Chapter 9

Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Reinforced Concrete

9 REINFORCED CONCRETE
9.1 SCOPE

Designs should be based on the material properties cited herein.

In these Design Specifications, the compressive strength of concrete, f′c, is determined from
tests on 150 mm cylinders at the age of 28 days in accordance with the Ethiopian Standards.
It is common practice that the specified strength be attained 28 days after placement. Other
maturity ages shall be assumed for design and specified for components, which will receive
loads at times appreciably different than 28 days after placement.

The Ethiopian Building Code Standards (Ref. 1) shall be used as a compliment to these
Specifications, unless otherwise stated herein.

9.2 NOTATIONS

A = area of concrete having the same centroid as the principal tensile reinforcement and
bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section and a straight line parallel to the
neutral axis, divided by the number of bars or wires (mm2)
Ab = area of bar or wire (mm2)
Ac = area of core measured to the outside diameter of the spiral (mm2)
Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm2)
Ag = gross area of concrete section (mm2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (mm2)
As = area of reinforcement (mm2)
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement (mm2)
At = area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement (mm2)
Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any (mm2)
d = distance from compression face to centroid of tension reinforcement (mm)
dc = depth of concrete measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire
located closest thereto
db = diameter of bar or wire (mm)
ex = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the X direction, i.e.= Mux/Pu (mm)
ey = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the Y direction, i.e= Mux/Pu (mm)
Ec = the modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of longitudinal steel (MPa)
f′c = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
fc = factored torsional moment (Nmm)
fctk = characteristic tensile strength (MPa)
fctm = characteristic cylinder compressive strength (MPa)
ff = stress range (MPa)
fmin = minimum live load stress resulting from the fatigue load combination specified in
Table 3-2, combined with the more severe stress from either the permanent loads or
the permanent loads, shrinkage, and creep induced external loads; positive if
tension, negative if compression (MPa)

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fpc = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the web
and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (MPa)
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel (MPa)
fr = modulus of rupture (MPa)
fsa = tensile stress in the mild steel reinforcement at the service limit state
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
fyh = specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement (MPa)
H = average relative humidity at the site (%)
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis (mm4)
Is = moment of inertia of longitudinal steel about the centroidal axis (mm4)
K = effective length factor
kc = factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the component (see Figure 9-1)
kf = factor for the effect of concrete strength (see Equation 9.2)
lc = compression development length for lap splice (mm)
ld = tension development length for lap splice (mm)
ldb = basic tension development length for deformed bar (mm)
lhb = basic tension development length for hooked bar (mm)
lu = unbraced length (mm)
Ml = smaller end moment
M2 = larger end moment
Mc = magnified factored moment
Mr = factored flexural resistance
Mux = factored applied moment about the X-axis (Nmm)
Muy = factored applied moment about the Y-axis (Nmm)
pc = length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
Pe = Euler buckling load
Pn = nominal axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)
Pr = factored axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)
Prx = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ey is present (N)
Prxy = factored axial resistance in biaxial flexure (N)
Pry = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ex is present (N)
Pu = factored applied axial force (N)
r = radius of gyration (mm)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; if the actual
value is not known, 0.3 shall be used
t = maturity of concrete (Days)
tI = age of concrete when load is initially applied (Days)
Tcr = torsional cracking moment (Nmm)
Tn = nominal torsional resistance (Nmm)
Tr = factored torsional resistance (Nmm)
Tn = nominal shear resistance (N)
Tr = factored shear resistance (N)
Z = crack width parameter (N/mm)
βd = ratio of maximum factored permanent load moments to maximum factored total
load moment; always positive

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γc = density of concrete (kg/m3)

θ = angle of crack, usually 45°.
ρmin = ratio of tension steel to gross area
ϕ = resistance factor (see Table 9-7)
ψ = creep coefficient

9.3 CONCRETE

9.3.1 GENERAL

Recommended grade of concrete and corresponding specified strengths are shown in Table 9-
1 for both cylinder and cube strengths. Classes of concrete corresponding to these grades are
shown in Table 9-2.

