, are necessary.

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 PCE Drawing Notes

From these elements we will say that a point A is the inverse of

another A' when the equality is fulfilled: OA.OA'=K, point O
must be aligned with points A and A' , and K be different from
zero.
If the homologous points (A and A') are on the same side of O ,
the ratio K is positive (K>0), and if they are on different sides,
the ratio K is said to be negative (K<0).
For any pair of points A and B , other points A' and B' aligned
with O can be obtained as inverses, and with the same ratio K,
so that the following is true: OA.OA'=OB.OB'=K
This expression corresponds to the power of a point P with
respect to a circle t. This relationship is what justifies the name
of inversion power K.
The self-inversion circle is called the circle whose center
coincides with the center of inversion O and its radius is the
square root of the power of inversion VK.

When a line passes through the center of inversion, its inverse

line is a double line, since for each point on the line its inverse will be found on the same line because
it must be aligned with O.
When the line does not pass through the center of investment, the inverse figure is a circle that
passes through the center of investment O.
When a given circle passes through the center of investment O, its inverse figure is a line that is
perpendicular to the line containing the center of the circle and the center of investment.
When a given circle does NOT pass through the center of investment OR The inverse of this circle is
another circle.
When the circle does NOT pass through the center of investment O and the power of O with
respect to the circle is equal to the power of investment, the inverse is itself since for any point A
located on it, its counterpart A' will be on the circumference.

b. Application to the resolution of tangents.

Since tangents are conserved in every inversion, it follows that if two figures are tangent before the
inversion, their inverse figures will also be tangent.
To solve a tangency problem, the first thing we have to do is properly choose the center of inversion
O and the self-inversion circle. From here the given elements are transformed into others that will
allow us to simplify the tangency problem. With the inverse elements obtained, the problem of
drawing the tangents is solved. Finally, the inverse figures of each of these solutions are obtained.

Example: Circle that passes through P and is tangent to two lines R and S
1. The point P is taken as the center of inversion and the circle with center P drawn tangent to R
is taken as the self-inversion circle.
2. From here we obtain the inversion of the line that we know is a circle that passes through T
and P (double point).

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3. Likewise, the inverse of the line S is obtained, which is a circle that passes through P.
4. In this way, the problem is simplified to drawing the tangent lines to these two inverse
circles. One of these lines is X , which has been obtained by applying the corresponding
geometric procedure.
5. The inverse figure of the line
6. There is another solution by drawing the other line that is tangent to the inverse circles
(which has not been drawn in order not to make it difficult to understand the problem)

c. Power of a point with respect to a circle.

The tangent or secant lines drawn to a circle from an exterior point P are intercepted by the circle at
points A, B or T, forming segments from P, in which it is always verified that:
PA x PB = PC x PD = PT x PT = PT2 = cte.
This constant product is called POWER of point P with respect to the circumference.

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 PCE Drawing Notes

For its demonstration we join A with B'

and B with A'. As can be seen from
Figure 1, the triangles PA'B and PAB' are
similar, as they have the same angles

ALPHA ( α ) and BETA ( β ).

Therefore, we can establish the
following proportion between the
homologous sides (opposite equal
angles):
PA/PB=PB'/PA'
Hence, PA.PA'=PB.PB', which is precisely what we want to prove.
The point P can be located with respect to the circumference in any position, that is, it can
be: exterior, interior or belong to the circumference.
If we use the line that passes through the center of
the circle as a secant line, we can establish the
power as a function of the radius (r) and the
distance (d) from the point to the center of the
circle. (Figure 2)

POWER= PA. PA'

as PA = d – ry PA' = d + r
We substitute these values in the first expression:
POWER= (dr) (d+r) = d 2 - r 2
The value of the POWER according to the position of P with respect to the circumference is:
POSITION OF P POWER
Abroad
Inside d 2 - r 2 (positive because d>r) d 2
- r 2
(negative because d<r) 0
About the (because d=r)
circumference - r 2 (because d =0)
Coincident with O When A and A' merge into
a single point T, the secant line is tangent to the
circle.
(Figure 3)
In this case the power is:
POWER = PT. PT = PT 2 = d 2 - r 2
because PTO is a right triangle.

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3. Cyclic curves, identification of their main elements.

a. Definition
They are flat curves, generated by a point belonging to a circle that rolls (without
slipping) on another circle or a straight line. They are called cyclical because their
layout is repeated.

Cyclic curves are also called mechanical due to their applications in the design of
parts.

For its construction, a series of points are determined, which we join with curve
templates or freehand.

b. Items
Two elements intervene in cyclical curves:

• Roulette: it is the moving element, it can be a straight line or a circle.

• Guideline: it is the fixed element, the guide along which the roulette "walks". It
can also be a straight line or a circle.

If the roulette is circular, it may be outside or inside the base depending on where the
rolling occurs.

