Learning Materials

CEC 7-Principles of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete

Concrete
Consists primarily of a mixture of cement, fine and coarse aggregates (sand, gravel,
crushed rock, and/or other materials) to which water has been added as a necessary ingredient
for the chemical reaction of curing to give the mixture the workability before hardening.

Fine aggregate
Is generally sand, consisting of particles that will pass through the No. 4 sieve.

Coarse aggregate
Consists of particles that would be retained on the No. 4 sieve.

The maximum size aggregates that can be used in reinforced concrete with limiting values are
as follows:
1. 1/5 of the narrowest dimension between the sides of the forms
2. 1/3 of the depth of slabs
3. ¾ of the minimum clear spacing between the reinforcement

Structural Lightweight Concrete

concretes that have 28-day strengths equal to or greater than 17 MPa and air-dry weighs
equal to or less than 18 kN/m3.

All Lightweight Concrete

The result is when lightweight aggregates are used for both fine and coarse aggregates.

Sand Lightweight Concrete

The result if sand is used for fine aggregates and if the coarse aggregate is replaced with
lightweight aggregate.
High Strength Concrete
Concrete with compression strengths exceeding 42 MPa.

The compression strength of concrete is relatively high but has a low tensile strength
compared with its compressive strength. Steel reinforcing bars (which have high tensile and
compressive strength) are used in combination with the concrete to resist the tensile stresses.
Reinforced Concrete is the result of this combination of steel and concrete. In many instances,
steel and concrete are positioned in members so that they both resist compression.

Factors Affecting Choice of Concrete Structure:

1. Economy, the forecast consideration is the overall cost of the structure.

2. Suitability of material for architectural and structural function, concrete has the
advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shape and
texture using the forms and the finishing techniques.
3. Fire resistance, the structure in a building must withstand the effect of a fire and remain
standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished.
4. Rigidity, greater stiffness, and mass of concrete structure vibrations are seldom a
problem.
5. Low maintenance, concrete members require less maintenance than structural steel or
timber members.
6. The availability of materials, sand, gravel cement, and concrete mixing facilities is very
widely available.

Other factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete.
1. Low tensile strength
2. Form and shoring not encountered in construction steel and timeless structure.
3. Relatively low strength per unit weight or volume, the compressive strength of concrete
is roughly 5-10% that of steel.
4. Tim-dependent volume change, concrete and steel undergo approximately the same
amount of thermal expansion and contraction.

Criteria for the Design Process

1. Appropriateness, the structure should fit its environment and be aesthetically pleasing.
2. Economy of the overall cost of the structure should not exceed the client's budget.
3. Structural adequacy, two major aspects.
a) A structure must be strong enough to safely support all anticipated loadings.
b) A structure must not deflect tilt, vibrate, or crack in a manner that impairs its
usefulness.
 4. Maintainability: a structure should be designed to require minimum maintenance.

Properties of Reinforced Concrete

A. Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of concrete f’c shall not be less than 17 MPa. This is
determined by testing to failure 28 day-old 150 x 300 mm concrete cylinders at a specified rate
of loading. Samples for strength tests of each class of concrete place each day shall be taken
not less than once a day or not less than once for each 120 mᶟ of concrete or not less than once
for each 500 ㎡of surface area for slabs and walls. When the total quantity of a given class of
concrete is less than 40 mᶟ, strength tests are not required when evidence of satisfactory strength
is submitted to and approved by the engineer. The strength test shall be the average of the
strength of two cylinders made from the same sample of concrete and tested at 28 days or at
the test age designated for the termination of the f’c.

The strength level of an individual class of concrete shall be considered satisfactory if both the
following requirements are met.

1. Every arithmetic average of any three consecutive strength tests equals or exceeds f’c.
2. No individual strength test (average two cylinders) falls below f’c by more than 3.5 MPa,
when f’c is 35 MPa or less; or by more than 0.10 f’c when f’c is more than 35MPa.

When a concrete production facility has test records not more than 12 months old based on 15
- 29 consecutive tests, standard sample deviation SD, shall be established as the product of the
sample standard deviation and the modification factor.

Modification Factor for Standard Deviation

When less than 30 Tests are Available
Table C-1
Number of Tests Modification Factor for Standard Deviation
Less than 15 Use table C-2
15 1.16
20 1.08
25 1.03
30 or more 1.00
 Required Average Compressive Strength
When Data are not available to establish a Standrad Deviation
Table C-2
Specified Compressive Strength, Required Average Compressive Strength,
(f’c MPa) (f’cr MPa
Less than 21 MPa f’cr = f’c + 7.0
21 < f’c ≤ 35 MPa f’cr = f’c + 8.3
Over 35 MPa f’cr= 1.10f’c + 5.0

Required Average Strength

Required average compressive strength f’cr used as the basis for the selection of concrete
proportions shall be the larger of equation ① or ②.

