SONA COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCE, SALEM

PROJECT METHODOLOGY
II BCOM

SYLLABUS

UNIT – I Introduction: Project – Meaning – Features – Objectives of project – Difference between

dissertation and Thesis.

UNIT – II Identification of project problems – Problems related to Finance, Marketing,

HRM, EDP, Banking.

UNIT – III Review of Literature – Sampling – Selection of sample – Collection of data.

UNIT – IV Data analysis – Percentage and trend analysis – Numerical evaluation – Justification
and interpretation.

UNIT – V Project Report Writing.

UNIT I
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
A project is an extended piece of work on a particular topic where the content and the presentation are
determined principally by the learners. A project is a scientifically evolved work plan devised to achieve a
specific objective within a specified period of time. It can be considered a proposal involving capital investment
for the purpose of developing facilities to provide goods and service.

PROJECT - MEANING
Q. WHAT IS MEAN BY PROJECT? .
A project is a blue print for the action oriented activities of an organization. It reflects the plan of action
in its totality. Like a movie film, it is a projection oriented process. The project has a beginning, middle and an
end.
For example, cement projects, manufacturing projects, power projects, refinery projects, health
projects, educational projects, social projects and construction projects.

DEFINITION
Q. DEFINE THE PROJECT. .
“A project is a one shot, time bound; goal directed major undertaking, requiring the commitment of
varied skills and resources. It has also been described as a combination of human and non-human resources
pooled together in a temporary organization to achieve a specific purpose. The purpose and the set of
activities which can achieve that purpose distinguish one project from another.”
-By Project Management Institute, U.S.A
“A specific activity with a specific starting point and a specific ending point intended to accomplish a
specific objective. It is something you draw a boundary around, at least a conceptual boundary, and say this
is the project.”
-By J. Price Gittinger
“Compilation of data which will enable an appraisal to be made of the economic advantages and
disadvantages attendant upon the allocation of country’s resources to the production of specific goods and
services.” -By United Nations

NATURE OF PROJECT
Q. EXPLAIN THE NATURE OF PROJECT.
1. Planning:
Planning a project involves providing answers to the whom, what, where, when, and why of every
project. Guidance for developing project plans can be found in INCOSE (2012), NASA (2007), and

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ISO/IEC/IEEE Standard 16326:2009. It is often observed that communication and coordination among
stakeholders during project planning are equally as important as (and sometimes more important than) the
documented plan that is produced. In defence work, event-driven integrated master plans and time-driven
integrated master schedules are planning products.
2. Estimating:
Estimation is an important element of planning. An estimate is a projection from past to future, adjusted
to account for differences between past and future. Entities estimated include (but are not limited to) schedule;
cost; performance; and risk.
Systems engineering contributes to project estimation efforts by ensuring that
 The overall system life cycle is understood;
 Dependencies on other systems and organizations are identified;
 The logical dependencies during development are identified; and
 Resources and key skills are identified and planned.
Additionally, high-level system architecture and risk assessment provide the basis for both the work
breakdown structure and the organizational breakdown structure.

3. Measuring and controlling:

Measuring and controlling are the key elements of executing a project. Measurement includes collecting
measures for work products and work processes. For example, determining the level of coverage of
requirements in a design specification can be accessed through review, analysis, prototyping, and traceability.
Effort and schedule expended on the work processes can be measured and compared to estimates; earned value
tracking can be used for this purpose.
Controlling is concerned with analysing measurement data and implementing corrective actions when
actual status does not align with planned status.
4. Leading and Directing:
Leading and directing requires communication and coordination among all project stakeholders, both
internal and external. Systems engineers may be responsible for managing all technical aspects of project
execution, or they may serve as staff support for the project manager or project management office.
5. Managing Risk:
Risk management is concerned with identifying and mitigating potential problems before they become
real problems. Systems engineering projects are, by nature, high-risk endeavours because of the many
unknowns and uncertainties that are inherent in projects. Because new risk factors typically emerge during a
project, ongoing continuous risk management is an important activity for both systems engineers and project
managers.
Potential and actual problems may exist within every aspect of a project. Systems engineers are typically
concerned with technical risk and project managers with programmatic risk.

