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Mapping the Chemical Composition of Nickel Laterites with Reflectance

Spectroscopy at Koniambo, New Caledonia

Article in Economic Geology · August 2013

DOI: 10.2113/econgeo.108.6.1285

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Economic Geology, v. 108, pp. 1285–1299

Mapping the Chemical Composition of Nickel Laterites with

Reflectance Spectroscopy at Koniambo, New Caledonia
Kai Yang,† Lew Whitbourn, Peter Mason, and Jon Huntington
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering, P.O. Box 136, North Ryde, NSW 1670, Australia

Abstract
Reflectance spectroscopy was applied as a sampling tool for deriving compositional data of nickel laterites in
the Koniambo deposits of New Caledonia. The aim of the work was to test the feasibility of acquiring spectral
reflectance data for retrieving quantitative compositional information on nickel laterites exposed in mine bench
walls as a routine sampling method for ore-grade control in a mining operation. The spectral reflectance data
record complex variations in mineralogical and chemical compositions of nickel laterites.
A key method tested in this work is a calibration procedure for converting spectral reflectance to weight per-
centage of chemical components. A partial least squares (PLS) analysis method was used for this purpose. The
abundances of Ni, Fe, MgO, and SiO2, the four most important chemical components collectively determining
the economical value and the metallurgical behaviors of lateritic nickel ores, were modeled by the spectral
reflectance data of a set of reference samples. The models were then validated by an independent set of samples
with known chemical compositions. The validated models were applied to spectral reflectance data acquired
on mine bench walls to derive the chemical compositions of lateritic ores. The results have confirmed that the
chemical compositions of nickel laterites can be modeled and predicted with confidence by use of spectral
reflectance data.
Parameters used for modeling were selected based on the considerations of (1) simplicity of data processing,
and (2) relationships between chemistry and mineralogy. Smoothed and background-removed spectral reflec-
tance data of the 400 to 2,500 nm wavelengths were used for modeling Ni, Fe, MgO, and SiO2.
This work demonstrates that reflectance spectroscopy provides an efficient and effective sampling tool for
deriving high density compositional data of nickel laterites. An approach combining reflectance spectroscopy
with conventional sampling techniques will result in significant improvement on ore-grade control sampling in
terms of representation and precision of data and savings on cost for sampling.