If the roulette is a straight line it will always be outside.

c. Classification
We can classify cyclic curves into two groups according to the tangency of the
elements.

d. 1 Tangency between circle and straight line:

• Cycloid
• Circumference envelope

e. 2 Tangency between circles:

• Epicycloid
• Hypocycloid

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Cycloid

Circumference Envelope

Epicycloid

Hypocycloid

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4. Layer concept in an assisted design system.

There are different types of drawing techniques and among the most used in the industry is
computer-aided design, in English CAD, Computer Aided Design. The program mostly used is
AutoCAD.
A basic concept in computer-aided design is the use of layers to organize drawing information.
In short, a layer in an assisted drawing can be defined as a “sheet of tracing paper where a part of the
information to be transmitted is located, so that the sum of all the information from the different
layers results in the design as a whole.
Therefore, each layer can contain multiple objects, but each object in the drawing is located on a
single layer. The appropriate distribution of entities in the different layers is essential for the
subsequent modification and agile management of them in the drawing.
Generally objects with a similar function or with the same properties are grouped in the same layer.
For example, you may want to group all the axes in a drawing into a layer called "Axes."
In turn, layers can have properties (color, line width, line type), so that the objects grouped in each
layer can have their own properties or have the properties defined by the layer in which they are
located. In the latter case, you can modify, for example, the color of all the axes by changing the color
of the "Axes" layer.
The drawing is always drawn on a layer, which is the so-called “active layer”. Alternatively, one layer
or another will be activated and deactivated to introduce or modify entities. In addition, non-active
layers can be visible or not visible, in order to facilitate these tasks of entering or modifying entities.
In designing plans by hand, a similar system is used. The different layers of a plan, such as electricity
or air conditioning systems, are drawn separately on transparent tracing paper. It is then possible to
achieve different final planes by superimposing combinations of the different transparent planes.

5. The golden rectangle. Applications.

The golden rectangle has the peculiarity that if a square is removed, the rectangle that remains is
similar to the initial one, as can be seen in the figure.

L being the longest side of the rectangle, and taking the shortest side as a unit, the similarity of
the two rectangles leads us to the following proportion: L/1 = 1/(L-1)

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Developing:

Therefore the relationship between the sides is equal to L= (1 + root(5))/2, this proportion is

equal to 1.61, which is the so-called golden number φ (Phi) , or golden ratio.
There are numerous applications that we can find of the golden ratio. This appears in animals,
plants, galaxies, the human body, buildings, paintings, etc. We will fundamentally distinguish
between applications that occur in nature and applications in art.

a. Nature.
If from a golden rectangle we find the reciprocal rectangles and join the opposite vertices of all
the squares, we obtain a spiral that appears as one of the forms of growth of living beings called
"harmonious growth."

Among many others, the snail, the conch, spider

webs, horns of some animals, seeds of daisies and
sunflowers, are linked to this type of spiral, called a
logarithmic spiral .

b) Art.
But without a doubt those who have applied the golden number the most have been the
architects of
all the times.
• Cheops pyramid, the relationship between h and b is the
number φ
• The façade of the Parthenon is a golden triangle
• Le Corbusier establishes a scale or subdivision of the
human figure playing with golden ratios.

b. Origin, determination and layout of the ellipse

a. Origin and determination.

The ellipse is a curve or conic section. Conic sections are produced by cutting a
plane and a conical surface of revolution (Cone);
Depending on the relative position of the plane and the
cone, three different conic curves are obtained, the
Ellipse, the Parabola or the Hyperbola.
The elliptical section is determined by cutting the cone
with a plane oblique to the axis that cuts all the
generatrices, that is, we obtain an Ellipse when the
angle "a" formed by the secant plane Q with the axis of
the

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 PCE Drawing Notes

cone is larger than the one formed by the generatrices with the same "b" axis.

b. Focuses and guidelines of an ellipse

Let us consider a cone sectioned by the alpha plane (
α ) and two spheres inscribed in the conical surface
tangent to said plane. We call Foci the points of
tangency of the spheres with the alpha(a) plane.
They are designated with the letters F1 and F2.

β
If we cut the cone along the horizontal and χ
planes (perpendicular to the axis), drawn by the
points of tangency of the spheres with the conical
surface, the intersection of these planes with alpha is
a straight line called the directrix .
These are the point lines D1 and D2 (which are
displayed confused at one point).
Therefore, the ellipse has two foci and two
directions.

c. Definition of the ellipse

The ellipse is defined as a closed and symmetrical
plane curve, the locus of points whose sum of
distances to the foci is constant and equal to the
major axis.
That is, for any point K on the ellipse the following
holds: KF1 + KF2 = AB

According to this definition: DF1 + DF2 = AB As: DF1 = DF2, then 2DF1 = AB from where: DF1 =
AB/2

d. Ellipse layout.
There are several methods for its construction, one of the easiest being the one indicated below:
1. With center at O and radius OA and then with radius OC, two circles are drawn.
2. Any diameters are drawn on the circles.
3. To obtain a point P of the ellipse, a perpendicular to AB is drawn through N and a parallel
through M. The rest of the points are obtained similarly.
4. The union of all these points can be done with curve templates or freehand.

