Air Quality, Indoor Air Quality,

Air Pollution and Control

MDP60303 Environmental Health

Dr. Lim Siong Hee

CMPH UNIMAS

1
Recall
• What are the 5 spheres? The crucial 3 spheres that support life?

• Types of radiation? Examples? 3 principles (DOJ) & 3factors

controlling (DST)?

• Hierarchy of hazard control?

2
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Contents
• Key Concepts
• Clean Air
• History of Air Pollution
• Classifications
• Ambient Air Pollution & Pollutants
• Source of Pollutants
• Health Effects
• Prevention & Control

5
Key Concepts
• Air pollution is one of the major contributor to human health illness.
• Asthma, CVS, premature death, CA, etc.
• It a problem to human health since thousand years ago. E.g. Volcano
eruption.
• Things getting worse with more and more man-made air pollutants.
• From ozone to particulate matter (PM), each with own sources,
chemistry, and toxic effects.

6
Cont.
• Prevention & control: Law, policies, source, exposure, surveillance,
enforcement, treatment, etc.

• If one water source polluted, we can retrieve clean water from other
source (and yet the number of clean water source is reducing
drastically). How about polluted air?

• Hence, it affect everyone (new born > elderly), both indoor and
outdoor.

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Clean Air
• No universal definition
• US Clean Air Act (CAA) 1970, last amendment 1990
• Comprehensive US federal law that regulates air emissions from stationary and
mobile sources
• This law authorizes EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) to protect public health and public welfare and to regulate emissions
of hazardous air pollutants
Two standards:
1)Primary standards provide public health protection, including protecting the
health of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly.
2)Secondary standards provide public welfare protection, including protection
against decreased visibility and damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and
buildings.
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 Department of Environment
Cont. Ministry Of Natural Resources, Environment
and Climate Change

• Malaysia: Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 2014.

• Applicable to:
• Any premises or equipment or plants or industry or process that discharges or
is capable of discharging air pollutants into the open air.

• Obligation to comply, notify, measures to reduce emission, control

system, record maintenance, limit values, standards, penalty, etc.

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Malaysia Air Pollutant Index (API)

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US EPA Air Quality Index (AQI)

14
Cont.

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WHO (Update 2023 – Released on 15 May 2023 – 6th edition (V6.0))

• WHO Ambient Air Quality Database compiles data on annual mean

concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter of a diameter equal
or smaller than 10 μm (PM10) or equal or smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) which
representing an average for the city or town as a whole, rather than for individual
stations.

• Both groups of pollutants originate mainly from human activities related to fossil
fuel combustion.

• PM and nitrogen dioxide are able to penetrate deep into the respiratory tract
and therefore constitute a risk for health by increasing mortality from respiratory
infections and diseases, lung cancer, and selected cardiovascular diseases.

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PM 2.5 VS PM 10 (PM 2.5 mainly from?)
• Particles are defined by their aerodynamic diameter for air quality
regulatory purposes.

• Those with a diameter of 10 microns or less (PM10) are inhalable into the
lungs and can induce adverse health effects.

• Fine particulate matter is defined as particles that are 2.5 microns or less in
diameter (PM2.5).

• The major components of PM are sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium

chloride, black carbon, mineral dust and water.
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18
Aeroplane use Kerosene
Due to cheaper, lower
Freesing point, higher
Flash point, lower viscocity

19
PM
PM Characteristics
PM 10 Particles with aerodynamic diameter of 10micrometers or less
PM 2.5 (Fine PM) Aerodynamic diameter up to 2.5 micrometres
Ultrafine PM Aerodynamic diameter up to 0.1 micrometres
Coarse PM (PM 10- Aerodynamic diameter between 2.5 and 10 micrometres.
2.5)
Total suspended All particles in the air, up to 45 micrometres in aerodynamic
particles (TSP) diameter

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Source: www.thelancet.com 21
ISO Definition of PM
• PM10 – particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50
% efficiency cut-off at 10 μm aerodynamic diameter. PM10
corresponds to the “thoracic convention” as defined in ISO
7708:1995, Clause 6.