Grades of Concrete C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

Fck (150 mm cylinders, MPa) 20 24 32 40 48
fck (200 mm cubes, MPa) 21 25 34 42 50
fck (150 mm cubes, MPa) 25 30 40 50 60

Table 9-1 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder and Cube Compressive
Strength, fck

Class Permissible Grades of Concrete

I (C20) C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II (C20) - - - - -

Table 9-2 Grades and Classes of Concrete

Class I concrete is generally used for all elements of structures, except when another class is
more appropriate, and specifically for concrete exposed to saltwater. Class II concrete is used
in footings, pedestals, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.

Concrete strengths above 50 MPa (150 mm cylinders) shall be used only when physical tests
are made to establish the relationships between the concrete strength and other properties.
Concrete with strengths below 20 MPa at 28 days (150 mm cylinders) should not be used in
structural applications.
The specified compressive strength for prestressed concrete shall not be less than 30 MPa.

Regarding tensile strength see subheading Characteristic Tensile Strength below.

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9.3.2 COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

The coefficient of thermal expansion should be determined by the laboratory tests on the
specific mix to be used. In the absence of more precise data, the thermal coefficient of
expansion shall be taken as:
• for normal density concrete: 10.8 x 10-6/oC, and
• for low-density concrete: 9.0 x 10-6/oC

The thermal coefficient of normal density concrete can vary between 5.4 to 14.4 x 10-6/oC,
with limestone and marble aggregates producing the lower values, and chert and quartzite the
higher.

9.3.3 SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

Values of shrinkage and creep, specified herein, shall be used to determine the effects of
shrinkage and creep on the loss of prestressing force in bridges other than segmentally
constructed ones. These values in conjunction with the Moment of Inertia shall be used to
determine the effects of shrinkage and creep on deflections.

The shrinkage coefficients shall be assumed to be 0.0002 after 28 days and 0.0005 after one
year of drying.

Shrinkage of concrete can vary over a wide range from nearly nil if continually immersed in
water to in excess of 0.0008 for either thin sections made with high shrinkage aggregates or
for sections which are not property cured.

The creep coefficient shall be estimated as:

§ H · − 0.118 ( t − ti)0.6
ψ( t , ti) = 3.5kckf ¨1.58 − ¸ ti (Ref. 2) (9.1)
© 120 ¹ 10.0 + ( t − ti)0.6
for which: kf = 62 (9.2)
42+f′c

where: H = average relative humidity at the site (%)

kc = factor for the effect of the volume-to-surface ratio of the component, Figure 9-1
below.
kf = factor for the effect of concrete strength (from Equation 9.2 above)
t = maturity of concrete (Days)
tI = age of concrete when load is initially applied (Days)
f′c = specified compressive strength at 28 days (MPa)

Creep is influenced by the same factors as shrinkage, and also by: magnitude and duration of
the stress, maturity of the concrete at the time of loading, and temperature of concrete.

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Figure 9.1 Factor kc for Volume to Surface Ratio

Creep shortening of concrete under permanent loads is generally in the range of 1.5 to 4.0
times the initial elastic shortening, depending primarily on concrete maturity at the time of
loading.

9.3.4 DESIGN PROPERTIES (MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, POISSON'S RATIO, MODULUS OF RUPTURE)

In the absence of more precise data, the modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete with densities
between 1440 and 2500 kg/M3, shall be taken as:

Ec = 0.043γc1.5 fc (9.3)

where: γc = density of concrete (kg/m3)

f′c = specified cylinder strength of concrete (MPa)

For normal density concrete with γc = 2 400 kg/m3 , Ec shall be taken as:

Ec = 4800 fc (9.4)

Poisson's ratio shall be assumed as 0.2. For components which are expected to be subject to
cracking, the effect of Poisson's ratio shall be neglected.

