Alternating voltages and currents 1

Electricity is produced by generators at power

stations and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National Grid system) to
industry and for domestic use. It is easier and cheaper to
generate alternating current (a.c.) than direct current (d.c.)
and a.c. is more conveniently distributed than d.c. since its
voltage can be readily altered using transformers. Whenever
d.c. is needed in preference to a.c., devices called rectifiers
are used for conversion and hence maximum e.m.f. is again
induced.

Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular

velocity symmetrically between the poles of a magnet
system as shown in figure. An e.m.f. is generated in the coil
(from Faraday’s laws) which varies in magnitude and
reverses its direction at regular intervals. The reason for this
is shown in figure. In positions (a), (e) and (i) the conductors
of the loop are effectively moving along the magnetic field,
no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced. In position (c)
maximum flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is induced.
In position (g), maximum flux is cut of the coil, one cycle of
alternating e.m.f. is produced as shown. This is the principle
of operation of the a.c. generator (i.e. the alternator)

Waveforms
A.C. values
Power in AC Circuits 3

the value of power at any instant is given by the product of

the voltage and current at that instant, i.e. the
instantaneous power, p = vi, as shown by the broken lines.
Power triangle and power factor
Power Factor Improvement
SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM EQUATION 2
In figure below 0A represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise
about 0 at an angular velocity of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as
a phasor. After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned through an angle
ωt. If the line BC is constructed perpendicular to 0A as shown, then sin
ωt = BC/0B
If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against
angle ωt (in radians), a sine curve results of maximum value 0A. Any
quantity which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as a phasor.
A sine curve may not always start at 0◦. To show this a periodic function
is represented by y = sin(ωt ± φ), where φ is the phase (or angle)
difference compared with y = sin ωt, y2 = sin(ωt + φ) starts φ radians
earlier than y1 = sin ωt and is thus said to lead y1 by φ radians. Phasors
y1 and y2 are shown in Figure (b) at the time when t = 0. y4 = sin(ωt −
φ) starts φ radians later than y3 = sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by φ
radians. Phasors y3 and y4 are (d) at the time when t = 0.
Given the general sinusoidal voltage
v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ), then
(i) Amplitude or maximum value = Vm
(ii) Peak to peak value = 2Vm
(iii) Angular velocity = ω rad/s
(iv) Periodic time, T = 2π/ω seconds
(v) Frequency, f = ω/2π Hz (since ω = 2πf)
(vi) φ = angle of lag or lead (compared with v = Vm sin ωt)
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EX.1) . An alternating voltage is given by v = 282.8 sin 314 t volts. Find
(a) the r.m.s. voltage, (b) the frequency and (c) the instantaneous value
of voltage when t = 4 ms.
(a) r.m.s. voltage = 0.707 × max value = 0.707 × 282.8 = 200 V
(b) f = 314/2π = 50 Hz
(c) v = 282.8 sin(314 × 4 × 10^−3) = 282.8 sin(1.256) = 268.9V
Note: 1.256 radians = [1.256 × (180◦/ π) ]= 71.96◦
v = 282.8 sin 71.96◦ = 268.9V
EX.2) An alternating voltage is given by v = 75 sin(200πt − 0.25) volts.
Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value, (c) the r.m.s. value,
(d) the periodic time, (e) the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in
degrees and minutes) relative to 75 sin 200πt.
(a) Amplitude, or peak value = 75 V
(b) Peak-to-peak value = 2 × 75 = 150 V
(c) The r.m.s. value = 0.707 × maximum value = 0.707 × 75 = 53 V
(d) T = 2π/ω = 2π/200π = 1/100 = 0.01 s or 10 ms
(e) Frequency, f = 1/T = 1/0.01 = 100 Hz
(f) Phase angle, φ = 0.25 radians lagging
0.25 rads = 0.25 × 180◦/π = 14.32◦ phase angle = 14.32◦ lagging
EX.3) An alternating voltage, v, has a periodic time of 0.01 s and a peak
value of 40V. When time t is zero, v = −20V. Express the instantaneous
voltage in the form v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ).
Vm = 40V.
ω = 2π /T = 2π /0.01 = 200π rad/s.
v = Vm sin(ωt + φ) ; v = 40 sin(200πt + φ) volts.
t = 0, v = −20V ; −20 = 40 sin φ ; sin φ = −20/40 = −0.5
φ = sin^−1 (−0.5) = −30◦ = ( −30 × (π /180) )rads = −π/6 rads
v = 40 sin (200πt – (π/ 6) ) V
EX.4) The current in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by: i =
120 sin(100πt + 0.36) amperes. Find: (a) the peak value, the periodic
time, the frequency and phase angle relative to 120 sin 100πt (b) the
value of the current when t = 0 (c) the value of the current when t = 8 ms
(d) the time when the current first reaches 60A, and (e) the time when
the current is first a maximum.
(a) Peak value = 120
T = 2π/ω = 2π/100π = 1/50 = 0.02 s or 20 ms
f = 1/ T = 1 /0.02 = 50 Hz
Phase angle = 0.36 rads = 0.36 × (180◦ /π) = 20.63◦ leading
(b) t = 0
i = 120 sin(0 + 0.36) = 120 sin 20.63◦ = 42.3A
(c) t = 8 ms,
i = 120 sin (100π (8 /10^3) + 0.36)
= 120 sin 2.8733(=120 sin 164.63◦) = 31.8 A
(d) i = 60A, 60 = 120 sin(100πt + 0.36)
(60/120) = sin (100πt + 0.36)
(100πt + 0.36) = sin^−1 (0.5) = 30◦
= π/6 rads = 0.5236 rads.
t = (0.5236 − 0.36) /100π = 0.521 ms
(e) When the current is a maximum, i = 120A.
120 = 120 sin(100πt + 0.36)
1 = sin(100πt + 0.36)
(100πt + 0.36) = sin^−1 (1 )= 90◦