• PM2.5 – particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50

% efficiency cut-off at 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter. PM2.5
corresponds to the “high-risk respirable convention” as defined in
ISO 7708:1995, 7.1.

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Dust
• Inhalable dust
– Particle with median aerodynamic diameter of 10 µm and above
– Trapped in the nose, throat, and upper respiratory tract

• Respirable dust
– Particle with median aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm
– Passes nose and upper respiratory system and deep into the lungs
– “Coarse particles”: 2.5 µm – 10 µm, usually from roadways, dusty industries,
etc
– "Fine particles”: < 2.5 µm, usually from forest fires, haze, smog, or from
emission reactions from power plants, industries, automobiles

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History of Air Pollution
• About 1 million years ago, human discover ……….fire
• Start to pollute air in places we lived (indoor and outdoor).
• Invention of fossil fuel–based engines, machinery, industrial evolution,
urbanization.
• Open burning, deforestation, energy generation, etc.
• From local (houses, town, state) to global scale.
• Started from developed countries and areas (since 1800)
• Hence, well established regulations, acts, policies and strategies from
advanced countries such as USA, EU.
• Concern on developing countries (Industrialization, economy ,etc).

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Cont.
• Air pollution is a major challenge for fast growing cities of low and middle
income countries.

• Fossil fuel transportation and energy source, industries (economy),

ineffective regulation, uncontrol emissions. Fossil fuel - cheapest and
easiest way to generate energy for most of the developing countries.

• Directly affect human health in short and long term.

• Burden and impact on economy (treatment, productivity, etc) in short as

well as long term.
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Classification
• Indoor vs outdoor air pollution
• Characteristic of Pollutants
• Natural vs man-made

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Indoor Air Quality
• People spend a large part of their time each day indoor

• Indoor air pollution, originating from both outdoor and indoor

sources, is likely to contribute more to population exposure than the
outdoor environment alone

• What is the average time we stay indoor?

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Major indoor air pollutant sources

Source: Zhang J,
Smith KR. Indoor
air pollution: a
global health
concern. BMJ,
2003,
67:209–225. 32
Classify Air Pollutants based on
Form/Characteristic
Types Characteristics / sources/ examples

Gaseous from materials which have entered into chemical reactions or combustion processes.I
nclude carbon-based compounds like hydrocarbons, oxides and acids, sulfur compounds
such as dioxide, trioxide and sulfides, nitrogen compounds (ammonia, amines, oxides) and
halogenated substances (organic and inorganic halides).

Particulates Particles or droplets size may range from 0.01 to 100 μm in diameter. The smaller particles
are referred to as aerosols and can remain suspended, scattering and behaving much like a
gas. Below 10 μm particles are capable of penetrating to all sites in the respiratory tract.

Smog is a combination of smoke and fog, a mixture of gaseous and particulate pollutants that
accumulate over urban centers and persists for a prolonged period. is a brown or yellow
haze, and it usually occurs during the phenomenon of temperature inversion when a high-
level mass of hot air traps colder air beneath it to prevent mixing and dispersion. E.g.
London Smog (fog) in 1952 lasted over a week and causes about 4,000 deaths, mostly from
respiratory diseases.

Haze consists of sufficient smoke, dust, moisture, and vapour suspended in air to impair visibility.
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Mist, Fog
• Mist and fog are caused by water droplets in the air, and the only
difference is how far you can see. Will clear off with rise of
temperature or during day time (vise versa for Haze, PM, Smog).

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Air Pollutants
• Primary pollutant – directly emitted to environment. E.g. CO from
vehicle.

• Secondary pollutant – formed in the atmosphere through physical

and chemical reaction. E.g. ozone

• Anthropogenic – from human activities.

• Biogenic – natural source. E.g. pollen, dust from deserts.

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Ambient Air Pollution & Pollutants
• Concentration and types of air pollutant depend on the source, weather,
temperature, emission rate.

• Smaller pollutant (air born) may travel far from source, remain longer in
the atmosphere.

• Air pollutants can be classify based on: Physical, chemical characteristics

and source.