FEATURES OF PROJECTS
Q. WHAT ARE THE FEATURES OF PROJECTS?
 Temporary :
The temporary nature of a project indicates that a project has a definite beginning and a definite end.
The beginning is marked by the start of the project and the end is reached when the project's objectives have
been achieved or when the project is terminated for some other reason. 'Temporary' is also one of the
characteristics distinguishing a project from normal operations.
Temporary does not necessarily mean that the duration of a project is short. It only refers to the
engagement of a project, and not to the product, service, or resulting deliverable. The temporary aspect of a
project can be conceptualized by thinking of a building construction project.
 Unique :
Every project is unique and different. This is another aspect that differentiates a project from normal
operations. Repetitive elements may be present in project deliverables and activities, but there is always
something different about those elements or the way in which they are combined. Once again, a building
construction project can serve as a conceptual example. A specific structure may be designed by people who
have designed other buildings, constructed by people who have built other buildings, and made from the same
materials as other buildings.
 Creating output :

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 Every project creates some type of product, service, or end result. These outputs are called deliverables
and they are the reason projects exist and take place. Project output can be both tangible and intangible. An
example of tangible project output is the building resulting from a construction project. Examples of intangible
projects include new services or events. Projects have other features as well. They can be large or small,
involving a single person or multiple organizations. Projects can also be undertaken at all different
organizational levels. A project only qualifies as a project if it meets the three criteria of being temporary,
unique, and creating output.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PROJECT
Q. WHAT ARE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PROJECT?
 “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and
inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of research can well
be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits
of thinking and organisation. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to
business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature
of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational problems.
 Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for government and
business. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For instance,
government‟s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of
revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where
research is most needed.
 Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each
of these alternatives Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the
decisions of the policy maker.
 Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of research
problems. These days nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians or experts to carry on
this work.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business
and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are considered crucial
and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions. Market research is the investigation
of the structure and development of a market for the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing,
production and sales.
 Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the
solution of business problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be termed as
optimisation problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly
concerned with market characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations
underlying the consumer (market) behaviour.
 All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for taking business
decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of
future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the
limits of its projected capacity.
 Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific decisions. Research
is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various
social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge
and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or
in a more efficient manner.
 On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that make possible the
understanding and prediction of the whole range of human interactions. On the other hand, because of its social
orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human
relations.”6 In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master‟s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean careerism or a way
to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;

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 (d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative
work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
 Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems.
It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one‟s field in a
better way.

OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT
Q. WHAT ARE THE OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT? .
1. Financial:
 Financial objectives are normally relatively easy to put together and you will find your sponsor is keen
to make sure that if your project is going to make the company any money that this is record adequately in the
project objectives.
 Your project may deliver a clear financial return (for example, launching a new product to the
consumer market) or make a financial saving (such as closing an underperforming office).

2. Quality:
 There may be some quality objectives for your project, such as delivering to certain internal or external
quality standards. Quality objectives also manifest themselves in the form of process improvement projects that
aim to reduce defects or increase customer satisfaction somehow.
 You may find that quality objectives are included in your quality plan, so you can take them from there
and include them in the main body of your project documentation (or vice versa, as you will probably write the
quality plan after your charter).
3. Technical:
 Companies already have technology in use so a technical objective could be to upgrade existing
technology, install new technology or even to make use of existing technology during the deployment of your
project.
 Technology comes in different forms so this could include mobile devices or telephones as well as
hardware, software and networking capabilities.
4. Performance:
 Performance objectives tend to be related to how the project will be run, so could include things like
delivering to a certain budget figure or by a certain date, or not exceeding a certain number of resources. You
could also have performance objectives related to achieving project scope, such as the number of requirements
that will be completed or achieving customer sign off.
5. Compliance:
 Regulatory requirements form compliance objectives. For example, there could be the obligation to
meet legal guidance on your project or to comply with local regulations. A construction project could also have
the objective to meet or exceed health and safety targets.
6. Business:
 This is the main area where you are likely to find project objectives and it relates to what it is that you
are doing – the key drivers for the project. Business objectives would be things like launching that new product,
closing that office or anything else that is the main reason for delivering the project.
7. Budget:
 The project must be completed without exceeding the authorised expenditure. Financial sources are not
always inexhaustible and a project might be abandoned altogether if funds run out before completion. If that
was to happen, the money and effort invested in the project would be forfeited and written off.
 In extreme cases the project contractor could face ruin. There are many projects where there is no direct
profit motive, however it is still important to pay proper attention to the cost budgets, and financial
management remains essential.
8. Time to Completion:
 Actual progress has to match or beat planned progress. All significant stages of the project must take
place no later than their specified dates, to result in total completion on or before the planned finish date.
 The timescale objective is extremely important because late completion of a project is not very likely to
please the project purchaser or the sponsor.

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 TYPES OF PROJECT
Q. EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF PROJECT? .