= (π/2) rads = 1.5708 rads
t = 1.5708 − 0.36 100π = 3.85 ms
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COMBINATION OF WAVEFORMS
EX.1) Two alternating voltages are represented by v1 = 50 sin ωt volts
and v2 = 100 sin(ωt − π/6)V. Draw the phasor diagram and find, by
calculation, a sinusoidal expression to represent v1 + v2.
EX.2) The instantaneous values of two alternating currents are given
by i1 = 20 sin ωt amperes and i2 = 10 sin(ωt + π/3) amperes. Find a
sinusoidal expression for (i1 + i2), (a) by drawing phasors, (b) by
calculation.
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RECTIFICATION
The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and voltages from
alternating currents and voltages is called rectification.
Half-wave rectification
Using a single diode, D, as shown in figure half-wave rectification is
obtained. When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D is
switched on and current i flows. When P is negative with respect to Q.
The diode D is switched off. Transformer T isolates the equipment from
direct connection with the mains supply and enables the mains voltage
to be changed. Thus, an alternating, sinusoidal waveform applied to the
transformer primary is rectified into a unidirectional waveform.
Unfortunately, the output waveform shown is not constant and as such,
would be unsuitable as a d.c. power supply for electronic equipment. It
would, however, be satisfactory as a battery charger.
Full-wave rectification using a centre-tapped transformer
Two diodes may be used as shown to obtain full-wave rectification
where a centre-tapped transformer T is used. When P is sufficiently
positive with respect to Q, diode D1 conducts and current flows (shown
by the broken line in Figure). When S is positive with respect to Q, diode
D2 conducts and current flows (shown by the continuous line in Figure).
The current flowing in the load R is in the same direction for both half-
cycles of the input. The output waveform is thus as shown. The output
is unidirectional, but is not constant; however, it is better than the output
waveform produced with a half-wave rectifier. A disadvantage of this
type of rectifier is that centre-tapped transformers are expensive.
Full-wave bridge rectification
Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit, as shown to obtain
full-wave rectification. (Note, the term ‘bridge’ means a network of four
elements connected to form a square, the input being applied to two
opposite corners and the output being taken from the remaining two
corners). As for the rectifier shown, the current flowing in load R is in the
same direction for both half cycles of the input giving the output
waveform shown. Following the broken: When P is positive with respect
to Q, current flows from the transformer to point E, through diode D4 to
point F, then through load R to point H, through D2 to point G, and back
to the transformer. Following the full line: When Q is positive with respect
to P, current flows from the transformer to point G, through diode D3 to
point F, then through load R to point H, through D1 to point E, and back
to the transformer. The output waveform is not steady and needs
improving; a method of smoothing is explained in the next section.
Smoothing of the rectified output waveform
The pulsating outputs obtained from the half- and fullwave rectifier
circuits are not suitable for the operation of equipment that requires a
steady d.c. output, such as would be obtained from batteries. For
example, for applications such as audio equipment, a supply with a large
variation is unacceptable since it produces ‘hum’ in the output.
Smoothing is the process of removing the worst of the output waveform
variations. To smooth out the pulsations a large capacitor, C, is
connected across the output of the rectifier. The effect of this is to
maintain the output voltage at a level which is very near to the peak of
the output waveform. The improved waveforms for halfwave and full-
wave rectifiers are shown below.
During each pulse of output voltage, the capacitor C charges to the
same potential as the peak of the waveform, as shown as point X. As
the waveform dies away, the capacitor discharges across the load, as
shown by XY. The output voltage is then restored to the peak value the
next time the rectifier conducts, as shown by YZ. This process
continues. Capacitor C is called a reservoir capacitor since it stores and
releases charge between the peaks of the rectified waveform. The
variation in potential between points X and Y is called ripple. The object
is to reduce ripple to a minimum. Ripple may be reduced even further
by the addition of inductance and another capacitor in a ‘filter’ circuit
arrangement. The output voltage from the rectifier is applied to capacitor
C1 and the voltage across points AA. The load current flows through the
inductance L; when current is changing, e.m.f.’s are induced, as
explained by Lenz’s law, the induced voltages will oppose those causing
the current changes.
As the ripple voltage increases and the load current increases, the
induced e.m.f. in the inductor will oppose the increase. As the ripple
voltage falls and the load current falls, the induced e.m.f. will try to
maintain the current flow. The voltage across points BB and the current
in the inductance are almost ripple-free. A further capacitor, C2,
completes the process.
SINGLE-PHASE SERIES A.C. CIRCUITS
a. Purely resistive a.c. circuit
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR and applied
voltage VR are in phase