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e. Qualities of the Ellipse.

(put origin and determination first)
• The ellipse is a closed and flat curve, whose points constitute a geometric place that has
the property that the sum of distances from each of its points to two other, fixed ones, F1
and F2, called foci, is constant and equal to 2a , with 2a being the length of the major axis
AB of the ellipse.

a2= b2+ c2
• The ellipse has two perpendicular axes that intersect at the midpoint O, center of the
curve. The major axis AB is called the real axis and is represented by 2a. The minor axis CD
is represented by 2b. The focuses are on the real axis. The focal length F1-F2 is
represented by 2c.
• Between a, b and c there is the relationship: a 2 =b 2 +c 2
• The ellipse is symmetrical with respect to the two axes and, therefore, with respect to the
center O. The lines that join a point M of the curve with the foci are called radio vectors r
and r' and the definition verifies: r+r'=2a.

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• The principal circumference C p of the ellipse is the one whose center is that of the ellipse
and radius a. It is defined as the geometric location of the feet of the perpendiculars
drawn by the foci to each of the tangents. The focal circles Cf1 and Cf2 of the ellipse have
one of the foci as center and radius 2a.
• The ellipse can also be defined as the locus of the centers of the circles that pass through
one focus and are tangent to the focal circle of the other focus.
• If we have a diameter of the ellipse, the diameter conjugate with it is the locus of the
midpoints of all chords parallel to the first. The axes are two conjugate diameters and the
only ones that are perpendicular. In the circumference all pairs of conjugate diameters
are perpendicular

7. Graphic construction of the ellipse

to. Introduction
The ellipse is a curve or conic section. Conic sections are produced by cutting a plane and a
conical surface of revolution (Cone); Depending on the relative position of the plane and the
cone, three different conic curves are obtained, the Ellipse, the Parabola or the Hyperbola.
The elliptical section is determined by cutting the
cone with a plane oblique to the axis that cuts all the
generatrices, that is, we obtain an Ellipse when the
angle "a" formed by the secant plane Q with the axis
of the cone is greater than that formed by the
generatrices with the same "b" axis. (Figure 1)

b. Definition of the ellipse

The ellipse is defined as a closed and symmetrical
plane curve, the locus of points whose sum of
distances to the foci is constant and equal to the
major axis.
That is, for any point K on the ellipse the following
holds: KF1 + KF2 = AB ing
According to this definition: DF1 + DF2 = AB
As: DF1 = DF2, then 2DF1 = AB from which: DF1 = AB/2
(Figure 2)

c. Graphic construction of the ellipse.

There are several methods for its construction, one of the easiest being the one indicated below
(Figure 3)
1. With center at O and radius OA and then with radius OC, two circles are drawn.
2. Any diameters are drawn on the circles.
3. To obtain a point P of the ellipse, a perpendicular to AB is drawn through N and a parallel
through M. The rest of the points are obtained similarly.
4. The union of all these points can be done with curve templates or freehand.

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8. Origin, determination and layout of the

parabola

a. Origin
The parabola is a curve or conic section. Conic sections
are produced by cutting a plane and a conical surface of
revolution (Cone); Depending on the relative position of
the plane and the cone, three different conic curves are
obtained, the Ellipse, the Parabola or the Hyperbola.
We obtain a Parabola when a cone is cut by a plane

parallel to a generatrix. In the figure, the angle " " α

formed by the secant plane with the axis of the cone is

equal to the angle " β ", which the generatrix forms

with the axis.
The Parabola is a flat, open curve of a branch, defined as
the geometric locus of the points of the plane that are
equidistant from a fixed point called the focus, and from
a straight line called the directrix. It has only one axis of
symmetry.
According to the definition, for any point M on the
parabola, it must be true that MK=MF=constant.
Taking this property into account, vertex V is located at
the midpoint of OF.

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 PCE Drawing Notes
b. Construction of the parabola.
There are several methods, the one explained below is the
point method:
1. Given a directrix line d and a focus F , the vertex V of
the parabola is obtained taking into account that it is
located in the middle of OF.
2. Starting from V, the axis is divided into any number of
equal or unequal parts (A, B. C, D), drawing straight
lines perpendicular to the axis. Focus F can also be
used.
3. With center at F and radius AO, arcs are drawn,
obtaining points a and a' on the perpendicular drawn
by A
4. Proceeding in an analogous way, always with center in
F and radii FO, BO, CO, DO, the rest of the points b-b'
e-e', dd' and e-e' of the parabola are obtained.
5. By joining all these points with curve templates or
freehand, the parabola is obtained.

c. Qualities of the parable.