PROJECTS
TYPES

Organizational/ Government projects or

Academic project
institutional projects social projects

 Academic Projects:
 Academic project are usually undertaken by students pursuing graduation or post graduation
programmes. Submission of project several colleges and universities or institutes has become a requirement
for completing a course. Usually, such projects vary from institution to institution.
 The duration of such project range between 15 days to 6 months. In some institutions, a supervision.
Usually, such project are not funded institution like Indian Institute of management or Indian Institute of
 Technology, who are getting placement in some organisation and they are required to undertaken a
project interest for the organisation. Such projects are funded by those organizations.
 Organizational/Institution Projects:
 These projects are always conceived by organisations and institutions and they invite application from
interested persons or institution to undertake such projects. Such project usually is undertaken in stages, as at
the end of each stage, the project outcome is presented and critically reviewed by the sponsoring institution.
 If the outcome is satisfactory, then the individual of institution is allowed to continue with the project or
otherwise, it is allotted to someone else. Such projects call for setting milestones and review at every stage.
Only individuals or organizations of repute are given such projects.
 Usually, such projects are never allotted to students of universities of colleges of institutes. All the
details of the projects are kept is required to sign an undertaking to maintain the details confidential.
 Government Project Or Social Project:
 These are projects which are assigned by the state or central to a recognized institute or universities.
Usually, such projects are never assigned to individuals. The government may even assign such to yet another
research organisation.
PROJECT METHOD VERSUS METHODOLOGY
Q. WHAT ARE THE DIFFIRENCE BETWEEN METHOD AND METHODOLOGY?
BASIS OF RESEARCH METHOD
S.NO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMPARISON
1. Research Method implies the methods Research methodology signifies way
Meaning employed by the researcher to conduct to efficiently solving Research
Research. problems.
2. Behaviour and instrument used in the Science of understanding, how
Usage selection and construction of the research research is performed Methodically.
Technique.
3. Carrying out experiment, Test, surveys Study different techniques which can
Encompasses and so on. be utilized in the performance of
experiment, test, surveys etc.
4. Different investigation Techniques. Entire strategy towards achievement of
Comprise
objective.
5. To discover solution to Research To apply correct procedures so as to
Objective
problem. determine solutions.

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 PROJECT PROCESS
Q. DESCUSS THE PROJECT OF PROCESS. .

INTRODUCTION
 Project management is one of the critical processes of any project. This is due to the fact that project
management is the core process that connects all other project activities and processes together.
 When it comes to the activities of project management, there are plenty. However, these plenty of
project management activities can be categorized into five main processes. Let's have a look at the five main
project management processes in detail.
1 - PROJECT INITIATION
 Project initiation is the starting point of any project. In this process, all the activities related to winning
a project takes place. Usually, the main activity of this phase is the pre-sale.
 During the pre-sale period, the service provider proves the eligibility and ability of completing the
project to the client and eventually wins the business. Then, it is the detailed requirements gathering which
comes next.
 During the requirements gathering activity, all the client requirements are gathered and analyzed for
implementation. In this activity, negotiations may take place to change certain requirements or remove certain
requirements altogether. Usually, project initiation process ends with requirements sign-off.

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2 - PROJECT PLANNING
 Project planning is one of the main project management processes. If the project management team gets
this step wrong, there could be heavy negative consequences during the next phases of the project. Therefore,
the project management team will have to pay detailed attention to this process of the project.
 In this process, the project plan is derived in order to address the project requirements such as,
requirements scope, budget and timelines. Once the project plan is derived, then the project schedule is
developed.
 Depending on the budget and the schedule, the resources are then allocated to the project. This phase is
the most important phase when it comes to project cost and effort.
3 - PROJECT EXECUTION
 After all paperwork is done, in this phase, the project management executes the project in order to
achieve project objectives.
 When it comes to execution, each member of the team carries out their own assignments within the
given deadline for each activity. The detailed project schedule will be used for tracking the project progress.
 During the project execution, there are many reporting activities to be done. The senior management of
the company will require daily or weekly status updates on the project progress.
 In addition to that, the client may also want to track the progress of the project. During the project
execution, it is a must to track the effort and cost of the project in order to determine whether the project is
progressing in the right direction or not.
 In addition to reporting, there are multiple deliveries to be made during the project execution. Usually,
project deliveries are not onetime deliveries made at the end of the project. Instead, the deliveries are scattered
throughout the project execution period and delivered upon agreed timelines.