The modulus of rupture (fr) in MPa, for normal density concrete, shall be taken as:

Fr = 0.63 f ' c (9.5)

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9.3.5 CHARACTERISTIC TENSILE STRENGTH

The Characteristic Tensile Strength refers to the axial tensile strength as determined by tests
in accordance with standards issued or approved by the Quality and Standardization Authority
of Ethiopia. It shall be determined by either using the Ethiopian Standards, ASTM C900-94
"Standard Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Concrete", or the split tensile
strength method in accordance with AASHTO T198 (ASTM C496-90) "Standard Method for
Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.

The Characteristic Tensile Strength may also be determined from the characteristic cylinder
compressive strength as:
fctk =0.7 fctm ; (9.6)
2/3
Where fctm =0.3 fck (see Table 9.3 below) (9.7)

Grades of Concrete C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

fctm 1.9 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
fctk 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.8

Table 9-3 Grades of Concrete and Values of fctk and fctm

9.4 REINFORCEMENT

9.4.1 GENERAL

Reinforcing bars, deformed wire, cold-drawn wire, welded plain wire fabric and welded
deformed wire fabric shall conform to the materials standards as specified herein.

Reinforcement shall be deformed, except that plain bars or plain wire may be used for spirals,
hoops and wire fabric. Bars < Ø 10 mm should not be used for cast-in-place structures.

The nominal yield strength shall be the minimum as specified for the grade of steel selected,
except that yield strengths in excess of 520 MPa shall not be used for design purposes. Bars
with yield strengths less than 270 MPa shall be used only with the approval of ERA. Tensile
requirements are as indicated in Table 9-4.

AASHTO M31 M Grade Grade 300 Grade 420 Grade 520

Equiv. European bars B500B Ks60
(Old AASHTO M31 Grade) (40) (60) (75)
Tensile strength, min. MPa 500 620 690
Yield strength, min. Mpa 300 420 520

Table 9-4 Tensile Requirements for Reinforcement Bars

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Where ductility is to be assured or where welding is required, steel conforming to the

requirements of ASTM A706M, Low Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement, or similar weldable European Steel, should be specified.

Reinforcement shall be deformed, except that plain bars or plain wire shall be used for spirals,
hoops and wire fabric. Bars < ∅10 mm should not be used for cast-in-place structures.

The Ethiopian Iron and Steel Foundry in Akaki and Zuquala Steel Rolling Mill Enterprises in
Debre Zeit manufacture up to 400 MPa deformed bars with diameters ∅6 - ∅32 mm.

9.4.2 DESIGN PROPERTIES

Water/Cement Ratio ≤0,40 ≤0,45 ≤0,50

SITUATION COVER (mm) COVER (mm) COVER (mm)
Direct exposure to salt water 80 100 120
Cast against earth (i.e. Bottom of 60 75 90
footings)
Exterior other than above 40 50 60
Interior other than above (i.e. hollow
structures)
• Up to ∅35 Bar 32 40 48
• ∅45 and ∅55Bars 40 50 60
Bottom of cast-in-place slabs
• Up to ∅35 Bar 25 25 30
• ∅45 and ∅55Bars 40 50 60
Precast soffit form panels 20 20 24
Precast Reinforced Piles
• Non-corrosive environments 32 40 48
• Corrosive environments 60 75 90
Precast Prestressed Piles 40 50 60
Cast-in-place Piles
• Non-corrosive environments 40 50 60
• Corrosive environments
- General 60 75 90
- Protected 60 75 90
• Shells 40 50 60
• Auger cast, tremie concrete or slurry 60 75 90
construction

Table 9-5 Cover for Unprotected Main Reinforcing Steel (mm)

The modulus of elasticity, Ec, of bars and undeformed wires shall be assumed as 200 000
MPa.

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Minimum cover to main bars, including bars protected by epoxy coating, shall be 25 mm.
Minimum Cover to ties and stirrups may be 12 mm less than the values specified in Table 9-5
for main bars, but shall not be less than 25 mm (not less than 20 mm for Precast soffit form
panels).