(if asked separately, repeat this introduction:)

The parabola is a curve or conic section. Conic sections are produced by cutting a plane and a conical
surface of revolution (Cone); Depending on the relative position of the plane and the cone, three
different conic curves are obtained, the Ellipse, the Parabola or the Hyperbola.
We obtain a Parabola when a cone is cut by a plane parallel to a generatrix. In the figure, the angle "

α " formed by the secant plane with the axis of the cone is equal to the angle " β ", which the
generatrix forms with the axis
Qualities:
The parabola has an axis perpendicular to the directrix
The parabola has a vertex V and a focus F located on the axis
The vertex, like any other point on the parabola, is equidistant from the directrix and the
focus.
Symmetry: the parabola is symmetrical about the axis.
Vector radii: they are the lines MF and MK that join a point with the focus F and with the
directrix. Main circle: it is the tangent line at the vertex; therefore it has infinite radius. Focal
circumference: it is the guideline itself; Therefore it has infinite radius.
Parameter 2p: is the length of the chord (b-b' in the figure) perpendicular to the axis at the
focus F. The projection of the focus on a tangent belongs to the main circle, that is, to the
tangent at the vertex.
The directrix is the geometric locus of the symmetrical points of the focus F with respect to
each tangent.
The focus F is equidistant from the point of tangency P of a tangent and from the point C
where it cuts the axis of the parabola, FP=FC.

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 PCE Drawing Notes
10. Origin, determination and layout of the hyperbola

The hyperbola is a curve or conic section. Conic sections are

produced by cutting a plane and a conical surface of revolution (Cone);
Depending on the relative position of the plane and the cone, three
different conic curves are obtained, the Ellipse, the Hyperbola or the
Hyperbola.
The hyperbola is obtained by cutting the cone through a plane parallel
to two generatrices. As a particular case, the plane can be parallel to In
the axis. In any case, it must always be true that a< b
Formally, the Hyperbola is a flat, open curve with two branches, defined as the geometric locus of
the points of the plane whose difference in distances to two other fixed points called foci is constant.
That is, for any point M on the curve it HE
always follows that: F 1 M - F 2 M = K
Applying this property to points A and B on of
the curve, we have:
for point A: F 2 A - F 1 A = K [1]
for point B: F 1 B - F 2 B = K
or what is the same: - F 2 B + F 1 B= K [2]
Adding the equations [1] + [2] term by term,
we have: (F 2 A - F 2 B) + (F 1 B- F 1 A) =2K
Each parenthesis being equal to the
distance as can be seen in the figure, then: AB,

AB + AB =2K 2AB =2K

AB=K
Then it is shown that the difference in distances from a point on the hyperbola to the foci is equal to
AB. This distance is called the major axis .
The hyperbola has two axes perpendicular to each other, called the real axis (major axis AB) and the
imaginary axis (minor axis CD). The name imaginary is due to not having any point in common with
the hyperbola.
The lines tangent to the hyperbola at infinity are called asymptotes .
As in the ellipse, the main circle is called the circle whose diameter is the major axis AB and focal
circles are those whose center is the foci and the radius is the major axis AB.

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d. Plot of the hyperbola.

There are several methods for its construction. The one indicated below is by points.
1. Given the axes and the foci F 1 and F 2 ,
the real axis is divided into any number of
equal or unequal parts. For example 1 23
2. With radii 1A and 1B, and centers at F 1
and F 2 respectively, arcs are drawn that
intersect at points M and M'.
3. Other points such as NN" and P- P' are
obtained in an analogous way.
taking into account that the radii will now
be 2A-2B and 3A-3B respectively.
4. The other branch of the hyperbola can
be obtained by symmetry or following an
analogous process by choosing points in the
Left area of the real axis.
5. The hyperbola is drawn by joining all the points obtained with curve templates or freehand.

e. Qualities of the hyperbola.

(if asked separately, repeat this introduction:)
The hyperbola is a curve or conic section. Conic sections are produced by
cutting a plane and a conical surface of revolution (Cone); Depending on the
relative position of the plane and the cone, three different conic curves are
obtained, the Ellipse, the Hyperbola or the Hyperbola.
The hyperbola is obtained by cutting the cone through a plane parallel to
two generatrices. As a particular case, the plane can be parallel to the axis.
In any case, it must always be true that a< b
Formally, the Hyperbola is a flat, open curve with two branches, defined as
the geometric locus of the points of the plane whose difference in distances of
to two other fixed points called foci is constant.

Qualities :

f. Major axis : The difference in distances from any point on the curve to the foci is a constant
measurement and equal to the major axis, the distance between the vertices, also known as
the real axis and is represented as 2a.

g. Minor axis : represented as 2b, it is perpendicular to the major axis at its midpoint. Its
measurement is obtained from the right triangle that has the distance a as a leg and the
distance c as a hypotenuse. Also known as imaginary axis.

h. Foci : they are two reference points located on the major axis that are equidistant from the
center of the hyperbola.
i. Focal length : it is the distance between the two focal points and is represented as 2c.

j. Vector radii : they are the segments that join each of the points of the hyperbola with the
foci.
k. Principal circle : It is the one whose center is that of the hyperbola and its radius is a.

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l. Focal circumference : it is the one that has one of the foci as its center and 2a as its radius.
Since the hyperbola has two foci it also has two focal circles.

m. Asymptotes : they are the two tangent lines to the curve at points located at infinity. They
pass through the center of the hyperbola and are symmetrical to each other.

9. Scales.
a. Concept
The representation of objects at their natural size is not possible when they are very large or when
they are very small. In the first case, because they would require formats of unwieldy dimensions and
in the second, because there would be a lack of clarity in their definition.
This problem is solved by SCALE, applying the necessary enlargement or reduction in each case so
that the objects are clearly represented on the drawing plane.
The SCALE is defined as the relationship between the drawn dimension with respect to its real
dimension, that is:
Scale = (dimension in the drawing)/(dimension in reality)
If the numerator of this fraction is greater than the denominator, it is an expansion scale, and it will
be a reduction scale otherwise. The 1:1 scale corresponds to an object drawn at its actual size
(natural scale).

b. Normalized scales. Examples.

Although, in theory, it is possible to apply any scale value, in practice the use of certain normalized
values is recommended in order to facilitate the reading of dimensions through the use of rulers or
scalemeters.
The UNE 1-026-83 (1) 2R standard, which agrees with ISO 5455 - 79, establishes the following
recommended categories and scales:
Recommended Category/Scale:

• Magnification scales / 50:1; 20:1; 10:1; 5:1; 2:1

• Natural scale / 1:1
• Reduction scales / 1:2; 1:20; 1:200; 1:2000; 1:5; 1:50; 1:500; 1:5000; 1:10: 1:100;
1:1000; 1:10000
However, in special cases (particularly in construction) certain intermediate scales are used such as:
1:25, 1:30, 1:40, etc...
Examples
1- We wish to represent the floor plan of a 60 x 30 meter building in A3 format.

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The most convenient scale for this case would be 1:200, which would provide dimensions of 30 x
15 cm, very suitable for the size of the format.
2- We wish to represent a watch piece measuring 2 x 1 mm in A4 format.
The appropriate scale would be 10:1
The most common shape of the scale is that of a ruler 30 cm long, with a star section with 6 facets or
faces. Each of these facets is graduated with different scales, which are usually: 1:100, 1:200, 1:250,
1:300, 1:400, 1:500

c. Graphic scales. Examples.

a. Thales theorem.
Based on the Thales Theorem, a simple graphical method is used to apply a scale.
Let's look at the construction for, for
example, the case for Scale 3:5

1. With origin at an arbitrary point O, two

lines r and s are drawn forming any
angle.
2. The denominator of the scale is located
on the r line (5 in this case) and the
numerator (3 in this case) is located on
the s line. The ends of these segments
are A and B.
3. Any real dimension located above r will
be converted to that of the
drawing using a simple parallel to AB.

b. Universal triangle of scales

Using a triangle, we can build the
simplest scales, both standardized
and not.
As we see in the figures, we can do
it using an equilateral triangle with
a side of 10 cm, or using an
isosceles right-angled triangle,
whose legs measure 10 cm.

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10. The reduction coefficient in the isometric system.

Isometric perspective is an orthogonal cylindrical axonometry
perspective, that is, a technique for graphic representation of a
three-dimensional object in two dimensions, where the three
orthogonal coordinate axes when projected form equal angles of
120º each on the plane. The dimensions of the bodies parallel to
the axes are represented on the same scale.
This perspective has the advantage of allowing representation to
scale, and the disadvantage of not reflecting the apparent
decrease in size - proportional to distance - perceived by the
human eye .

In the set of axonometric or cylindrical projections, there are

other types of different perspectives fundamentally due to the position of the main axes, and the use
of different reduction coefficients to compensate for visual distortions.
Reduction coefficients are factors that are applied to the dimensions measured in each axis of the
drawing, with the intention of alleviating deformations due to perspective. In the isometric
perspective, the reduction coefficient is the same in all three axes, since the three axes form equal
angles to each other.
Isometric perspective generally uses a dimension reduction coefficient equal to 0.82.
The way to obtain it is as follows:
1. Each axis is extended in the direction of the other two. I represent it with a dashed line.
2. A perpendicular line is drawn at the opposite angle to one of the axes. In the figure, between
the X and Y axes a line perpendicular to the Z axis.
3. The arc capable of the XY axis for the 90º angle is drawn. To do this, the bisector of segment
1-2 is drawn and the midpoint M is obtained. Centered at this point M, the arc of
circumference between 1 and 2 is drawn.