• Focus on the major pollutants which produce in large amount, severe

health impact on human.
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 Pollutant Source Type And Major Health Effects Regulations And
Sources Guidelines
Lead Primary, Anthropogenic, Fuel Accumulate in organs, fat tissues, U.S.NAAQS guideline
(phased out), battery, metal cause learning disability, CA, CNS WHO: annual: 0.50
processing effect mg/m3 EQA 1974
Sulfur Dioxide Primary, Anthropogenic, combustion Respiratory illness, Acid rain, U.S.NAAQS guideline
of fossil fuel, biogenic, boilers, coal precursor to PM, penetrate WHO: annual: 20 ug/m3
burning, volcano smaller airways – worsen EQA 1974
emphysema, chronic bronchitis,
existing heart diseases
Carbon Monoxide Primary, Anthropogenic, motor, Bind to Hb (haemoglobin), U.S.NAAQS guideline
vehicle, fossil fuel, boiler, forest fire, fatigue, headache, dizzy WHO guideline
biogenic EQA 1974
Particulate matter Primary, secondary, Anthropogenic, Respiratory related illness, CVS U.S.NAAQS guideline
fossil fuel burning, burning (wood, related illness, depend on WHO guideline
(PM) pollen), conversion of precursors particle size and composition EQA 1974
(SO, NO), Biogenic, dust, forest fire,
dirt roads
Nitrogen Oxides Primary, secondary, Anthropogenic, Decrease lung function, U.S.NAAQS guideline
fossil fuel, biogenic, lightning respiratory illness, precursor to WHO guideline
ozone, PM, acid precipitation EQA 1974 37
 Pollutant Source Type And Health Effects Regulations And
Major Sources Guidelines

Tropospheric Ozone Secondary, via chemical Decrease lung function, U.S.NAAQS guideline
reactions of anthropogenic respiratory illness, eye WHO guideline
and biogenic precursor (VOC, irritation, irritate airway,
NO) in the presence of bronchoconstriction,
sunlight powerful oxidants
Toxic Pollutants Primary, secondary, CA, reproductive illness, EPA rules on emission
Anthropogenic, industry neurological damage, EQA 1974
(Asbestos, mercury, processes, solvents, paint respiratory effect
dioxin) thinners, fuel
Volatile Organic Primary, secondary, Irritation to respiratory tract, EPA rules on emission
Anthropogenic, solvents, CA, precursor to Ozone. EQA 1974
Compounds (benzene, glues, smoking, fuel Contribute to PM.
terpenes, toluene) combustion, biogenic, forest
fire
Biological Pollutants Primary, Anthropogenic, Allergic reactions, respiratory
system such as central air symptoms, asthma
(Mold, pollen, mildew) conditioning, biogenic, trees,
grass, animals, debris
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EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; EQA 1974 – Environmental Quality Act 1974; NAAQS – National Ambient Air Quality standards under U.S Clean Air Act
 US NAAQS
Primary/ Averaging
Pollutant Level Form
Secondary Time
8-hour 9 ppm Not to be exceeded more than once
Carbon monoxide Primary
1-hour 35 ppm per year
Rolling 3
Primary and 0.15
Lead months Not to be exceeded
secondary μg/m3
average
98th percentile of 1-hour daily
Primary 1-hour 100 ppb maximum concentrations, averaged
Nitrogen dioxide over 3 years
Primary and
Annual 53 ppb Annual Mean
secondary
Annual fourth-highest daily maximum
Primary and 0.075
Ozone 8-hr concentration, averaged over 3
secondary 8-hour ppm
years
Primary Annual 12 μg/m3 annual mean, averaged over 3 years
Secondary Annual 15 μg/m3 annual mean, averaged over 3 years
PM2.5
Particle Primary and
24-hour 35 μg/m3 98th percentile, averaged over 3 years
pollution secondary
Primary and 150 Not to be exceeded more than once
PM10 24-hour
secondary μg/m3 per year on average over 3 years
99th percentile of 1-hour daily
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5 Most Important Air Pollutants
1)Particulate matter (PM) - PM is a common proxy indicator for air pollution.
• Strong evidence for the negative health impacts associated with exposure
to this pollutant. Mainly PM 2.5
• The major components of PM are sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium
chloride, black carbon, mineral dust and water.