Introduction system, comprising an ASD Fieldspec FR spectrometer

Electromagnetic radiation spanning the visible to short-
wave infrared wavelengths from 400 to 2,500 nm is sensitive
to the structure and chemistry of minerals that contain Fe3+,
OH–, CO32– or SO42– (Hunt, 1977; Clark et al., 1990). Because
of its non-invasive measurement, rapid data acquisition and
simple instrumentation, reflectance spectroscopy using the
wavelength region from visible (400–750 nm), near infra-
red (750–1,400 nm) to shortwave infrared (1,400–2,500 nm)
is useful as a mineral analysis tool, particularly for mineral
exploration and geometallurgy. Implementation of reflectance
spectroscopy as a mineral analysis tool for mineral exploration
commenced in the early 1990s with portable spectrometers
routinely used in the field and drill core shed (e.g., Thomp-
son et al., 1999; Yang et al., 2000, 2005; Hauff et al., 2001;
Sun et al., 2001). The application of reflectance spectroscopy
was then tested and extended to mining and ore process-
ing (e.g., McArthur and Greensill, 2006; Goetz et al., 2009;
Lower et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2011). From early 2000, The
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organiza-
tion (CSIRO) commenced development of instrumentation
to automate the operation of spectrometers and streamline
data processing in order to speed up data acquisition and
interpretation to meet an increasing demand for high-density
compositional data in mining and geometallurgical applica-
tions (e.g., the HyLogging™ systems for measuring drill core;
Cudahy et al., 2009; Roache et al., 2011; Whitbourn et al.,
2011; Haest et al., 2012a, b). A prototype mine pit scanning
†Corresponding author: e-mail: kyang389@gmail.com
0361-0128/13/4140/1285-15
(http://www.asdi.com) coupled with a rotation mirror and a
laser range finder, was one such development tested during
the Koniambo nickel project in New Caledonia from 2001 to
2004 (Yang et al., 2001, 2002, 2004; Fraser et al., 2006).
For open-pit mining of lateritic nickel ore, mapping and
sampling the mine bench wall is part of a routine ore-grade
control procedure, where mineralogical and geochemical
data are collected for mining, ore processing, and metallurgi-
cal purposes. Whereas ultramafic-derived laterites of nickel
deposits vary considerably in composition as a function of pro-
tolith and weathering, metallurgy requires that ores feeding to
the smelter be blended to a specifically designated chemical
composition. The chemical composition of each block of ore
in a mine, therefore, needs to be analyzed before the block is
mined to provide compositional data necessary for ore blend-
ing. The task of mapping and sampling the mine bench wall
is repeated each time a new bench front is exposed by blast-
ing as mining progresses. Conventionally, mine pit sampling
is undertaken by collecting rock chips on the bench wall and
drilling into the pit floor along a grid, followed by laboratory
assays of rock chip and drill samples. Drilling on a grid of even
a few meters spacing does not provide high-density sampling,
and the data derived may not be fully representative of every
part of the ore system. This routine exercise cannot be acceler-
ated easily as it requires visual and manual logging, mapping,
and sampling in the mine pit, and chemical analysis in the
laboratory. Furthermore, this conventional approach incurs
considerable drilling and assay costs. In addition, results of
mineralogical mapping of the bench wall depend very much
Submitted: April 2, 2012
1285 Accepted: January 21, 2013
1286
on an individual geologist’s experience, and such data are
hardly quantifiable. In the work at Koniambo, we intended to
test reflectance spectroscopy as a means of sampling and ore
characterization to complement the conventional sampling
approach of drilling and assay by providing high-density com-
positional data at lower cost.
Developing a methodology, rather than new instrumenta-
tion, for retrieving quantitative compositional information
from spectral reflectance was the aim of our work. Imaging
spectroscopy, originally developed for remote sensing, pro-
vides much faster acquisition of spectral reflectance data than
using a point-measurement instrument like the Fieldspec
FR. This work was undertaken when ground-based imag-
ing spectroscopy was in its early stage of development, not
suitable for industrial application owing to an unsatisfactory
signal-to-noise ratio (significantly lower than a single point
measurement instrument like the FieldSpec FR). During the
past decade, there has been significant advance in imaging
spectroscopy technologies (e.g., AISA, http://www.specim.fi;
HySpex, http://www.hyspex.no). With further development of
imaging spectroscopy technology and in particular improve-
ment in the signal-to-noise ratio of spectral reflectance data, it
is anticipated that scanning mine bench walls with an imaging
spectrometer will become a reality in the very near future.
However, retrieval of quantitative compositional information
of ores and rocks from spectral reflectance, regardless of the
instrument used for data acquisition, is still a current frontier
in the development of operational reflectance spectroscopy
techniques for mining and ore processing (e.g., da Costa et
20°S
Koniambo Massif
Koné
22°S Pouebo Terrane
Ultramafic complex
Poya Terrane (basalts)
40 km
Undifferentiated basement
164°E
Fig. 1. Regional geologic map of New Caledonia (modified from Ulrich et al., 2010).
YANG ET AL.
al., 2009; Goetz et al., 2009; Wells and Chia, 2011; Yang et al.,
2011). In this paper, we report work at Koniambo, New Cale-
donia, undertaken in collaboration with Falconbridge Nickel
(now Xstrata Nickel), as an example to demonstrate the appli-
cation of reflectance spectroscopy as a routine sampling and
compositional analysis tool for mining and metallurgy. In par-
ticular, the methods used to analyze spectral reflectance data
and extract quantitative compositional information of ores are
presented and the implications discussed.
Geologic Setting
The New Caledonian islands represent fragments of conti-
nental crust that drifted away from Australia due to the break-
up of the eastern margin of the Gondwana initiated in Late
Cretaceous (Elssen et al., 1998). The presence of thin sheets
of ultramafic complex suggests obduction of lithospheric
mantle materials onto ocean basin sediments and basalts dur-