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4. The extension of the Z axis in its cut with the arc of circumference determines the position of
the depressed point O (O). It is joined with points 1 and 2 and the lowered XY plane is
obtained.
5. With the plane lowered, it can now be measured in true magnitude. The X and Y axes are
divided into parts of 1cm each, starting from point O.
6. They are drawn parallel to the Z axis, obtaining the reduced centimeters according to the
isometric perspective.
7. The process is repeated for the Z axis. It can be done either by prolonging the X axis (as I have
done) or the Y axis. The result is logically the same.

11. Standards regarding technical drawing. Advantages and

disadvantages.
A standard is a technical specification, or other type of document, established in principle with the
cooperation and general consensus of interested parties, based on the joint results of science,
technology and experience, aimed at optimal benefit of the community and that has been approved
by a qualified body at the regional, national or international level.
In technical drawing there are representation rules that include formats, labeling, dimensioning and
line drawing.
Normalization has the following advantages:
• Transparency in the market.

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• Increase in production.

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• Consumer protection.
• Simplification of business operations.
• International commercial exchanges.
• Reduction of litigation.
• Disadvantages:
• Immediate inflationary effect.
• It can be used as a technical barrier by countries or companies.
• The use of specific optimal solutions for specific problems is complicated.

12. Construction of regular polygons from the side. Examples

There are different methods to construct a regular polygon, based on the length of its side and the
number of sides the polygon must have. Thus, there are specific methods for constructing a
pentagon, hexagon or heptagon.
The following method can be applied to a regular polygon with any number of sides and any side
length, so it is very flexible and avoids having to learn a different procedure for each polygon.
The first thing that is necessary is to know how to divide a circle into any number of equal parts by
the general approximate procedure. As an example we will divide the given circle with center O into
11 equal parts. The process to follow is:
1. The diameter AB is divided into the same number of parts
A1119
same as we want to divide the circumference, that is, into
Xy1
11.

2. With center at A and then at B and opening of the compass equal to the diameter, arcs are drawn
that intersect at P.
3. P is joined with division number 2 of the diameter and extended until it cuts the circumference at
1.
4. The magnitude A1 is transported with the compass for a total of
11 times.

Regular polygon of any number of sides starting from the side, using the approximate general
procedure :

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As an example, we are going to build a regular heptagon that has the segment h as its side.
The process to follow is:
1. A circle with any radius is drawn and this is
divided (using the general approximate procedure)
into the same number of parts as the polygon you
wish to build, that is, 7.
2. O is joined with J and K.
3. The bisector of the angle JOK is drawn and the
magnitude of the side h is symmetrically transported
on a line perpendicular to it, obtaining the points P
and Q.
4. Through P and Q they are drawn parallel to the
JOK bisector, obtaining the points A and B.
5. With center at O, the circle of radius OA in which
the polygon will be inscribed is drawn.
6. A is joined with B and this measurement is
transported until the polygon layout is completed.

13. Representation systems. Examples.

All representation systems aim to represent objects that are three-dimensional in space on a two-
dimensional surface, such as a sheet of paper.
With this objective, different representation systems have been devised throughout history. But all of
them meet a fundamental condition, reversibility , that is, although starting from a three-
dimensional object, the different systems allow a two-dimensional representation of said object, in
the same way, given the two-dimensional representation, the system must allow obtaining the
position in the space of each of the elements of said object.
All systems are based on the projection of objects onto a plane, which is called the picture or
projection plane , using the so-called projecting rays.
The number of projection planes used, their relative position with respect to the object, as well as the
direction of the projecting rays, are the characteristics that differentiate the different representation
systems.
Projecting rays are imaginary lines that, passing through the vertices or points of the object, provide,
at their intersection with the plane of the picture, the projection of said vertex or point.
If the origin of the projecting rays is a point at infinity, which is called an improper point, all the rays
will be parallel to each other, giving rise to what is called a cylindrical projection.
If these rays are perpendicular to the projection plane, we will be facing the orthogonal cylindrical
projection ; if they are oblique with respect to said plane, we will be facing the oblique cylindrical
projection.

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If the origin of the rays is a proper point, we will be looking at the central or conical
projection.

Representation systems are divided into two groups, measurement systems and measurement
systems.
representative . [eye! representative, not representation]
The measurement systems are characterized by the possibility of being able to make measurements
directly on the drawing, to obtain in a simple and quick way the dimensions and position of the
objects in the drawing. The drawback of these systems is that the shape and proportions of the
objects represented cannot be seen at a glance. The dihedral system and the system of bounded
planes are measurement systems.
Representative systems are characterized by representing objects through a single projection,
making it possible to appreciate their shape and proportions at a glance. They have the disadvantage
of being more difficult to carry out than measurement systems, especially if they involve drawing a
large number of curves, and that it is sometimes impossible to take direct measurements on the
drawing. Representative systems are the axonometric perspective system, the knight's perspective
system, the military and frog perspective system, variants of the knight's perspective and the conical
or central perspective system.