2)Carbon monoxide (CO) - Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and

tasteless toxic gas produced by the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
fuels such as wood, petrol, charcoal, natural gas and kerosene.

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3) Ozone (O3) - Ozone at ground level – not to be confused with the
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
• Is one of the major constituents of photochemical smog and it is
formed through the reaction with gases in the presence of sunlight.

4) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - NO2 is a gas that is commonly released

from the combustion of fuels in the transportation and industrial
sectors.

5) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) - SO2 is a colorless gas with a sharp odour.

• It is produced from the burning of fossil fuels (coal and oil) and the
smelting of mineral ores that contain sulfur.

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Consequences Of Air Pollution (Direct, Indirect
Effects)
Environmental effects
• Global warming
• Acid rain
• Eutrophication
• Haze
• Effects on wildlife
• Crop and land damage
• Ozone depletion

Health effects
• Acute health effects
• Chronic health effects

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Global Warming
• CO2 partially restricts infrared radiation from the earth into space,
and produces greenhouse effect.
• Greenhouse gases: CO2, CH, NO, O3 , CFC.

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Acid Rain / Acid Deposition
• Emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, react with the water
molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids (e.g. nitric acid vapor,
sulfuric acid, sulfate, and nitrate salts).
• These chemicals descend to the earth's surface in wet form as rain or
snow, and in dry form as gases, fog, or solid particles, and known as
acid rain or acid deposition.
• Acid rain causes structural damage through corrosive effect on
stones, bricks, pain work, and tarnishing of silverware due to
hydrogen sulphide and sulfur dioxide in the air, etc.

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Eutrophication
• A condition in a water where high concentrations of nutrients (such
as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish
kills and loss of plant and animal diversity.
• Although eutrophication is a natural process in the aging of lakes and
some estuaries, human activities can greatly accelerate
eutrophication by increasing the rate at which nutrients enter
aquatic ecosystems.
• Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and
other sources contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic
ecosystems.

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Effects On Wildlife
• Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can
impact wildlife in a number of ways.
• Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects,
reproductive failure, and disease in animals
• Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the
environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems.
• These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may bio magnify in
tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations
many times higher than in the water or air.

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Crop And Forest Damage
• Air pollution damage crops and trees in various ways.
• Ground level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and
commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree
seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and
other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather).
• Crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from
increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion.
• Defective vegetation growth can also be caused by inadequate
sunlight absorption by leaves, decreasing chlorophyll content, stoma
clogging, and changes in soil properties.
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Ozone Depletion
• Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper
atmosphere, known as the stratosphere.
• At ground level, ozone is a pollutant that can harm human health.
• In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a layer that protects life on earth from
the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays.
• But this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals
referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons.
• These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in coolants,
foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol
propellants.
• Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause increased amounts of UV
radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of skin cancer,
cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage sensitive crops,
such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields.
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Health Effects (Hazard + Exposure = Risk)
• Health effects depend on the exposure, physical form, chemical
composition, size, solubility and characteristic.

• Which determine the ability to penetrate the respiratory tract >

deposited at the lung tissue, penetrate into capillary and enter
artery/veins > systemic effects, deposition, toxicity, injuries.

• Higher respiratory rate at more polluted atmosphere > higher risk.

E.g. jogging at park near industry area, by the road side.

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Cont.
• Health effects of air pollution been extensively studied via
epidemiological, human exposure, animal, and toxicological study.

• Health effect also depend on human activity pattern – daily activities,

time spend in different environment.

• E.g of Epid study: Outdoor air monitoring at city with highest air
pollution index and high mortality rate mainly due to respiratory
related illness (Dockery et al., 1993).

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Mainly Epidemiological Studies
• Open space
• Population exposure
• Other confounding factors
• Unethical conducting directly on human
• Animal studies

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Acute Health Effects
• Short-term exposure to hazardous levels of air pollutants may result in
irritation to the eyes and the respiratory tract.

• Populations at high risks include the very young and the elderly, whose
respiratory and cardiovascular systems are not fully functional, people
with asthma, emphysema, heart disease, and heavy smokers.