ing continent-arc collision in the Miocene (Lagabrielle and
Chauvet, 2008; Ulrich et al., 2010). The Koniambo Massif,
near Koné in northern New Caledonia, consists of predomi-
nantly harzburgite and minor amounts of dunite, pyroxinite,
and gabbro (Perrier et al., 2006). This ultramafic complex cov-
ers an area approximately 20- × 5-km, forming part of the
coastal range along the western margin of the main island.
Tropical weathering resulted in extensive lateritization in the
upper part of the ultramafic sequence, currently exposed on
the ridges of the coastal range (Fig. 1).
The Koniambo Massif comprises three major litho-
logical units overlying the Poya terrane (Fig. 1). The basal
Vanuatu
Fiji
New
Caledonia
Australia
PACIFIC OCEAN
New Zealand
Nouméa
166°E
 MAPPING Ni LATERITES WITH REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY, KONIAMBO, NEW CALEDONIA
harzburgite-dunite unit is almost completely serpentinized
and intensely silicified. The overlying dunites are homoge-
neous and fine grained, composed predominantly of oliv-
ine (approximately 30% serpentinized) with minor amounts
(<1%) of orthopyroxene and spinel. The upper unit consists
mainly of harzburgite and thin sheets of dunite. The propor-
tion of orthopyroxene increases from the bottom to the top
of this unit. Clinopyroxene is locally present as an accessory
phase in the upper part of the massif (Ulrich et al., 2010).
Lateritization of ultramafic rocks resulted in relative enrich-
ment of nickel and cobalt in residual rocks, making New
Caledonia one of the world’s largest nickel resources (Brit-
ish Geological Survey, 2008). The 40- to 45-m-thick lateritic
profile, from the base to the top, consists of rocky saprolite,
earthy saprolite, transitional limonite, red and yellow limo-
nites, and ferruginous crust (Fig. 2). This profile reflects pro-
gressive removal of Mg and Si during weathering, with Fe, Ni,
and Al remaining in residual materials as laterites. Nickel as
well as other chemical components vary with depth through
this laterite profile (Audet, 2008). Lithology and chemical
composition of the major categories of laterites are summa-
rized in Table 1. Nickel is held mainly in hydrous Mg layer
silicates (replacing Mg) and goethite (Gleeson et al., 2003).
The Koniambo deposits are classified as the hydrous silicate
nickel laterite (Gleeson et al., 2003).
The Koniambo deposits contain 142.1 million tonnes (Mt)
of measured and indicated saprolitic resources at 2.13%
nickel, 140.7 Mt of inferred saprolitic resource grading 2.16%
nickel, and 104.0 Mt of inferred limonitic resources at 1.50%
nickel (Scales, 2006; Xstrata Nickel, 2008). Mine construction
is currently underway and production is scheduled to com-
mence in 2013 (Xstrata Nickel, 2008).
Methods
Instrumentation
The core component of the prototype mine pit scan sys-
tem used in this work was an ASD Fieldspec FR portable
ferruginous crust
red limonite
yellow limonite
40 – 45m transitional limonite
dunite
earthy saprolite
rocky saprolite
peridotite
Fig. 2. Generalized lateritic profile of the Koniambo Massif, New Cale-
donia (after Audet, 2008).
1287
spectrometer, which measures reflectance in the 350- to
2,500-nm-wavelength range, with approximately 8 nm resolu-
tion and at the rate of 10 spectral measurements per second.
Scanning was performed by a rotating mirror. Spectral reflec-
tance of the mine bench wall was collected through a 1° field-
of-view telescope attached to the fiber optical bundle of the
spectrometer. The telescope was fixed in a position vertically
looking down the scanning mirror that was inclined at 45° so
that it reflected light from the bench wall to the telescope. A
laser ranger finder was used to measure the distance from the
scan mirror to the center of each measurement (pixel) on the
bench wall.
A 2,000-W tungsten-filament searchlight was used for illu-
minating bench walls for data acquisition at night. The deci-
sion to use artificial lighting was based on consideration of the
subtropical environment at Koniambo, where stable sunlight
was hardly sustained even during the dry season.
The scan mirror, the searchlight, and the laser range finder
were mounted onto a platform which was driven by a step
motor and controlled by a laptop computer. The entire scan
system was powered by a portable generator.
Data acquisition
Field tests were carried out in an abandoned mine pit (Car-
riere Guerioum) in the central sector of the Koniambo Mas-
sif. Nine sections of bench wall, termed zones 1 to 9, were
scanned (zones 1–3 shown in Fig. 3A). An individual zone
measured from 10- to 25-m in length and from 2- to 4.5 m in
height, with bench slopes varying from 60° to 75°. The surface
of bench wall was scanned in its natural condition. The data
for zone 1 (15-m long and 4-m high) are presented in this
paper.
Scanning proceeded from the left to the right end of a zone
in successive horizontal lines (Fig. 3B, C). A Teflon plate,
placed at the left end of a bench section, was measured at
the beginning of each scan line and the data were used as
the reflectance reference for the corresponding scan line. The
X (horizontal) and Y (vertical) coordinates of each spectral
reflectance measurement on a zone were recorded. Scanning
was undertaken at night between 8 p.m. and 12 a.m. in order
to avoid sunlight interference.
Integration times for each measurement (pixel) at 0.5, 2, 4,
and 8 seconds were tested and the data obtained at the various
integrations were then compared. Integration at 4 seconds,
resulting in 40 replicate spectral measurements per pixel (an
average recorded), was found to achieve an optimal balance
between signal-to-noise and time needed for scanning an
entire zone of bench wall, and therefore was chosen for this
study. It took between 1 and 2 hours to scan a zone (approx.
1.5 h for zone 1).
The scanning system was placed at a distance of 10 to 16 m,
depending on the length of a zone, from the center of a zone.
For each zone, the distance was determined by taking into
account the length of a zone to be scanned, the total angle of
scanning not exceeding 60° (α in Fig. 3B), an optimal signal-
to-noise ratio of spectral reflectance data (decreasing with
increasing distance), and the safety requirement for minimal
clearance between bench wall and personnel. The spatial cov-
erage for each spectral reflectance measurement, i.e., pixel
size, in the center of a bench wall zone was approximately
1288 YANG ET AL.