When f’c < 35 MPa

Equation ①: f’cr = f’c + 1.34 Ss
Equation ②: f’cr = f’c + 2.33 Ss－3.5

When f’c > 35 MPa

Equation ①: f’cr = f’c + 1.34 Ss
Equation ②: f’cr = 0.90 f’c + 2.33 Ss

Modulus of Elasticity
Is the ratio of the normal stress to the corresponding strain for tensile or compressive
stresses below the proportional limit of material?
Concrete has a modulus of elasticity which varies with different concrete strength,
concrete age, type of loading, and the proportions of cement and aggregates.
Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete shall be permitted to be taken as
a) For values of wc between 1500 and 2500 kg/m3
Ec=Wc^1.5 (0.043) √f’c in MPa
 b) For normal weight concrete shall be permitted to be taken as
Ec= 4700 √f’c in MPa

c) For normal weight concrete with f’c > 42 MPa and up to 84 MPa and for lightweight
concrete with f’c > 42 MPa up to 62 MPa.
Ec=[13.32√f’c + 6895] ( Wc/2320)^1.5 in MPa

Static Modulus of Elasticity

① Initial modulus is the slope of the stress-strain diagram at the origin of the curve.
② Tangent modulus is the slope of a tangent to the curve at some point along the curve- for
instance, at 50% of the ultimate strength of the concrete.
③ Secant modulus. The slope of a line drawn from the origin to a point on the curve
somewhere between 25 and 50% of its ultimate compressive strength.
④ Apparent modulus or the Long-term Modulus is determined by using the stresses and
strain obtained after the load has been applied for a certain length of time.

3 ways of defining the modulus of elasticity

① Tangent modulus of elasticity
Is the slope of a line that is tangent to a point on the stress-strain curve such as B.
② Secant modulus of elasticity
Is the slope of a line through the origin and through the point on the curve such as A.
③ Initial tangent modulus
Is the slope of the stress-strain curve at the origin
 The initial tangent modulus increases with an increase in compressive strength. The
modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec is affected by the modulus of elasticity of the cement paste
and by that of the aggregate. An increase in the water-cement ratio increases the porosity of the
paste, reducing its modulus of elasticity and strength.

Shrinkage
Is the decrease in volume of concrete during hardening and drying under constant
temperature. The magnitude of shrinkage strains depends upon the composition of the concrete.
The hardened cement paste shrinks but the aggregate does not sink, thus the larger the fraction
of the total volume of concrete made up of hydrated cement paste, the greater the shrinkage.
Water cement ratio affects the amount of shrinkage, because high water content reduces
the volume of concrete, thus reducing the restraint of shrinkage by the aggregates.

Types of shrinkage:
1. Drying shrinkage = is due to the loss of a layer of absorbed water from the surface of the
gel particles. This will occur as the moisture diffuses out of concrete, and as a result, the exterior
shrinks more rapidly than the interior. Drying shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of a
concrete element when it loses moisture by evaporation.
2. Carbonation shrinkage = usually occurs in carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere, such as those
found in parking garages. At higher and lower humidity, the carbonation shrinkage decreases.
3. Plastic shrinkage = occurs during the first few hours after placing fresh concrete in forms.
In such cases, moisture evaporates faster from concrete surface than it is replaced by the bleed
water from lower layers of the concrete elements.

To minimize tensile cracking due to shrinkage:

a. Cure the concrete well
b. Add reinforcements to limit the width of the crack
c. Use construction and expansion joints to control the location of cracks.
d. Minimize water content
e. Limit the area or length of concrete poured at a given time.

Creep of unrestrained concrete

Creep = is the slow deformation of a material over considerable lengths of time at constant
stress or load.
Honeycomb
The absence of mortar between aggregates which is developed when the concrete
contains insufficient mortar or when concrete is not properly compacted in the forms is called
honeycomb.

Brittle
Members that fail suddenly without warning and with no time for measures to be taken
to prevent damage.

Hydration
The chemical reaction between cement and water after the components of concrete have
been mixed together which produces significant quantities of heat is called hydration.

The behavior of concrete exposed to high and low temperatures.