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Chronic Health Effects
• Long-term exposure to lower levels of pollution may result in,
aggravate, or increase risk of chronic bronchitis, pulmonary
emphysema, bronchial asthma, heart attack and lung cancer.

• Cigarette smoke will cause or aggravate all these problems,

produce free radicals which impaired the surface membrane of
lung parenchyma as well as blood vessels. Increase risk of MI.

• Dust and other allergens, including pollen, 1 – 90μm in diameter,

can induce or trigger allergic reactions in susceptible people.
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 PM2.5 and health effects
Lung Cancer,
Cardiopulmonary
Mortality, and
Long-term Exposure
to Fine Particulate
Air Pollution

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Source: www.thelancet.com 62
TSG – Tumor suppressor gene

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 PM10
Smoke, dirt and dust from factories,
farming, and roads. Contains mold,
spores, and pollen
Due to crushing and grinding rocks and
soil and then blown by wind
Stay in the air for minutes or hours
Can travel as little as a hundred yards or as Can travel many hundreds of miles
much as 30 miles.
Weaker risk factor than PM2.5 for
mortality, evidence available on short
term health effects on respiratory system
All-cause daily mortality is estimated to
increase by 0.2–0.6% per 10 μg/m3 of
PM10
PM2.5
Usually comprises of toxic organic
compounds and heavy metals
Emitted from driving automobiles, burning
plants (brush fires and forest fires or yard
waste), smelting (purifying) and
processing metals
Stay in the air for days or weeks
Stronger risk factor than PM10 for
mortality
Long-term exposure to PM2.5 is
associated with an increase in the
long-term risk of cardiopulmonary
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mortality by 6–13% per 10 μg/m3 of
Health Effects of Poor Indoor Air Quality

• Sick building syndrome

– A term used to describe office worker discomfort and medical
symptoms that are related to building characteristics, to pollutant
exposures and to work organization, and that are mediated through
personal risk factors.

• Building related illnesses (BRI)

– Specific illnesses due to agents presence in the building, e.g.
Legionnaires’ disease, Pontiac fever, asthma, hypersensitivity
pneumonitis, humidifier fever

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SBS vs BRI
• Building-related illness, in which an identifiable factor causes a
specific illness, is much less common than sick building syndrome, in
which there is no identifiable cause for nonspecific symptoms.
• In SBS, a person experiences acute symptoms upon entering a
building. The symptoms disappear when the person leaves the
building. The symptoms don't turn into other conditions or cause
distress when you're not in the building.
• With BRI, the symptoms are an expression of a well-defined illness
with a specific cause.

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Sick Building Syndrome
• NIOSH investigators (App Occ Environ Hyg J 11:540-545 (1996))
devised a “Sick Building Syndrome” (SBS) case definition:

• 3 or more of the following symptoms on a weekly basis (improving

away from work):
• dry or irritated eyes sore or dry throat stuffy or runny nose
• unusual tiredness or fatigue headache

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Sick building syndrome

SBS is generally considered to be

present if 20% of the building
occupants are symptomatic

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 Risk factors
for and
causes of the
sick building
syndrome

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 BRI - Legionellosis
• Agent: Legionellae pneumophila
• Reservoir: Aqueous (hot water systems, air conditioning cooling towers,
humidifiers, whirlpool spas, respiratory therapy devices, decorative
fountains)

• MOT: Inhalation (infected water droplets), aspiration (infected water)

• Occupations: Not strictly occupational disease. Workers in large

buildings with infected water systems (eg: hotels, hospitals)

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Legionellosis: Clinical features
• 2 distinct clinical manifestations:

1) Legionnaires’ disease
– IP: 5 – 6 days (range: 2 – 10 days)
– High fever with anorexia, malaise, myalgia, headache
– Usu a/w nonproductive cough
– Involve respiratory system leading to respiratory failure
– CXR: patchy or focal consolidations

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Legionellosis: Clinical features
2) Pontiac fever
– IP: 24 – 48 hours (range: 5 – 66 hours)
– High fever with anorexia, malaise, myalgia, headache
– No respiratory involvement
– Recover spontaneously
– Due to reaction to inhaled antigen, no bacterial invasion