Table 1. Lithology and Chemistry of Laterites at Koniambo (modified from Audet, 2008)

Horizon Lithology Criteria of chemical composition

Limonite Ferricrete
Red limonite
Yellow limonite MgO < 5 wt %, Fe > 40 wt %

Transition Transitional limonite MgO = 5–15 wt %, Fe = 30–40 wt %

Upper saprolite Mainly earthy saprolite, intensely weathered from harzburgite and dunite; MgO = 15–30 wt %, Fe = 10–25 wt %
may include minor limonites as thin horizon or breccia and inclusions of rocky saprolite

Lower saprolite Mainly rocky saprolite, harzburgitic protolith, commonly with boulders of MgO > 30 wt %, Fe = 6–10 wt %
less weathered or almost fresh harzburgite

Bed rock Unweathered ultramafic rocks (harzburgite or dunite) MgO > SiO2, Fe < 6 wt %, Ni < 0.4 wt %

zone 3
A zone 1
zone 2

B C
start scan end scan

bench
7
6
bench 5
d 4
3
spectrometer
2
1 β
α

spectrometer
Fig. 3. A. The Carriere Guerioum pit of Koniambo. Earthy and rocky saprolites are the dominant types of laterite in zone
1, which are overlain by reddish limonitic laterites exposed on the two upper levels of bench wall. Spectrally scanned areas
are outlined by yellow dash lines. B. Plan view of scan geometry. C. Section view of scan geometry. Successive scan lines are
numbered. The total angle of scan was <60 horizontal (α) and <18 vertical (β). The distance (d) between spectrometer and
the center of wall is 15 m for zone 1.
 MAPPING Ni LATERITES WITH REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY, KONIAMBO, NEW CALEDONIA
28- × 28-cm at 16-m scanning distance and 17- × 17-cm at
10-m scanning distance. The spatial coverage of each mea-
surement gradually increased horizontally from the centre to
either end of a zone. For zone 1 scanned at 15-m distance,
for instance, the pixel size varied from 26 cm at the center of
the zone to approximately 30 cm at either end of the zone.
Vertically, there were also minor changes in pixel size, owing
to vertical change in scan angle, as shown in Figure 3C. For
zone 1, with 18 horizontal scan lines, the pixel size in the cen-
ter of the bench wall increased from 26 cm at the level of the
spectrometer to 26.5 cm in the top scan line.
Data processing
Raw radiance data were converted to spectral reflectance
relative to Spectralon©, with variation in distance between the
scan mirror and each measurement on the bench wall cor-
rected in reference to the position of the Teflon plate. Reflec-
tance spectra were then smoothed to reduce noise. A spectral
background (continuum) was removed (Clark and Roush,
1984) from each reflectance spectrum to minimize effects due
to variations in (1) angle of scanning between the scan mir-
ror and individual measurement on the bench wall, (2) bench
wall surface condition, and (3) minor fluctuation of lighting.
Continuum-removed spectral reflectance data were used for
retrieving and mapping mineralogical and chemical compo-
sitions of nickel laterites on the bench wall. These process-
ing procedures were programmed using the Interactive Data
Language (IDL) as add-ons attached to the ENVI spectral
processing software.
Even though OH– and H2O absorption features yield use-
ful information on layer silicates (Hunt, 1977; Clark et al.,
1990, and reference therein), two of their main wavelength
intervals, 1,350 to 1,460 nm and 1,850 to 2,050 nm, had to
be excluded from data processing and information extraction.
This was because the moisture content of rocks on bench
walls also had significant effects on reflectance in these two
wavelength intervals (i.e., mostly noise is detected). The mois-
ture content was directly controlled by the local atmospheric
conditions that varied seasonably and even daily.
A photo of each zone of the bench wall was collected with
a digital camera placed at the position of the scan mirror. The
results of mineralogical and chemical composition mapping of
each zone were spatially registered to a corresponding digital
photo through 10 to 16 control points on a bench wall zone.
Mineral compositions of the nickel laterites were assessed
first, and the mineralogical information was then used to
guide data-processing to retrieve chemical compositions.
Mineral identification was undertaken using The Spectral
Geologist (TSG) software developed by CSIRO (http://www.
thespectralgeologist.com). The spectral interpretation algo-
rithm in TSG performs mineral identification by unmixing
each unknown spectrum into two to three end members of
pure minerals (Berman et al., 1999). The interpretation is
used to derive information on the major mineral components.
Variations in relative abundance of Mg layer silicates and
goethite were mapped by the intensities of the Mg-OH band
near 2,320 nm and the Fe3+ band near 960 nm, respectively.
The intensity of each absorption band was measured by the
depth at the minimum reflectance of the absorption band
on the background-removed reflectance spectra with the
1289
maximum reflectance scaled to 1. The main Mg layer silicates
are serpentine and Mg-smectite. No effort was made to sep-
arate these two Mg layer silicates in mineral mapping. The
retrieval of chemical composition from reflectance spectra
was planned based on two factors, as follows.
1. The relationship between mineralogy and chemical com-
position. In nickel laterites of the hydrous silicate category,
Mg is held mainly in hydrous Mg-rich silicates (serpentine,
smectite, talc, etc.); Fe mainly in oxides (mostly goethite) and
less significantly smectite; Si in layer silicates and quartz; and
Ni in Mg-rich layer silicates and goethite (Gleeson et al., 2003;
Cluzel and Vigier, 2008). As all these minerals are spectrally
quantifiable in the wavelength region from 400 to 2,500 nm,
chemical compositions can be indirectly characterized by
reflectance spectroscopy through correlations between spec-
tral reflectance and mineralogy.
2. The requirement of compositional data for metallurgy.
In the case of Koniambo, a pyrometallurgical process was
designed to produce ferronickel by partial reduction and
smelting of dried laterite ores (Citon, 2008). This process
requires that ores be blended to a given composition designed
for the smelter. Of the parameters required for ore blending,
MgO, Fe2O3, and SiO2 are the most important chemical com-
ponents that determine the thermal dynamic properties, and
therefore metallurgical behaviors, of lateritic ore in smelting
(Audet and Ross, 2007; Dunham and Vann, 2007; Rhamdhani
et al., 2009).
Calibration and reference samples
The mineralogy-chemistry relationship of rocks is often
complex. In order to reveal a correlation between spectral
reflectance and chemical composition, multivariate analysis
algorithms and statistical methods were used to model spec-
tral responses to chemical properties of nickel laterites. The
partial least squares (PLS) regression method (e.g., Wold,
1985; Haaland and Thomas, 1988) is a powerful multivari-
ate analysis tool widely used in chemometrics for identifying
correlation between spectral responses and chemical com-
positions and deriving models for calibrating spectral data to
abundances of chemical components (de Jong, 1993; Janik et
al., 1995; Chen et al., 2008; Wells and Chia, 2011). In this
work, with spectral data considered as vectors, correlations
were identified by a PLS method between the background-
corrected spectral reflectance and the abundance of chemical
components for a set of reference samples with known chemi-
cal compositions (i.e., “the calibration set”). For a chemical
component, the following relationship is derived from the
PLS analysis, and then used for predicting the abundance of
the component in unknown samples:
Cj = S [Ai (Xi–Sm,i)] + Cm,j             i = 1 to n (1)
where Cj is the predicted abundance (wt %) of chemical com-
ponent j of an unknown sample, Ai is the final regression coef-
ficient at wavelength i determined by PLS for the calibration
sample set, Xi is the spectral response (background corrected
reflectance) measured at wavelength i of an unknown sample,
Sm,i is the average (mean) spectral response of all calibration
samples at wavelength i, and Cm,j is the average abundance
of component j of all calibration samples. The number of
1290 YANG ET AL.

wavelengths, n, used for each component is listed for each
component in Table 2. The selection of wavelengths for each
component was based on the spectral reflectance responses of
its host minerals.
A total of 143 reference samples, collected from drill holes
and on bench walls, were used as calibration standards. Their
chemical compositions were analyzed using the inductively
coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) method by
SGS Lakefield Laboratories (data provided by Falconbridge
Nickel). These reference samples included saprolitic and
limonitic ores, the two major types of laterites of Koniambo,
and transitional laterite (Fig. 4). The bimodal distributions of
MgO, Fe, and SiO2 clearly indicate saprolite and limonite as
the two major categories of ore involved in the reference set.
These reference samples represent mineralogical and chemi-
cal variations as expected for laterites on the bench walls spec-
trally scanned.
The final regression coefficient (Ai) in equation (1) reflects
the contribution of each individual wavelength to the abun-
dance of a modeled chemical component. Note that as the
signature of minerals is recorded as absorption features, i.e.,
decreased reflectance, the final regression coefficient of a neg-
ative value at a given wavelength means a positive correlation
with an absorbing mineral. As the absolute value of a coeffi-
cient at a given wavelength approaches zero, the contribution
of spectral reflectance at the wavelength to the abundance of

Table 2. Calibration Models Derived from PLS

Model Wavelengths1 Number of standards2 Factors3 RMSE4 Abundance range

Ni   400–2,500 nm 130 (91%)   8 0.39 0.2–4.3 wt %

Fe   400–1,200 nm 137 (96%) 10 2.72 5.4–60.1 wt %
MgO 1,450–2,500 nm 143 (100%)   8 2.76 0.4–42.2 wt %
SiO2 1,450–2,500 nm 135 (94%)   8 6.20 0.5–90.5 wt %