Concrete Cover for unprotected prestressing and reinforcing steel for the actual water-cement
ratio shall not be less than as specified in Table 9-5 above, unless otherwise specified herein.
Concrete cover and placing tolerances shall be shown in the contract documents and/or at the
detail drawings.

Cover for pretensioned prestressing strand, anchorage hardware and mechanical connections
for reinforcing bars or post-tensioned prestressing strands shall be the same as for reinforcing
steel.

Cover for metal ducts for post-tensioned tendons shall not be less than:

• that specified for main reinforcing steel,

• one-half the diameter of the duct, or
• that specified in Table 9-5.

Protective Coatings: Protection against chloride-induced corrosion shall be provided by

epoxy coating or galvanizing of reinforcing steel, post-tensioning duct and anchorage
hardware and epoxy coating of prestressing strand.

9.4.3 DEVELOPMENT (CUT OFF) AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT:

Development of Reinforcement

Positive Moment Reinforcement: At least one-third of the positive moment reinforcement in

simple-span members, and one fourth the positive moment reinforcement in continuous
members, shall extend along the same face of the member beyond the centerline of the
support. In beams such extension shall be no less than 150 mm.

Negative Moment Reinforcement: At least one-third of the total tension reinforcement

provided for negative moment at a support shall have an embedment length beyond the point
of inflection not less than:

• the effective depth of the member,

• 20 times the nominal diameter of bar, and
• 0.0625 times the clear span.

Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension: The tension development length, ld, shall not
be less than the product of the basic tension development length, ldb, as specified herein, and
the modification factor or factors, as specified below. The tension development length shall
not be less than 300 mm, except for lap splices and in development of shear reinforcement
below.

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The basic tension development length, ldb in mm shall be taken as:

• for ∅ 35 bar and smaller............................ 0.02Abfy / f l c but not less than: 0.06 db fy
• for ∅ 45 bars .............................................................................................. 25fy / f l c
• for ∅ 55 bars ............................................................................................ 34fy / f l c
• for deformed wire ................................................................................ 0.36dbfy / f l c

where: Ab = area of bar or wire (mm2)

fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
db = diameter of bar or wire (mm)

Modification Factors which increase ld : The basic development length, ldb, shall be
multiplied by the following factor or factors as applicable:
• for top horizontal or nearly horizontal reinforcement, so placed that more
• than 300 mm of fresh concrete is cast below the reinforcement................................. 1.4
• for bars with a cover of db or less, or with a clear spacing of 2db or less .................... 2.0

Modification Factors which Decrease ld: The basic development length, ldb, modified by the
factors as specified above, shall be multiplied by the following factors, where:
• reinforcement being developed in the length under consideration is spaced laterally not
less than 150 mm center-to-center, with not less than 75 mm clear cover measured in the
direction of the spacing ............................................................................................ 0.8
• anchorage or development for the full yield strength of reinforcement is not required, or
where reinforcement in flexural members is in excess of that required by analysis
(As required) / (As provided)

Deformed Bars In Compression: The development length, ld, for deformed bars in
compression shall not be less than either the product of the basic development length as
specified herein and the applicable modification factors as specified below (Modification
factors) or 200 mm.

The basic development length, ldb, for deformed bars in compression shall not be less than:

0.24dbfy
ldb = , or (9.8)
f lc

ldb = 0.044 db fy (.9.9)

where:
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
flc = specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days,
unless another age is specified (MPa)

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db = diameter of bar (mm)

Modification Factors: The basic development length, ldb, shall be multiplied by applicable
factors, where:
• anchorage or development for the full yield strength of reinforcement is not required, or
where reinforcement is provided in excess of that required by
analysis .................................................................................... (As required) / (As provided)
• reinforcement is enclosed within a spiral composed of a bar of not less than 6 mm in
diameter and spaced at not more than a 100 mm pitch..................................................... 0.75

Bundled Bars: The development length of individual bars within a bundle, in tension or
compression, shall be that for the individual bar, increased by 20% for a three-bar bundle and
by 33% for a four-bar bundle. For determining the Modification factors for tension
development length above, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter
determined from the equivalent total area.