14. Division of a segment in equal sections. Example and

Applications.
Thales' theorem says that “the segments of two concurrent lines intercepted by a bundle of parallel
lines are proportional.”
One of the applications of this theorem is the division of a segment into an equal number n of equal
parts.
Division of a segment AB into three parts, for example:
1. Another auxiliary segment is drawn convergent with the given one at point A that forms a
any.
2. On this segment with the compass, we
mark the n divisions of any length, one
after the other. We obtain the points M,
N, P, such that AM=MN=NP.
3. The last point P is joined to the other end
of the segment, point B, obtaining the
segment PB.
4. Parallels to segment PB are drawn that
pass through points M and N. The
intersection points K and L of these parallels with the segment AB give us the desired

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divisions. AK=KL=LB is fulfilled

The division of a segment into equal parts has application for the construction of graphic scales and is
also used, for example, in the division of a circle into any number of equal parts by the general
approximate procedure.

15. Conical perspective. Examples.

(Fundamentals of conical perspective. Practical example)

a. Concept
The conical perspective is a representation of an object that causes the same effect in our view as if it
were observed from a certain point with only one eye, therefore, it is based on the conical or central
projection system with the point of view being the center. projection.
The vision obtained will appear with its apparent reductions and deformations due to the effect of
distance, thus giving a sense of perspective.
As such a representation, distorted perspectives can be obtained depending on the location of the
point of view and the object with respect to the plane on which it is projected (picture plane). For this
to be as real as possible, the object must be placed behind the plane of the picture.
The conical perspective is obtained by imaginatively tracing visual rays through each of the vertices of
the object from the point of view. The intersections of these rays with the picture plane produce
perspective.
Important advantages in using this system include:
• It is an ideal system for representations with the idea of volume.
• It is simplified when the elevation of the object is parallel to the plane of the picture,
obtaining a frontal or parallel projection.
• The mathematical complexity that it presents can be relatively resolved through the use of
the computer.
As possible drawbacks , we can highlight:
• Since deformations occur due to the representation itself, it becomes complex to measure on
the plane.
• The tangents are maintained, but the parallelism between lines not belonging to the plane of
the picture is lost.
• Dimensioning becomes difficult.
• The realization, especially by conventional means, is mathematically complex.
There can be three types of conical perspective depending on the position occupied by the object
with respect to the plane of the picture and the plane on which the objects are considered resting. So
we have:
• Perspective of a vanishing point.
• Perspective of two vanishing points.
• Three vanishing point perspective.

b. Items
The elements to consider in the conical perspective are:
• Picture plane is the plane of the drawing on which the perspective of the object is obtained.
It is represented by the acronym PC . The PC is generally placed between the observer and

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the object, but can also occupy any other position, such as behind the object or cutting into
it.
• Geometral plane is the plane perpendicular to the PC on which the objects are considered to
be supported. It is represented by the acronym PG .
• Ground line is the line of intersection of the geometric planes and the painting. It is
designated with LT and with two thick even lines below it.
• Point of view is the point from which the visual rays depart towards the object. It is also
called the projection center. It is designated with the letter V
• Principal ray is the distance from the point of view to the PC.
• Principal point , this is the name given to the point of intersection of the main ray with the
PC. It is designated with the letter P.
• Horizon line is the horizontal line of the PC that passes through the main point. It is
designated by the acronym LH .
• Horizon plane is the horizontal plane that passes through the point of view.
• Vanishing plane is the plane parallel to the PC that passes through the point of view.
• Principal plane is the plane perpendicular to the PC and the PG passing through the point of
view.
Example: Representation of bodies.
To obtain the conical perspective of volumes, follow the following steps:
1. The plan of the object is drawn in perspective.
2. The corresponding height is raised at each of its vertices, taking into account that real magnitudes
can only be carried on straight lines located on the PC.
Conical perspective of a cube located in front of the PC behind the PC:

16. Choice of point of view in the conical perspective.

Considering the object of which we want to determine its conical projection fixed, it is up to us to
freely choose to place the point of view (main distance and height) and the frame. The shape and size
of the image, the sharpness of the details and the plastic and real effect that it produces in our view
will depend on the arrangement of these elements.

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It must be far from the object so that the maximum angle of the visual cone is less than 60º. Its
location in plan and elevation will depend on the parts that you want to see or highlight and the
effect to be achieved:
• In isolated buildings, monuments, etc. in which it is interesting to represent two facades, it
will be placed in front of the corner formed by both.
• In closed premises (homes, shops, etc.) We find a difficulty when locating the point of view,
this is solved by placing the point of view outside the premises and considering the walls or
walls transparent.
The distance between the observer and the geometric plane is reflected in the height h (distance
between the LH and the LT). The view obtained of the object differs significantly with the situation of
the point of view:
• In the serene view , both indoors and outdoors, a height for the horizon line is normally
established (approximately the average of a person) 1.70 or 1.20 meters, depending on
whether it is considered standing or sitting.
• A low point of view ( frog perspective ) shows a smaller proportion of the ground plane,
while decreasing the distance between the horizon line and the ground line. With this type of
perspective it is possible to highlight the height of the objects.
• The representation of architectural complexes from a “ bird's eye view ” is widely used to
clearly offer the urban distribution. In this case, the LH rises well above the LT
• The LT is located in the celestial view above the LH so that we can visualize the lower floor of
the object.