1 Two intervals near atmospheric water absorption bands, 1,350–1,460 nm and 1,850–2,050 nm, were excluded
2 Number of samples (out of 143) as standards for modeling (calibration); samples identified as outliers are excluded; percentage in bracket indicates the
proportion of reference samples included in a model
3 Independent spectral factors identified by PLS
4 RMSE = root mean squares error, which has the same unit as the abundance of a modeled chemical component
80
80

calibration
validation

limonitic
sample %

sample %

saprolitic
40
40

0
0

0 1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4 0 10 20 30 40

Ni % MgO %
80
80
sample %

sample %

saprolitic saprolitic
limonitic
40
40

limonitic
0
0

0 13 26 39 52 0 20 40 60 80
Fe % SiO2%
Fig. 4. Chemical compositions of reference samples used for calibration and validation. Bimodal distribution is evident
for all components but Ni, indicating saprolitic and limonitic samples as two major types of lateritic materials in the reference
samples.
 MAPPING Ni LATERITES WITH REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY, KONIAMBO, NEW CALEDONIA 1291

a mineral becomes insignificant. The final regression coeffi- main parameters used in the PLS analyses are summarized
cients of each model are plotted against wavelength in Figure in Table 2. The correlation coefficients (r2) between modeled
5. Even though the plot of final correlation coefficients of a and measured abundances along with the root mean square
model is not meaningful mineralogically in every detail, some error (RMSE) indicate that the four chemical components
wavelengths are interpretable in terms of minerals responsi- were modelled very well by spectral reflectance. While all
ble for observed correlation between spectral reflectance and four models show a high degree of correlation, the models for
mineral abundance. For example, the MgO final correlation MgO and Fe are better than those of SiO2 and Ni in a relative
coefficients indicate the main contribution to the model by sense, as suggested by their r2 values. The RMSE value of a
Mg layer silicates, as a narrow band of sharply decreased val- model is taken only as an indication of the possible level of
ues at wavelengths between 2,320 and 2,340 nm (Fig. 5A). error involved in prediction if the model is used for unknown
For Fe, on the other hand, the contributions from Mg sili- samples. The high percentage (91–100%) of reference sam-
cates are smaller and in a negative effect, but the visible wave- ples included in a model indicates that correlation between
lengths (<700 nm), are more important than the shortwave spectra and chemistry is a common feature for Koniambo lat-
infrared wavelengths from 1,200 to 2,500 nm, with the most erites. Also shown in Table 2 are the abundance ranges of the
significant contributions ranging from 460 to 490 nm (Fig. four chemical components used in modeling. These ranges
5B). As expected, SiO2 is also positively correlated with Mg define the compositional extents within which the models are
silicates (large negative coefficient values at wavelengths of confidently applicable.
2,320–2,340 nm; Fig. 5C). Ni appears to be more sensitive
to the visible wavelengths with three significant bands at 520, Validation
655, and 755 nm possibly related to electronic processes (Fig. The above described cross-validation used in the PLS
5D). analysis (Fig. 6) is only a crude method of validation. For a
The modeled (i.e., cross-validated) versus measured abun- more objective quality assurance, another set of 143 samples
dances of the four components were plotted for 143 refer- with known chemical compositions were used to validate
ence samples (Fig. 6). The cross validation is a procedure for the models. This set of reference samples covers the same
validating models in PLS by which a model is derived with ranges of composition variation as those reference samples
one reference sample excluded from modelling, and then used for calibration, but were not involved in modelling. For
the abundance of a component of this sample is predicted these samples, abundances of the four chemical components
by the model. This is repeated for every reference sample, were predicted by the models. Then comparisons were made
and the root mean residual error is then calculated. The between the predicted and the assay measured abundances
final regression coefficient

final regression coefficient

20
A 25 B
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20 -25
MgO Fe
-30 -35
350 850 1350 1850 2350 350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength (nm) wavelength (nm)
final regression coefficient

final regression coefficient

C D
4
70

40 2

10 0

-20 -2

-50 -4
SiO2 Ni
-80 -6
350 850 1350 1850 2350 350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength (nm) wavelength (nm)
Fig. 5. Final regression coefficients of prediction models for MgO (A), Fe (B), SiO2 (C) and Ni (D). Two wavelength inter-
vals around atmospheric water absorption bands, 1,350 to 1,450 nm and 1,850 to 2,050 nm, were excluded from modelling.
1292 YANG ET AL.

4 y = 0.96 x
y = 0.99 x
r² = 0.71
40 r² = 0.96

MgO wt% modelled -CV

Ni wt% modelled-CV
3
30

2
20

1 10
A B
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 10 20 30 40
Ni wt% measured MgO wt% measured

60 y== 0.99
0.99xx 80 yy== 0.97
0.97 xx
rr²
2 = 0.97 rr²2 =
= 0.87
0.87
= 0.97

SiO2 wt% modelled-CV

Fe wt% modelled-CV

50
60
40

30 40

20
20
10
C D
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 20 40 60 80
Fe wt% measured SiO2 wt% measured
Fig. 6. Spectrally modelled (CV) versus assay measured abundances of Ni, MgO, Fe, and SiO2 of 143 reference samples
(assay data provided by Falconbridge). CV = cross validation.

of each component (Fig. 7). The results of comparison were
then fed back to calibration as a guide to modify parameters
for modeling. This calibration-validation procedure was iter-
ated a few times until no significant improvement could be
made to the model. As a result, optimal parameters were
identified for modeling.
For this set of validation samples, the correlations between
predicted and measured abundances are very good except for
Ni. The results for Fe and MgO are particularly satisfactory.
The r2 at 0.5 for Ni is significantly lower than that from the
Ni model’s cross validation (0.7, Fig. 6). This is not surprising,
because Ni as a minor component has no discernable spectral
feature in the wavelength range used for scan, so that predic-
tion of Ni is realized only indirectly through correlations of Ni
with spectrally identifiable components such as Fe and MgO.
For the same reason, the validation results for SiO2 show a
correlation between predicted and measured abundances
with r2 smaller than that of Fe or MgO. However, the r2 value
of SiO2 is higher than that of Ni, which probably reflects the
fact that SiO2 as a common component has a closer rela-
tionship with spectrally detectable minerals (serpentine and
smectite) than Ni does. The slope at close to 1.0 of the linear
correlation between predicted and measured abundances of
all four components is another indication for the validity of
the four models.
Further validation was undertaken by comparing predic-
tion results with assay data of the lateritic samples taken
from the bench wall after scanning. In a mining operation,
bench wall sampling is a standard procedure for ore-grade
control purpose. However, it should be pointed out that
because of a large difference in spatial coverage between
individual assay and spectral measurement (as explained in
the following section), an assay sample could not be matched
exactly to the corresponding spectrally scanned bench wall
material. Therefore, some discrepancies between the two
sets of data were expected and allowed in the quality
assessment.
Data visualization
For visualization, the compositional data of a zone were
contoured using the ENVI imaging processing software,
and registered to the bench wall digital photo by using 10 to
16 control points. Contouring compositional data provides
an easy and objective appreciation of the spectral mapping
results and, in particular, facilitates the assessment of com-
positional variations over a zone of bench wall with reference
to a high-resolution digital photo. The spatial registration to
the digital photo is approximate only for display purposes, not
accurate enough for locating each individual spectral mea-
surement (pixel) on the bench photo.
 MAPPING Ni LATERITES WITH REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY, KONIAMBO, NEW CALEDONIA 1293