• Diagnosis: Direct IF stain of involved tissues or respiratory

secretions, antigen detection by RIA, IFA test

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Legionellosis: Management
• Prevention:
– Maintenance of cooling towers (regular removal of scale and sediment)
– Drainage of cooling towers if not in use
– Sterile water for respiratory devices

• Treatment:
– Erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin

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Prevention & Control

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Malaysian API guide
Air pollutant Status Level of pollution Health measure
index
0 – 50 Good Low, no ill effects on health No restrictions of activities for all groups
51 – 100 Moderate Moderate pollution, no ill No restrictions of activities for all groups
effects on health
101 – 200 Unhealthy Mild aggravation of 1. High risk persons should restrict outdoor activities.
symptoms among high risk 2. General population should reduce vigorous
groups, e.g. those with heart outdoor activities.
or lung disease
201 – 300 Very unhealthy Significant aggravation of 1. Elderly and persons with heart or lung disease
symptoms and decrease should stay indoors and reduce physical activities.
exercise tolerance in 2. General population should avoid vigorous outdoor
persons with heart or lung activities.
disease 3. Those with any health problems to consult doctor.

301 – 500 Hazardous Severe aggravation of 1. Elderly and persons with heart or lung disease
symptoms and a danger to should stay indoors and reduce physical activities.
health 2. General population should avoid vigorous outdoor
activities.

Above 500 Emergency Severe aggravation of General population advised to follow the orders of
symptoms and a danger to National Security Council and always follow
health announcement through mass media
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 APIMS
• http://apims.doe.gov.my/public_v2/home.html

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Industry Code Of Practice On Indoor Air
Quality (Malaysia)

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Notes
• For chemical
contaminants, the limits
are eight-hour
time-weighted average
airborne concentrations.
• mg/m3 is milligrams per
cubic meter of air at 25°
Celsius and one
atmosphere pressure.
• ppm is parts of vapour or
gas per million parts of
contaminated air by
volume.
• cfu/m3 is colony forming
units per cubic meter.
• C is the ceiling limit that
shall not be exceeded at
any time. Readings above
1000ppm are indication of
inadequate ventilation.
• * excess of bacterial
counts does not
necessarily imply health
risk but serve as an
indicator for further
investigation. 81
82
 IAQ
Survey

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IAQ monitor

85
IAQ Questionnaire

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Air Pollution Control
Elimination Removal of air pollution source, e.g. burn less fossil fuels, use
mass transit
Substitution Substituting sources of air pollution, e.g. burn low-sulfur
coal, use alternative energy sources, remove sulfur from
coal, develop new engines, develop new fuels

Engineering control Develop new emission controls methods, use of source control
technologies, barrier technologies
Administrative Education and behavioral change
control Setting standards, monitoring and prompt action National
policies, political commitment Legislation and enforcement

Personal protective Respirators

equipment
89
Source Control Technologies
• For particulate matter
– Inertial separators
– Fabric filters
– Wet scrubbers
– Electrostatic precipitators
– Unit collectors

• For gaseous pollutants

– Adsorption
– Absorption
– Condensation
– Incineration

90
Inertial Separators
• The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulate-
laden gas is forced to change direction. As gas changes direction, the
inertia of the particles causes them to continue in the original
direction and be separated from the gas stream.
• Inertial separators separate dust from gas streams using a
combination of forces, such as centrifugal, gravitational, and
inertial.
• The three primary types of inertial separators are:
– Settling chambers
– Baffle chambers
– Centrifugal collectors

91
 Settling
chamber

• A settling chamber consists of a large box installed in the

ductwork. The sudden expansion of size at the chamber
reduces the speed of the dust-filled airstream and
heavier particles settle out.

• Settling chambers are simple in design and can be

manufactured from almost any material. However, they
are seldom used as primary dust collectors because of
their large space requirements and low efficiency. A
practical use is as precleaners for more efficient
collectors.
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 Baffle
chamber

• Baffle chambers use a fixed baffle plate that

causes the conveying gas stream to make a
sudden change of direction.