17. Knight Perspective. Practical example.

Knightly perspective is a representation system that uses oblique parallel projection, in which the
dimensions of the frontal projecting plane, like those of the elements parallel to it, are in true
magnitude.
Parallel means that the observer's visual rays are parallel to each other, forming a cylinder. This is
opposite to Conical Perspective, in which the visual rays converge at one point, the vertex of the
cone.
Oblique means that it is not orthogonal. The Dihedral System uses, for example, projections
orthogonal to the projection plane. Using an oblique projection allows us to see the volume of the
object and have an immediate perception of its appearance.
In these two aspects, the Knightly Perspective is equal to the Axonometric Perspective. The difference
is that in the Caballera one of the planes is seen in True Magnitude. That is, in a gentleman's
perspective, two dimensions of the volume to be represented are projected in true magnitude
(height and width) and the third (depth) with a reduction coefficient.
The plane seen in True Magnitude is, normally, the frontal plane, formed by the OX and OZ Axes. This
angle will, therefore, be 90º. The Y axis, the depth axis, can be positioned freely, although the normal
angle is 135º. This makes it easier to understand and execute the drawing.
The Reduction Coefficient is applied to perspectives to alleviate the deformation produced by the
perspective. In Caballera, the Reduction Coefficient is only applied to the Y axis, the depth axis. The X
and Z axes, as I have explained, are seen in True Magnitude and therefore do not have a Coefficient.
Sometimes, for ease, it can be drawn without a Reduction Coefficient. In this case the perspective is
quite distorted. The most common reduction ratios are 1:2, 2:3 and 3:4.

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Practical example: drawing of a cube in knightly perspective

1. The horizontal (X) and vertical (Z) axes are drawn.
2. The Y axis is drawn forming the angle that interests you.
3. A square is drawn on the XZ plane, taking the same dimension horizontally as vertically.
4. From the vertices of this cube, draw lines parallel to the Y axis, draw the dimension on the Y
axis (with reduction coefficients, as I will explain below) and draw parallel again to the X and
Z axes.
5. It is verified that all the lines must remain closed, they must match

CR= 3/4

90º
0
135º

18. Dihedral System. Practical example.

The dihedral system is a geometric representation system that allows the three dimensions of space
to be represented in the two dimensions of a plane, using an orthogonal projection on two planes
that intersect perpendicularly. The system formed by the two planes is called dihedral .
These projection planes, one horizontal (PH) and the other vertical (PV), determine a line called the
ground line (LT) between them and serve to reference us with respect to the two views of the
system. Normally we use a third auxiliary plane called a profile plane (PP).
If the ground line is dispensed with, it is called a direct dihedral system .
To capture all the details of an object, in most cases, it is enough to obtain three views called
elevation, plan and profile.

• Elevation is the front view of the object. The elevation that best describes the shapes of the
object is chosen.
• Plan is the view obtained when we observe the object from above.
• Profile is the view corresponding to the left side of the object.
Once the elevation, plan and profile have been obtained, the projections of the object must be
located in a specific way to correctly interpret the drawing. The profile (left) should be placed to the
right of the elevation; and the plan, below the elevation.
A point located in space is represented by its two projections (like shadows) on the main planes:
horizontal projection and vertical projection.

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Cota . The height of a point in space is the distance between it and its projection in the horizontal
plane, or in other words the distance between the vertical projection and the Earth line (LT). That is,
its distance on the Z axis.
Estrangement . The distance between a point in space and its projection in the vertical plane is called
the distance between it and its projection in the vertical plane, which is equivalent to the distance
between the horizontal projection and the Earth line (LT). That is, its distance on the Y axis.
The vertical and horizontal projections of a point are always aligned, with the segment that joins
them being perpendicular to the Earth line (LT).
Laterality . Laterality or distance to the origin of a point in space is called its location (right or left)
with respect to the ground line (LT). That is, its distance on the X axis.
Determination by coordinates . A point can be determined by coordinates. The origin of this system
will be the intersection of the main planes: horizontal, vertical and profile.

• The X axis is determined by the straight intersection of the horizontal and vertical planes,
that is, on the Ground Line.
• The Y axis is determined by the straight intersection of the horizontal and profile planes.
• The Z axis is determined by the straight intersection of the vertical and profile planes.

The figure in the example is the dihedral system representation of a volume shaped like the letter "L":
The two figures on the left are the projections or main views of the piece. The figure on the right is
the side view of the same piece, or its lateral projection

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