Standard Hooks in Tension: The development length, ldh, in mm, for deformed bars in tension
terminating in a standard hook shall not be less than:
• the product of the basic development length lhb, as specified in Equation 9.10, and the
applicable modification factor or factors, as below
• 8.0 bar diameters, or
• 150 mm.
Basic development length, lhb, for a hooked bar with yield strength, fy not exceeding 400
MPa shall be taken as:

100db
lhb = (9.10)
f lc

where: db = diameter of bar (mm)

f'c = specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days, unless another age
specified (MPa)

Modification factors: Basic hook development length, lhb , shall be multiplied by the
following factors as applicable, where:
• reinforcement yield strength exceeds 400 MPa ...............................................fy / 400
• anchorage or development of full yield strength is
not required, or where reinforcement is provided in
excess of that required by analysis .................................(As required) / (As provided)

Lap Splices of Reinforcement in Tension

The length of lap for tension lap splices shall not be less than either 300 mm or the following
for Class A, B or C splices (see Table 9-6):
Class A splice ....................................................................................................... 1.0 ld
Class B splice ....................................................................................................... 1.3 ld
Class C splice ....................................................................................................... 1.7 ld

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The class of lap splice required for deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be as
shown in Table 9-6.

Ratio of Percent of As Spliced with Required Lap Length

(As as provided)
50 75 100
(As as required)
≥2 A A B
<2 B C C

Table 9-6 Classes of Tension Lap Splices

The tension development length, ld, used as a basis for calculating splice lengths should
include all of the modification factors specified in this subchapter.

Splices in Tension Tie Members

A tension tie member is assumed to have:

• An axial tensile force sufficient to create tension over the cross-section, and
• A level of stress in the reinforcement such that every bar is fully effective.

Examples of members that shall be classified as tension ties are arch ties, hangers carrying
load to an overhead supporting structure, and main tension components in a truss.

Splices of reinforcement in tension tie members shall be made only with either full-welded
splices or full mechanical connections. Splices in adjacent bars shall be staggered not less
than 750 mm apart.

Splices of Reinforcement Bars in Compression

The length of lap, lc, for compression lap splices shall be ≥ 300 mm or as follows:

• If fy ≤ 420 MPa then: lc = 0.073m fy db, or (9.11)

• If fy > 420 MPa then: lc = m(0.13 fy – 24) db (9.12)

for which:
• Where the specified concrete strength, f′c is less than 21 MPa. ......................m = 1.33
• Where ties along the splice have an effective area not less than 0.15% of the product of the
thickness of the compression component times the tie spacing .....................m = 0.83
• With spirals..................................................................................................... m = 0.75
• In all other cases.................................................................................................m = 1.0

where: fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)

db = diameter of bar (mm)

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The effective area of the ties is the area of the legs perpendicular to the thickness of the
component, as seen in cross-section.

9.4.5 FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT

Flexural Reinforcement General

Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members shall be taken at

points of maximum stress and at points within the span where adjacent reinforcement
terminates or is bent.

Except at supports of simple-spans and at the free ends of cantilevers, reinforcement shall be
extended beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance not
less than:

• the effective depth of the member,

• 15 times the nominal diameter of bar, or
• 1/20 of the clear span.

Continuing reinforcement shall extend not less than the development length, ld, beyond the
point where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.

No more than 50% of the reinforcement shall be terminated at any section, and adjacent
bars shall not be terminated in the same section.