4 yy==0.99
y = 0.96 x 0.99x x
r² = 0.50 40 r2 = 0.97
r² = 0.97

MgO wt% predicted

Ni wt% predicted
3
30

2
20

1 10
A B
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 10 20 30 40
Ni wt% measured MgO wt% measured

yy ==0.99
0.99x x
60 y = 0.99 x
r2r²==0.85
0.85
80

SiO2 wt% predicted

r² = 0.95
Fe wt% predicted

50
60
40

30 40
20
20
10
C D
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 20 40 60 80
Fe wt% measured SiO2 wt% measured
Fig. 7. Validation of prediction results. 143 reference samples, not used for modeling, were involved in validation.

Results host to Ni in the bulk rock samples is complex, probably with

Variations in mineralogical composition
The spectral scans results indicate that the dominant miner-
als in Koniambo laterites are Mg-rich layer silicates (serpentine
and Mg-smectite, characterized by a major Mg-OH absorp-
tion feature with the minimum reflectance near 2,320 nm)
and ferric iron oxide (mainly goethite, diagnosed by a broad
Fe3+ absorption feature with the minimum reflectance of
about 960 nm), consistent with the mineralogy of the hydrous
silicate type of nickel laterite deposits (Gleeson et al., 2003;
Cluzel and Vigier, 2008). The spectra in Figure 8 represent
four main types of laterites: rocky saprolite (A), earthy sapro-
lite (B), yellow limonite (C), and red limonite (D), where
changes in the relative intensity of the Mg-OH and Fe3+ bands
are evident.
Ni-related spectral features in the visible to near infrared
wavelength region were reported in clay-rich lateritic samples
(e.g., Golightly and Arancibia, 1979; Gerard and Herbillon,
1983; Manceau et al., 1985; Wells et al., 2009). However, no
consistent or distinct electronic transition bands of Ni were
visually observable in this study. There are three possible
explanations: (1) the Ni content of the bulk rock samples is so
low, at 1 to 4%, that an analytical technique with a much higher
sensitivity is required to detect its variation; (2) the mineralogy
multiple phases involved, so that Ni spectral features may vary
between samples; and (3) other transition elements com-
monly present in ultramafic rocks, e.g., Fe, Co, Cr, V, and Ti
as oxide minerals or substituting for octahedral Mg in phyllo-
silicates, also have spectral features related to electronic pro-
cesses in the wavelength region from 400 to 1,000 nm (e.g.,
Hunt, 1977; Taran et al., 1994), making it impossible to dif-
ferentiate them from any subtle Ni signatures. Nevertheless,
three bands at 520, 655, and 755 nm were identified by the
PLS analysis that showed relatively high correlations with Ni
content (Fig. 5D). These bands are related directly (i.e., Ni
electronic features) or indirectly (e.g., electronic features of
other transitional elements that are correlated with Ni) to the
Ni signatures of the bulk rock samples.
Taking the intensities of Fe3+ and Mg-OH bands as a mea-
sure of the abundance of goethite and Mg silicates (serpen-
tine and Mg-smectite), major mineralogical variations on zone
1 are illustrated in Figure 9. The mineral mapping results
indicate complex patterns of mineralogical variation on zone
1, even though the majority of materials were simply classified
and mapped by mine geologists as earthy and rocky saprolites.
On a broad scale, Mg-rich layer silicates and goethite vary in
abundance inversely to each other, whereas on a finer scale
the mineral abundance variations are much more complex.
1294 YANG ET AL.

0.7 A B
0.5

reflectance 0.5
serpentine
Fe3+ of
0.3
0.3 iron oxide
Mg-OH of Mg-smectite, serpentine &
serpentine, Mg- layer silicates Fe3+ oxides
smectite & Fe3+oxides
0.1 0.1
400 900 1400 1900 2400 400 900 1400 1900 2400

0.6 C 0.6 D
reflectance

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

Fe3+ oxides & Mg-smectite Fe3+ oxides

0 0
400 900 1400 1900 2400 400 900 1400 1900 2400
wavelength (nm) wavelength (nm)
Fig. 8. Reflectance spectra of Koniambo laterites (reference samples). From samples A to C, the spectra show increase
in goethite and decrease in Mg-rich layer silicates. If looking at Mg silicates alone, from A to C, serpentine decreases while
Mg-smectite increases; both are below detection in D.

2m

Mg-OH intensity
< 0.04
0.04-0.10
0.10-0.13
B 0.13-0.15
0.15-0.17
0.17-0.19
0.19-0.22

Fe3+ intensity
< 0.05
0.05-0.11
0.11-0.13
C 0.13-0.15
0.15-0.17
0.17-0.19
0.19-0.21
0.21-0.23

Fig. 9. Relative abundances of Mg layer silicates (Mg-OH band intensity) and goethite (Fe3+ band intensity). Mg layer
silicates include Mg-smectite and serpentine. Dashed lines in A mark the upper corners of the zone where change in bench
wall topography resulted in distorted scan geometry so that the quality of spectral reflectance data were severely affected. The
black line across the zone (A) marks where channel samples were taken for assay.
 MAPPING Ni LATERITES WITH REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY, KONIAMBO, NEW CALEDONIA 1295

The four reflectance spectra in Figure 8 are examples of indi-
vidual laterite varieties taken from a continuum of continu-
ous mineral compositional change. Changes in intensity of
both Fe3+ and Mg-OH bands imply considerable variations in
chemical composition in this zone. Although mineral mapping
was not the focus of this work, the results have implications
for mapping and understanding chemical compositions on the
bench walls as well as at the outcrop scale (e.g., Kruse et al.,
2012).
Note that the inclination of the bench wall face around
both upper corners of zone 1 (pink dashed lines on the bench
image in Figs. 9A and 10A) resulted in severely distorted
geometry of the reflectance spectral scans and poor reception
of reflected light from the bench wall. As a result, the spectral
reflectance data of both corners are of abnormally low reflec-
tance and high noise, and so are of compromised usefulness
(e.g., false values in Fig. 10B-E).

2m
Ni wt%
false
0.5-1.0
1.0-1.5
B 1.5-2.0
2.0-2.5
2.5-3.0
3.0-3.5
3.5-4.0

MgO wt%
false
10-15
15-20
C 20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40

Fe wt%
false
1-6
6-9
9-12
D 12-15
15-18
18-21
false

SiO2 wt%
false
30-40
E 40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65

Fig. 10. Compositional variations of nickel laterites on the bench wall of zone 1 (17 m in length). Because of severely
distorted local topography (bench wall face inclined away from scanning), significant errors are involved in the scan data of
the two upper corners (outlined by pink dashed lines in A). False values in B through E are due to distorted geometry of scan.
1296 YANG ET AL.

Variations in chemical composition Laterite samples were collected by mine geologists continu-
The results of mapping chemical compositions of laterites, ously along a black line marked on the bench wall (see Fig. 9A
as exemplified by zone 1 (Fig. 10), show that for each chemi- for example), leaving a channel approximately 10 cm wide and
cal component, there is a considerable range of variation, as 2 cm deep across the bench wall. For assay, the sampled lat-
anticipated from the variations of mineralogical composition erites were separated into individual samples based on their
(Fig. 9). The predicted chemical compositions are consistent lithological categories. This channel was thus divided into 21
with both the mineralogy and lithology of the laterites. The samples, each covering a 0.2- to 1.0-m-long section of the
ranges of compositional variation of zone 1 are 0.4 to 3.0 wt channel. Therefore, an individual channel sample represented
% for Ni, 3.7 to 18.2 wt % for Fe, 12.2 to 41.9 wt % for MgO, an area of 0.2- to 1.0-m-long by 0.1-m-wide of bench wall. In
and 32.7 to 63.6 wt % for SiO2 (Fig. 10; Table 3). comparison, each spectral measurement represented a pixel
Despite the considerable range of variation for each chemi- of approximately 0.26- × 0.26-m in the center, to 0.30- ×
cal component, statistical distributions of the compositional 0.30-m at either end of the zone. The two sets of data, there-
data for zone 1 indicate domination by one sample popula- fore, could not be compared on a sample by sample basis. It is
tion with peak values at approximately 9 wt % for Fe, 25 wt therefore only tentative to compare the average assay values
% for MgO, and 49 wt % for SiO2 (Fig. 11), confirming rocky of the entire channel with the average predicted compositions
and earthy saprolites as the dominant lateritic ore types in this of the pixels that spatially covered approximately the chan-
zone. The spatial patterns of compositional variations in Fig- nel samples (Table 3; Fig. 12). Given the large difference in
ure 10 show that on a broad scale, MgO is correlated positively spatial coverage between the two datasets, the discrepancies
and negatively with Fe and SiO2, respectively. This reflects the shown in Table 3 and Figure 12 are relatively insignificant.
relationship between Mg layer silicates and goethite shown in Despite some differences in the range of abundance varia-
Figure 9. In reference to the classification criteria in Table 1, tion for individual components, the mean values of abundance
zone 1 is dominated by earthy saprolite (MgO at 15–30 wt % for each component between the three very different sizes of
and Fe at 10–25 wt %), with rocky saprolite (MgO > 30 wt % spatial coverage are similar (Table 3). The standard deviation
and Fe at 6–10 wt %) exposed mainly near the center of the of predicted abundance of each chemical component is simi-
zone and patches of transitional limonite (MgO at 5–15 wt lar between the subzone and the entire zone, but is different
% and Fe at 30–40 wt %) present only locally. The composi- in all but Ni between the channel and the subzone.
tional changes appear to be gradational from rocky saprolite, Discussion and Conclusions
through earthy saprolite to transitional limonite. The mapping
results also show a trend of increase in Ni grade from transi- The spectrally mapped chemical compositions of nickel lat-
tional limonite (0.5–1.5 wt %), earthy saprolite (1.5–2.5 wt %) erites at Koniambo show considerable ranges of variation on a
to rocky saprolite (2.5–3.4 wt %). zone of bench wall. This reflects the complexity of weathering
and lateritization processes as well as the original composi-
Table 3. Chemical Compositions of Laterites of tional variation of the protolith ultramafic rocks. The chemi-
Different Spatial Extent on Zone 1 cal composition can be directly linked to the mineralogy of
the Knoiambo nickel laterites. It is evident that even though
No. of Standard boundaries were defined to classify the laterites into various
samples Min Max Mean deviation
lithological categories, there appear to be nearly continuous
Channel (assay), 1.7 m2 compositional variations from rocky saprolite, through earthy
Ni (%)    21  0.3  3.4  1.9 0.7 saprolite, to transitional and yellow limonite. The composi-
Fe (%)    21  5.3 10.0  8.0 1.6 tional variation shows complex spatial patterns on the bench
MgO (%)    21 19.2 38.8 28.1 5.4 walls, much more complex than the generalized vertical
SiO2 (%)    21 39.0 56.8 45.4 4.0 change in laterite lithology illustrated in Figure 2. For the first
A scan line approximate to channel (prediction), 3.8 m2 time, thanks to the use of reflectance spectroscopy, details of
Ni (%)    61  0.4  2.8  2.0 0.4
compositional variation of the laterites on bench walls have
Fe (%)    61  4.9 12.2  9.1 1.8 been quantitatively mapped.
MgO (%)    61 20.2 36.9 25.7 3.3 Given this level of complexity, mapping the compositional
SiO2 (%)    61 41.9 57.3 49.6 3.5 variation of laterites at Koniambo is a challenging task. On
zone 1, for instance, an area of 15 × 4 m, with rocky and
Block 1 (prediction), 22.0 m2
earthy saprolites as the dominant ore types, MgO varies from
Ni (%)   360  1.0  2.9  1.9 0.4
Fe (%)   360   3.7 17.0   9.0 2.6
12.2 to 41.9 wt % (mean at 26.1 wt %, standard deviation at
MgO (%)   360 15.2 36.1 26.0 4.1 4.5), Fe from 3.7 to 18.2 wt % (mean at 9.4 wt %, standard
SiO2 (%)   360 37.1 63.6 50.2 3.9 deviation at 2.5), and SiO2 from 32.7 to 63.6 wt % (mean
at 48.1 wt %, standard deviation at 4.4). This wide range of
Zone 1 (prediction), 62.9 m2 variation within a small spatial extent, along with the complex
Ni (%) 1,028   0.4   3.0   1.9 0.4 patterns of variation, will likely cause problems with a con-
Fe (%) 1,028   3.7 18.2   9.4 2.5
MgO (%) 1,028 12.2 41.9 26.1 4.5
ventional selective sampling approach for ore-grade control
SiO2 (%) 1,028 32.7 63.6 48.1 4.4 in terms of representation of samples for an entire zone or a
block of ore. This begs the question as to how many such chan-
Note: an average pixel size of 28 cm was used for calculating the area of nels as shown in Figure 10A need to be sampled to adequately
coverage of spectral measurement capture the composition of an entire zone. The differences
 MAPPING Ni LATERITES WITH REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY, KONIAMBO, NEW CALEDONIA 1297

A B

80
80

sample %
sample %

40
40
0

0
0.9 1.8 2.7 10 20 30 40
Ni % MgO

C D
80

80
sample %
sample %

40
40

0
0

5 10 15 26 39 52 65
Fe % SiO 2 %
Fig. 11. Histograms of predicted abundances of Ni, MgO, Fe, and SiO2 of zone 1. A total of 1,022 spectral measurements
were involved.

in chemical composition between the channel and the entire
zone are obvious for all components except for Ni (Table 3).
The spatial resolution of approximately 28-cm pixel size
is far too coarse for bench wall imaging. But this resolution
is more than adequate for ore-grade control sampling, since
ultimately it is the compositions of bulk material on the bench
wall at meter scale that need to be characterized for ore pro-
cessing and metallurgical purposes. Sampling at 28-cm reso-
lution ensures that high-density primary compositional data
are acquired and compositional variations are mapped in suf-
ficient detail. The original 28 cm resolution data can then be
SiO2
50
wt%, predicted
down-sampled to derive high-precision average compositional
data at a few meters resolution for ore-grade control. Due to
the nature of its data acquisition, reflectance spectroscopy
provides a highly efficient and low cost means of sampling in a
non-laboratory environment. Therefore, it is an ideal material
characterization tool for the ore-grade control that is routinely
used in mining.
Retrieval of quantitative compositional data from reflec-
tance spectra of nickel laterites by use of a PLS method
proved to be a practical and reliable approach. Since the
calibration models were derived from references, selection of
known samples as standards for calibration was a key step for
quantification. The reference samples used in this work rep-
resent the main compositional variations as encountered for
lateritic ores exposed on the bench walls. When implemented
as a routine tool for ore characterization, the set of reference

40 samples need to be expanded and updated as mining pro-

gresses to allow new materials to be included in modelling.
30 Failing to do this will result in significant errors in prediction
MgO results.
20 The models used for predicting chemical compositions
were validated by independent assay samples. This provided
10 confidence that the models are useful for characterizing the
Fe chemical composition of nickel laterite ores. Difference in
Ni spatial coverage did not permit a sample by sample compari-
0
son between assay data of channel samples and spectral scan
0 10 20 30 40 50 data, but the average compositions of combined channel sam-
wt%, measured ples are comparable to spectral prediction results. In further
Fig. 12. Comparison of abundances between assay and prediction for work, improvement needs to be made to allow for thorough
channel samples. field validation on a sample by sample basis.
1298 YANG ET AL.
Because prediction is used instead of direct measurement,
errors relative to assay results are always present in spectral
mapping data. This spectral prediction method is a statistical
approach, with a large population of spatially related individual
samples involved. A good working model should not just have
a small RMSE value: its errors should be randomly distributed
both spatially and in relation to lithological category of later-
ites, i.e., not biased in particular types. If a random distribution
can be assured, at least part of the errors involved in prediction
results of individual spectral measurements will be canceled
out by averaging. As shown in this work, it is the average com-
positions of an entire zone of bench wall at least several meters
long, instead of individual measurements of pixels at a centi-
meter scale, that are used for ore-grade control in mining.
This work at Koniambo has demonstrated that the use of
reflectance spectroscopy as an operational tool for acquiring
compositional data of bench wall is technically feasible and
can provide a significant improvement to ore-grade control
sampling. It is anticipated that implementation of this tech-
nique in mining result in considerable savings in both cost and
time on sampling for ore-grade control. In particular, a reflec-
tance spectroscopy method is a superior approach for map-
ping the complex and highly variable compositions of such a
mineralogical and lithological system as the Koniambo depos-
its, to provide comprehensive compositional data of ores for
ore-processing and metallurgy.
Acknowledgements
This work was jointly funded by Falconbridge Nickel (now
Xstrata Nickel) and CSIRO. Falconbridge Nickel provided
reference data of regional geology and the Koniambo depos-
its. Technical assistance and logistic support for field tests at
Koniambo was provided by then-Falconbridge geologists,
in particular, Marc-Antoine Audet and Ray Kohlsmith. We
were greatly indebted to Phil Connor and David Cower for
technical assistance during the course of the work. Review
of the draft manuscript and constructive comments made by
Carsten Laukamp and an anonymous referee led to significant
improvement of this paper.
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