• Large-diameter particles do not follow the gas

stream but continue into a dead air space and
settle. Baffle chambers are used as precleaners for
more efficient collectors.

93
 • Centrifugal collectors use cyclonic
Centrifugal action to separate dust particles from
the gas stream. In a typical cyclone,
collectors the dust gas stream enters at an angle
and is spun rapidly. The centrifugal
force created by the circular flow
throws the dust particles toward the
wall of the cyclone. After striking the
wall, these particles fall into a hopper
located underneath.

• The most common types of

centrifugal, or inertial, collectors in
use today are:
– Single-cyclone separator
– Multiple-cyclone separator 94
Single-cyclone separator Multi-cyclone separators

• The walls of the cyclone narrow toward the bottom of the

unit, allowing the particles to be collected in a hopper.
• The cleaner air leaves the cyclone through the top of the
chamber, flowing upward in a spiral vortex, formed within a
downward moving spiral.
• Cyclones are efficient in removing large particles but are not
as efficient with smaller particles. For this reason, they are
used with other particulate control devices.
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 Fabric filters
• Commonly known as baghouses, fabric
collectors use filtration to separate dust
particulates from dusty gases.
• They are one of the most efficient and cost
effective types of dust collectors available
and can achieve a collection efficiency of
more than 99% for very fine particulates.
• Dust-laden gases enter the baghouse and
pass through fabric bags that act as filters.
• The bags can be of woven or felted cotton,
synthetic, or glass-fiber material in either a
tube or envelope shape.

96
 Wet scrubbers
• Wet scrubbers (or collectors)
remove the particulate matter
from the gas stream with the
help of liquid media (commonly
water) disintegrating the latter
in to fine droplets.
• The fineness of the droplets
depends on the ratio of the
liquid quantity per unit volume
of the gas and the energy
applied for liquid disintegration.
• The greater the contact of the
gas and liquid streams, the
higher the dust removal
efficiency.

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 Electrostatic precipitators
• Uses electrostatic forces to separate dust particles from
exhaust gases. A number of high-voltage, direct-current
discharge electrodes are placed between grounded
collecting electrodes. The contaminated gases flow through
the passage formed by the discharge and collecting
electrodes.
• The airborne particles receive a negative charge as they
pass through the ionized field between the electrodes.
These charged particles are then attracted to a grounded or
positively charged electrode and adhere to it.
• The collected material on the electrodes is removed by
rapping or vibrating the collecting electrodes either
continuously or at a predetermined interval. Cleaning a
precipitator can usually be done without interrupting the
airflow.
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Electrostatic precipitators

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 Unit dust collectors
• Unlike central collectors, unit collectors control
contamination at its source. They are small and
self-contained, consisting of a fan and some form of dust
collector.
• They are suitable for isolated, portable, or frequently moved
dust-producing operations, such as bins and silos or remote
belt-conveyor transfer points.
• Advantages of unit collectors include small space
requirements, the return of collected dust to main material
flow, and low initial cost.
• However, their dust-holding and storage capacities,
servicing facilities, and maintenance periods have been
sacrificed.

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 Control of gaseous pollutants
• The principal gases of concern in air pollution
control are the sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon oxides
(especially CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), organic and
inorganic acid gases, and hydrocarbons (HC).

• Major treatment processes currently available for

control of these and other gaseous emissions
include adsorption, absorption, condensation, and
combustion.

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 Adsorption
• When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a
solid, part of it is taken up by the solid. The molecules
that disappear from the gas either enter the inside of
the solid, or remain on the outside attached to the
surface.
• The most common industrial adsorbents are activated
carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they have
enormous surface areas per unit weight.
• Activated carbon is the universal standard for
purification and removal of trace organic contaminants
from liquid and vapor streams.