The modulus of elasticity and the strength of concrete decreases at high temperatures.
During a fire, high thermal gradients occur as a result, the surface layers of concrete expand
and eventually crack or chip off the cooler, interior part of the concrete. The chipping is
aggravated if water from fire hoses suddenly cools the surface. The reduction in strength and
the extent of chipping due to heat are most pronounced in wet concrete and as a result, fire is
most critical with young concrete. The tensile strength tends to be affected more by higher
temperature than compressive strength. In low temperatures, the strength of hardened concrete
tends to increase, the increase being greatest for moist concrete as long as water does not freeze

Tensile Strength for Concrete

The tensile strength of concrete ranges from 8 to 15% of its compressive strength,
although tensile strength is normally neglected in design computations, it is nevertheless an
important property that affects the sizes and extent of the cracks that occur. Concrete is filled
with fine cracks and these cracks will have little effect when concrete is subjected to
compression loads because the loads cause the crack to close and permit compression transfer.

Two indirect tests were developed to measure concrete tensile strength.

1. The Modulus of Rupture Test (Standard Beam Test)
A 100 x 100 mm in cross-section and 400 mm meters long is loaded to failure by either
a concentrated load at midspan or by two loads applied at the third point. The values of the
modulus of rupture can be computed by substituting experimental values of the moment into
the standard beam equation for stress at the top and bottom surfaces.

Where;
b = the width of the beam
h = the depth of the beam
Mcr = cracking moment
Modulus of rupture = the bending tensile stress at which the concrete begins to crack

NSCP Specifies the value of the modulus of rupture

2. Split Cylinder Test

A cylinder is placed on its side in the testing machine and a compressive load is applied
uniformly along the length of the cylinder, with support supplied along the bottom for the
cylinder's full length. The cylinder will split in half from end to end when its tensile strength is
reached. The tensile strength at which the splitting occurs is referred to as the split cylinder
strength and can be calculated with the following expression.

𝟐𝑷
𝒇𝒓 =
𝝅𝑳𝑫

Where: P = the maximum compressive force

L = the length of the cylinder
D = diameter of the cylinder
The tensile strengths in this method are not very accurate

Strength of Concrete
The major parameter that determines the strength of concrete is the water- cement ratio. When
water-cement ratio is large, a high shrinking, weak gel is produced. Concrete containing such
gels is low in strength and looks resistance to deterioration by weathering. The rate of strength
gain in concrete can be speeded by using finely ground cement, applying heat called steam
curing or by adding an accelerator such as calcium chloride. For normal weight aggregates, the
water-cement ratio should not be more than 0.50. To ensure a high cement content, the water-
cement ratio must not be more than 0.45.

Bleeding
Voids are created by air bubbles produced during the mixing process and by segregation of the
coarse aggregate from the mortar when concrete is poured in the forms. Since approximately
twice as much water is needed for workability than is required to react with the cement, fine
channels develop throughout the concrete as excess water rises to the surface when the concrete
is vibrated. The rise of the water to the surface is called bleeding.

Workability
In order to produce high-quality concrete, sufficient water must be added id make the
concrete fluid so it can work into all parts of the containing forms However if excessive
amounts of water are added, it will resort to a high shrinking concrete.

Slump test
Is a common field test used to control the workability and quality of concrete. In the
slump test, a 300 mm steel truncated cone which is placed on a level base is filled with fresh
concrete and then compacted by rodding. After the top surface has been leveled, a slump cone
is slowly lifted. Since there is no lateral support, the concrete slumps. The height difference
measured between the top of the concrete and the top of the slump cone is called a slump. The
slumps ranges from 50-150 mm.

Ductility
Is the ability of the section to deform beyond its yield point without a significant
strength loss, while the yield point represents the end of the elastic range of behavior. When
the applied factored moment applied to the section continues to increase after the cracking
point, the tension stress in the reinforcement and the compression stress in the concrete
compressive zone will steadily increase, until the steel or concrete reaches its respective
capacity and steel reinforcement starts to yield or concrete will crush. It is recommended that
the reinforced concrete section be under-reinforced so that steel will yield before concrete
reaches its maximum usable strain of 0.003 the maximum value recommended by NSCP.

Tensile Strength & Compressive Strength of Concrete

The large difference between the tensile and the compressive strengths of concrete is
due to the many fine cracks that exist throughout the concrete due to tensile stresses while
cracks do not influence the compressive strength of concrete significantly.
 When concrete is stressed in tension, the distribution of stresses on the cross-section
changes because it carries only the uncracked area of the cross-section. Compressive stress can
push the sides of the crack together and both cracked and uncracked areas can transmit
compression stress.

Loads:
Live Loads – occupancy loads in buildings or other structures or shall be the maximum loads
expected by the intended use

Dead Loads – are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the lifetime of the
structure. Consists of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building
or other structure, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-in
partitions, finishes, cladding, and other similarly incorporated architectural and structural
items, fixed service equipment, including the weight of cranes.