Tension reinforcement may also be developed by either bending across the web in which
reinforcement lies and terminating the reinforcement in a compression area and providing the
development length ld

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ff = 145 - 0.33 fmin + 55 ( r/h) (9.19)

where: ff = stress range (MPa)

fmin = the minimum live load stress resulting from the fatigue load combination
specified in Table 3-2, combined with the more severe stress from either the
permanent loads or the permanent loads, shrinkage, and creep induced external
loads; positive if tension, negative if compression (MPa)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; if the actual
value is not known, 0.3 shall be used

9.6.3 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

The strength limit state issues to be considered shall be those of strength and stability.
Factored resistance shall be the product of nominal resistance, and the resistance factor in
Table 9-7 below:

Resistance Factors, Conventional Construction: Resistance factor ϕ:

• For flexure and tension of reinforced concrete ................................0.90
• For flexure and tension of prestressed concrete................................1.00
• For shear and torsion:
Normal density concrete ...................................................................0.90
Low-density concrete........................................................................0.70
• For axial compression with spirals or ties.........................................0.75
• For bearing on concrete ...................................................................0.70
• For compression in strut-and-tie models ..........................................0.70
• For compression in anchorage zones:
Normal density concrete ..................................................................0.80
Low-density concrete.......................................................................0.65
• For tension in steel in anchorage zones ..........................................1.00
• for resistance during pile driving .....................................................1.00

Table 9-7 Resistance Factors

For compression members with flexure, the value of ϕ shall be increased linearly to the value
for flexure as the factored axial load resistance, ϕ*Pn decreases from 0.10 f′c Ag → to 0.

9.6.4 EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATE

The structure as a whole, and its components, shall be proportioned to resist collapse due to
extreme events, specified in Table 3-2, as shall be appropriate to its site and use.

9.7 SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN

General Requirements: The factored torsional resistance, Tr, shall be taken as:

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Tr = ϕTn (9.20)

where: Tn = nominal torsional resistance (Nmm)

ϕ = resistance factor from Table 9-7

The factored shear resistance, Vr, shall be taken as:

Vr = ϕVn (9.21)

Where : Vn = nominal shear resistance (N)

ϕ = resistance factor from Table 9-7

For normal density concrete, torsional effects shall be investigated where:

Tr > 0.25 ϕ Tcr (9.22)

1 + fpc
Tcr = 0.328f l c (A 2 cp / pc) (9.23)
0.328 f l c

where: fc = factored torsional moment (Nmm)

Tcr = torsional cracking moment from the formulae above (Nmm)
Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section (mm2)
pc = the length of the outside perimeter of the concrete section (mm)
fpc = compressive stress in concrete after prestress losses have occurred either at the
centroid of the cross-section resisting transient loads or at the junction of the web
and flange where the centroid lies in the flange (MPa)
ϕ = resistance factor for strength limit state, Table 9-7

The nominal torsional resistance shall be taken as:

2AoAtfyCotθ
Tn = (9.24)
S

where: Ao = area enclosed by the shear flow path, including area of holes therein, if any
(mm2)
At = area of one leg of closed transverse torsion reinforcement (mm2)
θ = angle of crack, usually 45°.
9.8 DEFORMATIONS
9.8.1 GENERAL
The provisions of maximum deflection shall be considered. Deck joints and bearings shall
accommodate the dimensional changes caused by loads, creep, shrinkage, thermal changes,
settlement, and if appropriate, prestressing.

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For more precise determinations of long-term deflections, the creep and shrinkage coefficients
given earlier in this chapter should be utilized. These coefficients include the effects of
aggregate characteristics, humidity at the structure site, relative thickness of member, maturity
at time of loading, and length of time under loads.

9.8.2 DEFLECTION AND CAMBER

Deflection and camber calculations shall consider dead load, live load, prestressing, erection
loads, concrete creep and shrinkage, and steel relaxation.

For determining deflection and camber, the elastic behavior shall apply.

9.9 COMPRESSION MEMBERS

9.9.1 GENERAL

Unless otherwise permitted, compression members shall be analyzed with consideration of the
effects of:

• Eccentricity,
• Axial loads,
• Variable moments of inertia,
• Degree of end fixity,
• Deflections,
• Duration of loads, and
• Prestressing.

In lieu of a refined procedure, non-prestressed columns with the slenderness ratio,

K * lu / r < 100, (9.25)

where: K = effective length factor (see subchapter 13.6)

lu = unbraced length (mm)
r = radius of gyration (mm)

shall be designed by the approximate procedure specified below.