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Types of adsorbents

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 Absorption
• Absorption, or scrubbing, involves bringing
contaminated effluent gas (the absorbate or solute)
into contact with a liquid absorbent (the solvent) so
that one or more constituents of the effluent gas are
removed, treated, or modified by the liquid absorbent.
• Liquid absorbents may utilize either chemical
(reactive) or physical (non-reactive) change to remove
pollutants.
• Water is the most commonly used absorbent liquid.
• Several types of absorbers are used, including spray
towers, plate or tray towers, packed towers, and
Venturi scrubbers
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 Condensation
• Condensation is the process of converting a gas or
vapor to liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by
lowering its temperature and/or increasing its
pressure.
• Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices.
They can be used ahead of absorbers, absorbers, and
incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be
treated by more expensive control equipment.
• Types:
– Contact condensers – the gas comes into contact with cold
liquid.
– Surface condenser – the gas contacts a cooled surface in
which cooled liquid or gas is circulated, e.g. the outside of
the tube.
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 Incineration
• Incineration, also known as combustion, is most
used to control the emissions of organic
compounds from process industries.
• This control technique refers to the rapid
oxidation of a substance through the combination
of oxygen with a combustible material in the
presence of heat.
• When combustion is complete, the gaseous
stream is converted to carbon dioxide and water
vapor.

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Flue gas is the gas exiting to the
atmosphere via a flue, which is a
pipe or channel for conveying
exhaust gases from a fireplace,
oven, furnace, boiler or steam
generator. Often, flue gas refers to
the combustion exhaust gas
produced at power plants. Its
composition depends on what is
being burned, but it will usually
consist of mostly nitrogen (typically
more than two-thirds) derived from
the combustion of air, carbon
dioxide (CO2), and water vapor as
well as excess oxygen (also derived
from the combustion air). It further
contains a small percentage of a
number of pollutants, such as
particulate matter (like soot),
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
and sulfur oxides.
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 Types of combustion for air pollution control

• Direct combustion or flaring

– Waste gases are burned directly in a combustion chamber,
with or without the addition of a supplementary fuel.
• Thermal incineration
– Used when the concentration of combustible gaseous
pollutants is too low to make direct-flame incineration
– The waste gas is preheated, then directed into a
combustion zone equipped with a burner supplied with
supplemental fuel.
• Catalytic incineration
– A catalyst accelerates the rate of oxidation without itself
undergoing a chemical change, thus reducing the residence
time required for incineration.

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 Malaysia air quality management
• The Motor Vehicle (Control of Smoke and Gas Emissions)
1977
• Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978
• Ambient Air Quality Standards 1989
• Malaysian Air Quality Index 1993
• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission from Diesel
Engines) Regulation 1996
• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission from Petrol
Engines) 1996
• National Policy on the Environment 2002
• Environmental Quality (Declared Activities)(Open Burning)
2003

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Education, PPE

110
What is the main source of air pollutant in
UNIMAS?

111
Emerging Air Pollutants
• Nanomaterials
• Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
• Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (pahs)
• Alkylphenols
• Ethylene oxide
• Brominated flame retardants
• Phthalates, dioxins, microplastics
• Volatile chemical products (VCPs) e.g., Siloxanes

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Good Read - WHO
• https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-
(outdoor)-air-quality-and-
health?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIuobovJiVggMVySiDAx3pDAQCEAAYASAAE
gLQFfD_BwE

113
114
• The exposures and health effects of benzene, toluene and
naphthalene for chefs in multiple cooking styles of kitchens
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106721)
• Cooking and Lung Cancer in Women Nonsmokers
(https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010181)
• Heat up the oil before cooking, fried, poor ventilation, prolong
exposure, Teppanyaki, etc.

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116
Way Forward
• Real time monitoring with sensor and detectors at place, industries
• Digital/AI detectors for all types of air pollutants especially at hot spot
• New technology to detect new pollutants at faster rate, cheaper cost,
highly sensitive and specific
• User friendly feedback / complaint channel directly to the
enforcement agencies / bodies
• Updated law and regulations on latest pollutants and effective &
efficient enforcement
• As simple as revise and increase the amount of compound

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Rule of 3 (another way to enjoy study)
• Short note, booklet that will benefit us during exam preparation, working
and in daily life. Just list down and remember:
• Top 3
• Main 3 causes
• Most common 3
• 3 common framework, models, designs, etc.
• 3 mistakes to avoid
• 3 FAQ

• Up to individual (Rule of 4, 5, 6…..). As long as we enjoy the learning

process.
• Keep on practice writing…
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Thank you

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