Design Codes and Specifications

There are uniformly distributed live loads:
 The American Concrete Institute (ACI) published the widely recognized
building code requirement for structural concrete.
For service Live Load for highway bridges – specified by The American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Serviceability:
The structure is to serve the purpose and must be safe against collapse and
serviceable in use.

Strength
- Safety requires that the strength of the structure be adequate for all loads that may act
on it.
- The strength of the structure depends on the strength of the material from which it is
made.

Design Basic:
The single most important characteristic of any structural member is its actual strength.

Safe provisions of the ACI Code:

Design strength ≥ requires strength

∅𝑆𝑛 ≥ ∪
Where: ∅ → capacity reduction factors/ load factor
Sn→ numeral strength
∪→ required strength / ultimate strength

Reminder:
The factored load combination for determining the required strength ∪ and strength
reduction factors in the ACI Code will be discussed later, under the ultimate Strength
Design
Problem 1

A concrete mix has a specified compressive strength fc’ = 28 MPa.

1. Compute the value of the split tensile strength fcr for normal concrete
2. Compute the average compressive strength of concrete fcr such that the standard
deviation obtained using more than 30 consecutive tests is 3.45 MPa.
3. Compute the average compressive strength fcr such that the records of prior cylinder
test results are not available.

Solution:
1. Value of the split tensile strength fcr for normal concrete

fr = 1.21fcr

where fr = modulus of rupture

fr = split tensile strength

fr = 0.62 λ√fc′

fr = 0.62 (1)√28

fr = 1.21fcr

0.62 (1)√28 = 1.21 fcr

𝒇𝒄𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂 ans.

2. Average compressive strength of 𝑓′𝑐𝑟 if the standard deviation is 3.45

When, fc′ ≤ 35MPa

′
fcr = fc′ + 1.34 S

′
fcr = 28 + 1.34 (3.45)

′
fcr = 32.62 MPa

′
fcr = fc′ + 2.33 S − 3.5
 ′
fcr = 28 + 2.33 (3.45) − 3.5

′
fcr = 32.54 MPa

Therefore, use 𝒇′𝒄𝒓 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟔𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂 ans.

3. Average compressive stress if no available records of prior cylinder test

Specified Compressive Required Average

Strength Compressive
(f’c MPa) Strength
(f’cr MPa)
Less than 21 MPa f’cr = f’c + 7.0
21 < f’c ≤ 35 MPa f’cr = f’c + 8.3
Over 35 MPa f’cr= 1.10f’c + 5.0

Use:
′
fcr = 𝑓𝑐′ + 8.3

′
fcr = 28 + 8.3

′
𝐟𝐜𝐫 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟑 𝐌𝐏𝐚 ans

Problem 2.
A group of 15 tests on a given type of concrete had a mean strength of 25.33 MPa and a standard
deviation of 2.91 MPa. Using a modification factor of 1.16 for 15 sets. Compute the required
compressive strength of the mixture with a specified strength 𝑓𝑐′ = 20.7 MPa.

Solution:
Applying a modification factor of 1.16

S = 1.16(2.91)
 S = 3.3756
′
Required average compressive strength, fcr = 𝑓𝑐′ + 1.34 S
′
fcr = 20.7 + 1.34 (3.37560)

′
𝐟𝐜𝐫 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟐 𝐌𝐏𝐚

′
fcr = 𝑓𝑐′ + 2.33 S − 3.5
′
fcr = 20.7 + 2.33 (3.3756) − 3.5
′
𝐟𝐜𝐫 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟕 𝐌𝐏𝐚
Required average compressive strength:
′
Use: 𝐟𝐜𝐫 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟐 𝐌𝐏𝐚 < 𝟐𝟓. 𝟑𝟑 𝐌𝐏𝐚, 𝐨𝐤 (mean strength) ans.

Problem 3:
3.1.A modulus of rupture test uses a 150 mm x 150 mm x 600 mm unreinforced beam
section which resisted a force of 9 kN placed in the middle thirds on a 0.60 m. span
length. A third point loading test was used and the fracture occurred within the middle
thirds. Compute the modulus of rupture. The specified compressive strength of concrete
is 30 MPa.
3.2.A 150 mm dia x 300 mm length unreinforced concrete cylinder resisted a transverse
load of 200 kN in a split tensile cylinder test. Determine the concrete tensile strength or
the split tensile strength.
3.3.Determine the average compressive strength of a concrete mix with specified
compressive strength 𝑓𝑐′ = 30 MPa such that the standard deviation obtained using
more than 30 consecutive test is 3.40 MPa.
Solution:
3.1. Modulus of rupture
 [Σ𝐹𝑣 = 0]
[2R = 18]

R = 9 𝑘𝑁

Σ𝑀𝑚𝑡 = 0]

M = 𝑅 (0.2)
M = 9 (0.2)
𝐌 = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎
𝐌 = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵. 𝒎𝒎.
𝑴𝒄
𝒇𝒔 = , Gen. Equation
𝑰
𝟔𝑴
𝒇𝒔 = 𝒃𝒅𝟐, Rectangular section

𝟔(𝟏. 𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 )
𝒇𝒔 =
𝟏𝟓𝟎(𝟏𝟓𝟎)𝟐
𝒇𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒔.

3.2. Split tensile strength

2P
fst =
πDL
2(200,000)
fst =
π(150)(300)
𝐟𝐬𝐭 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟗 𝐌𝐏𝐚 ans.
3.3. Average Compressive Strength,
′
fcr = 𝑓𝑐′ + 1.34 S
′
fcr = 30 + 1.34 (3.4)
′
𝐟𝐜𝐫 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟔 𝐌𝐏𝐚
 ′
fcr = 𝑓𝑐′ + 2.33 S − 3.5
′
fcr = 30 + 2.33 (3.4) − 3.5
′
𝐟𝐜𝐫 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟒𝟐 𝐌𝐏𝐚
Use:
′
𝐟𝐜𝐫 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟔 𝐌𝐏𝐚 ans.
(Required average compressive strength of concrete)

Practice Solving Problems:

1. In accordance with NSCP specs, the strength level of an individual class of concrete
shall be considered satisfactory if both of the following requirements are met.
1.1.Average of all sets of three consecutive strength tests equals or exceeds 𝑓𝑐′ .
1.2.No individual strength least (average of two cylinders) fails below 𝑓𝑐′ by more than
3.5 MPa
The required 𝑓𝑐′ for a project is 28 MPa. The results of four sets of cylinder tests with 5
samples are as follows:
Sample Set A Set B Set C Set D
1 24.0 28.5 32.0 21.0
2 23.5 28.0 30.5 24.5
3 25.0 32.0 25.0 20.5
4 35.0 35.0 25.0 22.0
5 30.5 29.0 28.0 20.0
Which of the following sets is acceptable for the project requirement?
′
2. 2010 NSCP specs. requires the average compressive strength fcr to be used as the basis
for the selection of concrete proportions shall be the larger of equation (1) or equation
(2) using standard deviations calculated;
′
Equation (1) fcr = 𝑓𝑐′ + 1.34 S
Equation (2) fcr = 𝑓𝑐′ + 2.33 S − 3.5
′
′
Where: fcr = required average compression strength of concrete
′
𝑓𝑐 = specified design strength
S = standard deviation

A batching plant is to provide concrete mix to its clients (contractors) with a specified
strength of 20.7 MPa. The records of 15 consecutive strength tests are;
1. 21.08 MPa
2. 21.43 MPa
3. 21.77 MPa
4. 22.46 MPa
5. 22.81 MPa
 6. 23.15 MPa
7. 24.05 MPa
8. 24.19 MPa
9. 24.33 MPa
10. 25.23 MPa
11. 25.57 MPa
12. 25.92 MPa
13. 26.61 MPa
14. 26.96 MPa
15. 27.30 MPa
Which of the following gives the required target strength of the mixture? Use a
modification factor of 1.16 for 15 records
3.
Description Dimension Quantity (pcs)
Slab 6m x 6m x 0.3m 8
Column 1m x 1m x 3.5m 12
Shear wall 6m x 3m x 0.3m 4
Beams 1m x 1.35m x 6m 17
From the NSCP Code
Frequency of Testing:
Samples for strength tests of each class of concrete placed each day shall be taken not less than
once a day, or not less than once for each 120 m3 of concrete, or not less than once for each
500 m2 of surface area for slabs or walls.
On a given project, if the total volume of concrete is such that the frequency of testing required
by the NSCP would provide less than five (5) strength tests for a given class of concrete, tests
shall be made from at least five randomly selected batches or from each batch if fewer than
five batches are used.
When the total quantity of a given class of concrete is less than 40 m3, strength tests are not
required when evidence of satisfactory strength is submitted to and approved by the engineer.
A strength test shall be the average of the strengths of two cylinders made from the same sample
of concrete and tested at 28 days or at test age designated for determination of 𝑓𝑐′ .
From the following data;
1. Compute the total volume of columns.
2. Compute the total area of the shear wall.
3. Compute the number of samples to be tested each day.

Thank you.
Sir Macalam