The requirements of this subchapter shall be supplemented and modified for structures in
Seismic Zone 4.

Provisions shall be made to transfer all force effects from compression components, adjusted
for second order moment magnification, to adjacent components.

Where the connection to an adjacent component is by a concrete hinge, longitudinal

reinforcement shall be centralized within the hinge to minimize flexural resistance and shall
be developed on both sides of the hinge.

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9.9.2 LIMITS FOR COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT

The maximum area of prestressed and non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement for non-
composite compression components shall be such that:

As Apsfpu
+ ≤ 0.08 (9.26)
Ag Agfy

Apsfpc
≤ 0.30 (9.27)
Agfc

The minimum area of prestressed and non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement for non-
composite compression components shall be such that:

Asfy Apsfpu
+ ≥ 0.0135 (9.28)
Agf l c Agfy

where: As = area of non-prestressed tension steel (mm2)

Ag = gross area of section (mm2)
Aps = area of prestressing steel (mm2)
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing steel (MPa)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
f′c = specified compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
fpc = effective prestress (MPa)

According to current ACI codes (Ref. 3), the area of longitudinal reinforcement for non-
prestressed non-composite compression components should be not less than 0.01 Ag. Because
the dimensioning of columns is primarily controlled by bending, this limitation does not
account for the influence of the concrete compressive strength. To account for the
compressive strength of concrete, the minimum reinforcement in flexural members is shown
to be proportional to f′c / fy.. This approach is also reflected in the first term of Equation 9.28.
For fully prestressed members, current codes specify a minimum average prestress of 1.6
MPa. Here also the influence of compressive strength is not accounted for. A compressive
strength of 35 MPa has been used as a basis for these provisions, and a weighted averaging
procedure was used to arrive at the equation.

The minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars in the body of a column shall be 6 ∅
16 in a circular arrangement and 4 ∅ 16 in a rectangular arrangement.

For bridges in Seismic Zone 1-3, the minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement shall be that
required for a component with a reduced effective area of concrete, provided that both the full
section and the reduced effective section are capable of resisting the factored loads and that
the area of reinforcement is not less than 0.7 percent of the gross area of the column.

Where columns are pinned to their foundations, a small number of central bars have
sometimes been used as a connection between footing and column.

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9.9.3 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS

These procedures were developed for reinforced concrete columns but are currently used for
prestressed concrete columns as well.

For members not braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness shall be neglected where
the slenderness ratio, (K * lu / r)< 22.

For members braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness shall be neglected where:

(K*lu/r)<34-12 (M1/M2),

in which Ml and M2 are the smaller and larger end moments, respectively, and the term
(Ml/M2) is positive for single curvature flexure.

The following approximate procedure shall be used for the design of non-prestressed
compression members with (K * lu / r)< 100:

• The design is based on a factored axial load, Pu, determined by elastic analysis and a
magnified factored moment, Mc, for approximate methods (see Eq. 12.46 and 12.48).
• The unsupported length, lu, of a compression member is taken as the clear distance
between components capable of providing lateral support for the compression
components. Where haunches are present, the unsupported length is taken to the extremity
of any haunches in the plane considered.
• The radius of gyration, r, is computed for the gross concrete section. For a rectangular
compression member, r shall be taken as 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction
in which stability is being considered. For a circular compression member, r shall be
taken as 0.25 times the diameter.
• For members braced against sidesway, the effective length factor, K, is taken as 1.0,
unless it is shown by analysis that a lower value shall be used.
• For members not braced against sidesway, K is determined with due consideration for the
effects of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness and is taken as not less than
1.0.

In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI for use in determining Euler Buckling Load, Pe,
where
Pe = π2 E I (9.29)
(K*lu)2

shall be taken as the greater of:

EcIg / 5 + Esls
EI = (9.30)
1 + βd
or

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EcIg / 2.5
EI = (9.31)
1 + βd

where: Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa)

Ig = moment of inertia of the gross concrete section about the centroidal axis (mm4)
Es = modulus of elasticity of longitudinal steel (MPa)
Is = moment of inertia of longitudinal steel about the centroidal axis (mm4)
βd = ratio of maximum factored permanent load moments to maximum factored
total load moment; always positive
K = effective length factor (see subchapter 13.6)

For eccentrically prestressed members, consideration shall be given to the effect of lateral
deflection due to prestressing in determining the magnified moment.

For members in structures, which undergo appreciable lateral deflections resulting from
combinations of vertical load or combinations of vertical and lateral loads, force effects
should be determined using a second-order analysis.

9.9.4 FACTORED AXIAL RESISTANCE

The factored axial resistance of reinforced concrete compressive components, symmetrical

about both principal axes, shall be taken as:

Pr = ϕ Pn (9.32)

for which:

• For members with spiral reinforcement: Pn = 0.85 [0.85 f′c(Ag-Ast)+fy Ast] (9.33)
• For members with tie reinforcement: Pn = 0.80 [0.85 f′c (Ag - Ast) + fy Ast] (9.34)

where: Pr = factored axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)

Pn = nominal axial resistance, with or without flexure (N)
f′c = specified strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
Ag = gross area of section (mm2)
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement (mm2)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
ϕ = resistance factor specified in Table 9-7

The values of 0.85 and 0.80 in Equations 9.33 and 9.34 place upper limits on the usable
resistance of columns to allow for unintended eccentricity.

9.9.5 BIAXIAL FLEXURE

In lieu of an analysis based on equilibrium and strain compatibility for biaxial flexure,
noncircular members subjected to biaxial flexure and compression shall be proportioned using
the following approximate expressions:

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• If the factored axial load is ≥ 0.1* ϕ f′c Ag:

1 = 1 + 1 - 1 (9.35)
Prxy Prx Pry ϕPo

for which: Po = 0.85 f′c (Ag – Ast) + Ast fy (9.36)

• If the factored axial load is < 0.10 ϕ f′c Ag:

Mux Muy
+ ≤ 1 .0 (9.37)
Mrx Mrx

where: ϕ = resistance factor for members in axial compression

Prxy = factored axial resistance in biaxial flexure (N)
Prx = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ey is
present (N)
Pry = factored axial resistance determined on the basis that only eccentricity ex is
present (N)
Pu = factored applied axial force (N)
Mux = factored applied moment about the X-axis (Nmm)
Muy = factored applied moment about the Y-axis (Nmm)
ex = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the X direction, i.e.= Mux/Pu
(mm)
ey = eccentricity of the applied factored axial force in the Y direction, i.e= Mux/Pu
(mm)

The procedure for calculating corresponding values of Mrx and Prx or Mry and Pry can be found
in most texts on reinforced concrete design.

The factored axial resistance Prx and Pry shall not be taken to be greater than the product of the
resistance factor, ϕ, and the maximum nominal compressive resistance given by either
Equations 9.33 or 9.34 above as appropriate.

9.9.6 SPIRALS AND TIES

Where the area of spiral and tie reinforcement is not controlled by:
• Seismic requirements,
• Shear or torsion, or
• Minimum requirements (min. ∅ 10 ties for main reinforcement ≤ ∅ 32)

the ratio of spiral reinforcement to total volume of concrete core, measured out-to-out of
spirals, shall not be less than:

§ Ag · f c
l
Ps = 0.45¨ − 1¸ (9.38)
© Ac ¹ fyh
where: Ag = gross area of concrete section (mm2)

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Ac = area of core measured to the outside diameter of the spiral (mm2)

f'c = specified strength of concrete at 28 days (MPa)
fyh = specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement (MPa)

REFERENCES

1. Ethiopian Building Code Standards, EBCS-2, “Structural Use of Concrete,” 1995.

2. Collins, Michael P., and D. Mitchell. Prestressed Concrete Structures. Prentice Hall:
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1991.
3. ACI Committee 207. Manual of Concrete Practice. ACI 207.2R73. 1973.

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