4 - CONTROL AND VALIDATION

 During the project life cycle, the project activities should be thoroughly controlled and validated. The
controlling can be mainly done by adhering to the initial protocols such as project plan, quality assurance test
plan and communication plan for the project.
 Sometimes, there can be instances that are not covered by such protocols. In such cases, the project
manager should use adequate and necessary measurements in order to control such situations.
 Validation is a supporting activity that runs from first day to the last day of a project. Each and every
activity and delivery should have its own validation criteria in order to verify the successful outcome or the
successful completion.

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  When it comes to project deliveries and requirements, a separate team called 'quality assurance team'
will assist the project team for validation and verification functions.
5 - CLOSEOUT AND EVALUATION
 Once all the project requirements are achieved, it is time to hand over the implemented system and
closeout the project. If the project deliveries are in par with the acceptance criteria defined by the client, the
project will be duly accepted and paid by the customer.
 Once the project closeout takes place, it is time to evaluate the entire project. In this evaluation, the
mistakes made by the project team will be identified and will take necessary steps to avoid them in the future
projects.
 During the project evaluation process, the service provider may notice that they haven't gained the
expected margins for the project and may have exceeded the timelines planned at the beginning.
In such cases, the project is not a 100% success to the service provider.
Therefore, such instances should be studied carefully and should take necessary actions to avoid in the future.

PROCESS OF RESEARCH
Q. EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH. .
 However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
1. Formulating the Research Problem:
 There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset, the researcher must single out the
problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter
that he would like to inquire into.

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  Initially, the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to
the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up.
 The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a
scientific enquiry.
 Essentially, two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
 The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one‟s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution, the researcher can seek the help from a guide
who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
2. Extensive Literature Survey:
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a
research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the
necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.
 At this juncture, the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
 For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc. must be
tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
3. Development of Working Hypotheses:
 After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
 As such, the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they
provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research,
the development of working hypothesis plays an important role.
 How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
Approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the
practical aspects of the problem.
 Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
4. Preparing the Research Design:
 The research problem having been formulated in clear-cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted.
 The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
 But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be
grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration, (iii) Diagnosis, and
(ii) Description, (iv) Experimentation.
 A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
5. Determining Sample Design:
 All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a „universe‟ or „population‟. A
complete enumeration of all the items in the „population‟ is known as a census inquiry.
 It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered, no element of chance is left
and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice, this may not be true.

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  Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of
observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a
resurvey or use of sample checks.
 Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, census
inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances.
 For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often, we select only a few items
from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
 The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design.
6. Collecting the Data:
 In dealing with any real-life problem, it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
 There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
 Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an
experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the
truth contained in his hypothesis.
7. Execution of the Project:
 Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
 The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey
is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed.
 In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be
collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers.
 The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which clearly explains the job of the
interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their
assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
 One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take
a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts, vigorous efforts can be made for securing
response.
8. Analysis of Data:
 After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of
data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these
categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
 The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further
analysis.
 Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories:
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into
symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for
coding. With coding, the stage is ready for tabulation.
 Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables.
The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is
tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of
variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc. by applying various well-defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships
or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
9. Hypothesis Testing:
 After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he
had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual
question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
 Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test, F-test, etc. have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature
and object of research inquiry.

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  Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had
no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be
tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalizations and Interpretation
 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation.
 The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.
11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis:
 Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be
done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) The preliminary pages, (ii) The main text, and (iii) The end matter.
 In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and
charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of Findings: After introduction, there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarized.
(c) Main Report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
 At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e.,
list of books, journals, reports, etc. consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given
specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such
as „it seems,‟ „there may be‟, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.
4. Calculated „confidence limits‟ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting
research operations may as well be stated.

NEEDS OF PROJECT
Q. EXPLAIN THE NEED OF PROJECT?
1. Easy Planning:
 The project planning process takes a lot of time as you have to map-out all the important steps. A project
management tool provides you the ability to easily establish a hierarchy of tasks for effective and efficient
completion.
 It also lets you indicate which steps are sequential and which tasks are dependent on one another. In turn,
this makes it easier for the team to do their work. This is a time saver, because when the team leader knows
which steps are the most important, he/she then knows which tasks to assign to whom.
2. Efficient Task Management:
 Every project out there consists of numerous tasks that you, or your team, must complete. Writing notes
about what your team members are doing is sometimes impossible, especially when it comes to ongoing projects
that take a lot of time to complete.
 This is where a project management tool is very useful: assign all of the important tasks to employees and
monitor how they are performing. Project management becomes much easier as you have access to this data and
can follow who has which tasks. Through better task management, teams work in unity.
 Hence, achieving incredible results and benefiting the company.

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3. Seamless Team Workflow:
 Getting the whole team to work as one is often very hard to achieve, but project management software
can make it much easier. Using this software solution gives a team leader a chance to always be able to see the
tasks that his team is working on and which team members are involved in the task.
 Furthermore, there are tasks which require more people. This is where a team leader can include several
different people to collectively work on bigger tasks – while other members do smaller tasks simultaneously.
 Creating a seamless team workflow is something very important to attain as it contributes to a company‟s
sustainable future, as well as creating cohesion within a team.
4. Shared Documents, Calendars and Contacts:
 Consider that project management tools are useful as they support storage and organization of a variety of
documents. This is extremely important as a majority of projects have a high number of documents.
 By creating a centralized document storage plan, every team member can easily, and more quickly, edit
and contribute. This feature is very important in cases where the work is outsourced to a person or a team.
 It is much easier to perform all the necessary tasks without sending thousands of emails with attached
documents where, sooner or later, things become convoluted.
 As well, having access to calendars of other team members is convenient because sooner or later, a
meeting between team members has to be organized.
 So, having access to people‟s calendar makes coordinating much easier. Make sure to share a document
containing every team members‟ contact information. This ensures remote team members can communicate with
one other.
5. Precise Project Tracking:
 Tracking the time spent on every task is of great value. It allows you to collect data about team members,
to know their work pace. This will make planning future projects much easier.
 The team leader can then make much more precise time estimations. For example, a team leader can
give different types of tasks to team members throughout a project to determine their strengths. This creates
better performance and faster results.

MEANING- THESIS AND DISSERTATION

Q. WHAT IS MEANT BY THESIS AND DISSERTATION? .
DISSERTATION
 A “Dissertation” is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or
professional qualification (M.phil) presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word
“Dissertation" or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course.
THESIS
 The word " Thesis " is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts, the reverse is true.
 Own ideas and research particular problem or creative new idea especially a higher degree as a PhD.
 The term "thesis" is also used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work.

IMPORATANCE OF DISSERTATION
Q: EXPLAIN THE IMPORATANCE OF DISSERTATION.
 Can formulate a research problem that is unknown to the field and if solved, will yield new
knowledge
 Can devise a research methodology and plan to investigate the problem
 Can carry out the research in an efficient and effective manner, gathering data that are reliable and
relevant to the problem
 Can analyze the data in a manner that will answer the research problem
 Can draw conclusions that actually lead to an answer to the research problem
 Can communicate the results of the research effectively
 Can communicate the importance of the results of the research to the broader field of inquiry.

IMPORTANCE OF THESIS
Q. EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF THESIS.
 There are two main reasons why thesis statements are so important for an essay.
 First, the writer develops a thesis to create a focus on an essay‟s main idea. It is important for the
writer to be able to write the main idea in a few sentences to create a clear idea for the paper.

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  Not only does the thesis guide the reader, but also the writer. The thesis provides direction to help the
writer keep their paper organized.
 Second, having a well-crafted thesis statement helps the reader understand the main idea of the essay.
The thesis statement sets the reader up for the rest of the essay.
 Usually at the end of the introduction paragraph, the thesis leads into the body paragraph, which
provides evidence and ideas to back up the thesis.
 The thesis statement is important because it tells the audience what they will be reading about.
 Because thesis statements are essential in any essay, it is important for writers to understand what makes
up a solid thesis.
 As the basis of an essay, a thesis must support three things:
Audience, purpose, and content.
 This basically just means answer who, why, and what in your thesis.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISSERTATION AND THESIS

Q. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISSERTATION AND THESIS.

S.NO DISSERTATION THESIS

1. Small in size, mainly 30-50 typed pages Large in size can go beyond 200 pages
2. Submitted for masters „or M.phil. degree It is submitted for doctorate degree
Researcher can use the pre-existing data in order For the thesis, your data should be original and your
3.
to support his arguments own.
The purpose is to develop basic research caliber It is a contribution to society, as research is used to
4.
in a person. implement and improve different policies.
The outdoor visit is must in order to know the ground
5. No outdoor visit to collect data
reality.
6. Questionnaire and survey are not required Questionnaire and surveys are musts
7. No detailed information Contains all information about the topic in depth.
An Europe dissertation is for master‟s degree An America thesis for masters and dissertation for
8.
and thesis for doctorate doctorate

UNIT I COMPLETED

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