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EX.1) (a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.32
H when it is connected to a 50 Hz supply. (b) A coil has a
b. Purely inductive a.c. circuit reactance of 124 in a circuit with a supply of frequency 5 kHz.
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags the applied Determine the inductance of the coil.
voltage VL by 90◦.

In a purely inductive circuit, the opposition to the flow of EX.2) A coil has an inductance of 40 mH and negligible
alternating current is called the inductive reactance, XL resistance. Calculate its inductive reactance and the resulting
current if connected to a 240V, 50 Hz supply.

where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the

inductance, in henry’s. XL is proportional to f

EX.3) Determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 10

μF when connected to a circuit of frequency 50 Hz.

c. Purely capacitive a.c. circuit

In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads the
applied voltage VC by 90◦
EX.4) Calculate the current taken by a 23 μF capacitor when
connected to a 240V, 50 Hz supply.

In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of

alternating current is called the capacitive reactance, XC

where C is the capacitance in farads. XC varies with frequency

f as shown
 d. R–L series a.c. circuit
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EX.1) In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the resistance R is
12V and the p.d. across the inductance L is 5V. Find the supply
voltage and the phase angle between current and voltage.
EX.2) A coil has a resistance of 4 and an inductance of 9.55
mH. Calculate (a) the reactance, (b) the impedance, and (c)
the current taken from a 240V, 50 Hz supply. Determine also
the phase angle between the supply voltage and current.
EX.3) A coil takes a current of 2A from a 12V d.c. supply. When
connected to a 240V, 50 Hz supply the current is 20A.
Calculate the resistance, impedance, inductive reactance, and
inductance of the coil.
EX.4) A coil of inductance 318.3 mH and negligible resistance
is connected in series with a 200 resistor to a 240V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the
impedance of the circuit, (c) the current in the circuit, (d) the
p.d. across each component, and (e) the circuit phase angle.
 e. R–C series a.c. circuit

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EX.1) A resistor of 25 is connected in series with a capacitor of 45 μF.
Calculate (a) the impedance, and (b) the current taken from a 240V, 50
Hz supply. Find also the phase angle between the supply voltage and
the current.

EX.2) A capacitor C is connected in series with a 40 resistor across a

supply of frequency 60 Hz. A current of 3A flows and the circuit
impedance is 50 . Calculate (a) the value of capacitance, C, (b) the
supply voltage, (c) the phase angle between the supply voltage and
current, (d) the p.d. across the resistor, and (e) the p.d. across the
capacitor. Draw the phasor diagram.
SINGLE-PHASE PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS 4

In parallel circuits, such as those shown in figure below ,

the voltage is common to each branch of the network and
is thus taken as the reference phasor when drawing
phasor diagrams.

For any parallel a.c. circuit:

R–L PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUIT

R–C PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUIT

L–C PARALLEL CIRCUIT
LR–C PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUIT
PARALLEL RESONANCE AND Q-FACTOR
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT