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Using Imagery to Enhance Performance in Powerlifting: A Review of Theory,

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 Using Imagery to Enhance
Performance in
Powerlifting: A Review of
Theory, Research, and
Practice
Danielle M. Alexander, MA, Eric A. Hutt, MA, Jordan S. Lefebvre, MA, and Gordon A. Bloom, PhD
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
ABSTRACT
Imagery is a frequently used mental
performance skill that has been
advocated as an invaluable tool by
athletes, coaches, and sport psy-
chology professionals. As such, ath-
letes competing in powerlifting can
benefit from the use of imagery toward
the improvement of individualized
mental and physical skills. To provide
coaches and athletes with a theoreti-
cal and practical understanding of the
imagery–performance relationship;
this article (a) provides an overview of
the PETTLEP model, (b) reviews the
benefits of imagery on both the
physical and psychosocial outcomes
for powerlifting athletes, and (c) pro-
vides recommendations for practical
use in strength and conditioning
contexts.
INTRODUCTION
he sport of powerlifting has
T
gained significant popularity
since it received official desig-
nation as a sport by the American
Address correspondence to Danielle M.
Alexander, danielle.alexander2@mail.mcgill.
ca.
102 VOLUME 41 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2019
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Athletic Union in 1964. Within this
sport, powerlifting athletes strive to
perform 3 different types of lifts: (a)
the back squat, (b) the bench press,
and (c) the deadlift, each with their
own unique movement pattern and
muscular execution. Given the high
intensity, concentration, focus, and
maximal effort required for each lift,
the use of mental training techniques
has the potential to enhance perfor-
mance in this sport (3). Imagery,
defined as mentally creating or recre-
ating an experience in the mind using
all of the senses, is a mental skill that
is often used in sport (33). Imagery
has been advocated as an invaluable
tool by athletes, coaches, and sport
psychology professionals (18). As
such, it is reasonable to conclude that
powerlifting athletes competing in
this high-intensity sport can benefit
from the use of imagery training
toward the improvement of individu-
alized mental and physical skills.
Sport psychology research has high-
lighted the positive association
between imagery and performance
enhancement in a number of sports,
including swimming (20), basketball
(22), volleyball (1), and weightlifting
(35). Specific to strength and condi-
tioning contexts, imagery has been
Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
shown to benefit performance in a vari-
ety of motor, power, and strength
tasks, demonstrated by improved tech-
nique and lift execution (7,17,35). In
addition, the use of imagery has been
shown to have a positive impact on
important psychological variables
related to successful performance, such
as enhanced self-confidence and moti-
vation (5,17), while also helping to con-
trol levels of anxiety and arousal (6,34).
Despite the physical and psychological
benefits of imagery use in sport, imag-
ery continues to be underused by
coaches, athletes, and trainers in
powerlifting contexts (3,23). To pro-
vide coaches and athletes with a theo-
retical and practical understanding of
the imagery–performance relation-
ship, this article aims to (a) provide
a brief overview of the established
PETTLEP (physical, environment,
task, timing, learning, emotion, and
perspective) model, (b) review the
benefits of imagery use on both the
physical and psychosocial outcomes for
powerlifting athletes, and (c) provide
recommendations for practical use in
KEY WORDS:
powerlifting; imagery; mental
toughness
 a strength and conditioning sport
context.
THE PETTLEP MODEL
Since its creation, the PETTLEP
model of imagery (10) has gained con-
siderable traction in sport psychology
research (14,24,29,35). Holmes and
Collins proposed that using imagery
to closely mimic the neurophysiologi-
cal processes that occur for athletes in
practice or competition would be more
effective than simply imaging the
movement. With the intention of
improving the effectiveness of imagery
techniques, Holmes and Collins sug-
gested that practitioners should con-
sider the (a) physical nature of the
task, (b) environment, (c) type of task,
(d) timing of the skill or movement, (e)
learning of the movement and progres-
sion of skill, (e) emotions associated
with the task, and (f ) perspective of
the image (internal or external). First,
the physical state of the imager should
mimic the arousal level and body posi-
tion of the behavior during perfor-
mance. For example, a powerlifter
might position themselves in the tech-
nical form of the lift to enhance the
likelihood of successful imaging. Sec-
ond, practitioners are encouraged to
use the environment in which they per-
form (e.g., the gymnasium) to engage
in imagery. When this is not possible,
however, practitioners can use envi-
ronmental cues, such as visual media,
to ensure the imager accurately images
the setting. Third, it is important to
consider the nature of the task being
imaged and its interaction with skill, as
varying tasks and the athletes’ level of
ability may engender a variety of imag-
ing needs. For instance, a novice
powerlifter may image a back squat
differently than an experienced power-
lifter with respect to technique, range
of motion, and weight executed.
Fourth, imagers should ensure that
the timing of imagery mimics the tim-
ing of behavior, such as the tempo of
the movement (e.g., 2-second eccen-
tric, 1-second pause, and 1-second con-
centric pattern). Fifth, imagers are
encouraged to consider the trajectory
of their learning development. As an
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
athlete continues to refine and develop
their motor skills, their technical exe-
cution may change; therefore, an ath-
lete must subsequently refine and
develop their images accordingly.
Sixth, athletes should use emotion
when creating and engaging in imagery
to simulate what is felt when perform-
ing the behavior, such as psyching one-
self up before a lift. Finally, it is
recommended that athletes consider
the perspective of imaging, which can
be internal (i.e., first-person) or external
(i.e., third-person). The PETTLEP
model argues that performers should
adopt an internal, first-person perspec-
tive as it is more consistent with actual
performance and has a greater likeli-
hood of leading to a physiological
response during imagery (10). A sum-
mary of the PETTLEP model of imag-
ery can be found in the Table.
The PETTLEP model originated from
research in the fields of neuroscience
(i.e., functional equivalence theory
(12)) and cognitive psychology (i.e., bi-
oinformational theory (15,16)). Specif-
ically, the functional equivalence
theory states that imaging a task acti-
vates similar neurological pathways
that occur when physically performing
that same task (12,32). As such,
through mental practice and repetition
of imagery rehearsal, athletes have the
potential to strengthen those same
neural pathways that are used when
executing and performing in a power-
lifting competition without the strain
on their body through physical train-
ing. Comparably, the bioinformational
theory (15) states that to be effective,
images should contain vivid stimulus,
response, and meaning propositions.
Stimulus propositions refer to the sur-
roundings of the environment, such as
the squat rack or barbell. Response
propositions refer to the physiological
senses experienced when performing
the task, such as the feeling of the
bar in one’s hands or enhanced heart
rate before a lift. Finally, meaning prop-
ositions include the significance of the
event or the nuanced aspects of the
competition, such as being one point
away from first place with a final lift to
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
perform. Thus, being able to access
stimulus, response, and meaning
propositions within imagery training
has been suggested to be particularly
important for athletes in competitive
sport (28). For example, powerlifters
who are required to have a high level
of arousal before a lift execution at
a national championship (i.e., mean-
ing) can image their competitive sur-
roundings (i.e., stimulus) and match
the appropriate feeling of high phys-
iological arousal (i.e., response)
within their imagery training. In
essence, the functional equivalence
theory (12) and bioinformational the-
ory (15) provided a comprehensive
outlook on imagery development
through the use of varying sensory
experiences and worked to outline
effective guidelines for practitioners
when conducting imagery interven-
tions in sport.
Research has explored the effectiveness
of the PETTLEP model in a variety of
sporting contexts (4,21,26,29,30,32). For
example, Smith et al. explored the use of
the PETTLEP model in the sporting
context by evaluating performance on
a gymnastics beam task with 40 young,
female gymnasts (29). Participants were
randomly assigned into 4 groups of
either physical practice, imagery
focused on PETTLEP, imagery read
from a script, or a control. Athletes
who were given an imagery script while
in their competitive attire on the beam
performed significantly better than ath-
letes who were provided the same
imagery script outside of the sporting
environment. In addition, Post et al. im-
plemented a 4-week imagery interven-
tion to determine whether physical
practice, imagery practice, or a combina-
tion would be more effective in a stand-
ing long jump task (21). The findings
demonstrated that both the physical
practice group and the combination
condition improved in performance
compared with the control or imagery
practice alone. The combination group
physically performed and mentally
imaged 40 long jumps each (total of
80), whereas the physical practice group
performed 80 long jumps in total.
103
 Imagery and Powerlifting

Table
Summary of the PETTLEP Model of Imagery

Component Definition Example Practical Recommendations

Physical Physical state of imager should A powerlifter lying down on a bench Implement imagery during both
mimic the arousal level and body in their fitness attire when training and competition settings
position of the behavior during imaging the bench press. to maximize performance in the
performance. attire that the athlete competes in.
Environment Use the environment in which Imaging inside the gymnasium or Incorporate videos to provide
athletes perform to engage in fitness center. feedback within training and
imagery. competition contexts and to more
accurately image the
environment.
Task Consider the nature of the task being A novice powerlifter imaging a back Tailor the content of the imagery
imaged and its interaction with squat compared with an elite scripts. An athlete struggling with
the skill level and ability (i.e., powerlifter. the lift execution may benefit from
technique, range of motion, and imagery targeted at technical
weight). practice and delivery.
Timing Image the event/task in real time to The tempo of the bench press. Image a 2 second eccentric
ensure it mimics the actual movement, 1 second pause, and 1
performance. second concentric pattern.
Learning Consider the trajectory of learning An athlete who learned the back Monitor the athlete’s technical
and skill development to refine squat and is progressively adding progress and ensure the athlete is
images accordingly. weight. aware and consistently updating
the image throughout training.
Emotion Use emotion when creating and An athlete psyching oneself up Consider the significance behind the
engaging in imagery to simulate before a lift. task or event being imaged (i.e.,
what is felt when performing the national/international
behavior. competition).
Perspective According to the PETTLEP model, A powerlifter who is on stage at Athletes are encouraged to use
using internal (first-person) competition performing a deadlift internal imaging to more
imaging to imagine the event or and sees the crowd, the barbell, accurately simulate performance,
situation from the perspective of the judges, etc. as opposed to enhance physiological responses,
one’s own eyes. seeing themselves. and gain kinesthetic awareness.

Interestingly, both groups yielded similar
performance results despite the fact that
participants in the combination group
executed only half the physical output
of the physical practice group. This find-
ing highlights that imagery may be par-
ticularly useful for powerlifting athletes
as this sport requires both maximal
strength performance training and high
levels of recovery time. Incorporating
imagery training may be a beneficial
strategy to maintain performance
enhancement yet minimize strain on
the body.
Finally, Buck et al. (4) explored the use of
the PETTLEP model in combination
with video training (i.e., watching previ-
ous successful executions) on the
performance of a 3-repetition front squat
task. Results revealed a significant
increase in strength, assessed by the
number of pounds successfully lifted,
for athletes in the experimental condition
(i.e., PETTLEP model imagery and
video training). Athletes in this condition
increased their weight lifted by over 8
pounds compared with approximately
3 pounds in the control group (video
training only). These studies provided
support for the use and effectiveness of
the PETTLEP model toward perfor-
mance enhancement in competitive
sport requiring power and technique.
Overall, the PETTLEP model has led
to increased attention on the imagery–
performance relationship in sport and
provided a greater understanding of how
to enhance the effectiveness of imagery
training for athletes in various sports.
The subsequent section will outline rel-
evant research conducted on imagery
and performance enhancement in the
strength and conditioning context.
APPLICATIONS OF IMAGERY IN
POWERLIFTING
Through the development and imple-
mentation of the PETTLEP model of
imagery, it is clear that there is a link
between imagery training and perfor-
mance in sport. Notwithstanding the
various benefits of imagery training in
strength and conditioning contexts
(4,7), there has yet to be a review of
the relevant literature pertaining to

104 VOLUME 41 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2019

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 imagery and powerlifting. As such,
there are limited available resources
to strength and conditioning coaches
or powerlifting athletes to access
empirically derived information on this
topic. To address this gap, we high-
lighted 4 main topics from the litera-
ture to synthesize information for
coaches and athletes in the strength
and conditioning setting. These topics
cover (a) strength, (b) motivation and
self-confidence, (c) anxiety and arousal
control, and (d) injury rehabilitation.
Strength. Imagery training interven-
tions have been shown to aid in the
development of physical strength in
a variety of exercises, including the
bench press, biceps curl, leg press, and
knee extension (7,17,19,25,31). For
example, Scholefield et al. (25) con-
ducted a systematic review of 28 articles
pertaining to imagery and maximal iso-
metric strength. Findings revealed
strength improvements from 12 to
35% at the end of each imagery training
intervention, with 1 study reaching 40%
improvement in strength 4 weeks after
the intervention. In a similar study, Para-
vlic et al. (19) conducted a meta-analysis
of 13 studies that used imagery techni-
ques to improve strength performance
on trained and untrained men and
women ranging in age from 18 to 82
years old. All studies measured strength
through either a 1 repetition maximum
test, dynamic contractions, or maximal
voluntary isometric contractions. Re-
sults revealed that imagery produced
a moderate effect on strength improve-
ments compared with a control when
the training sessions were 15 minutes in
length and implemented 3 times per
week for 1 month.
Individual intervention studies have
also been conducted to assess the rela-
tionship between strength and condi-
tioning improvements and imagery.
For example, in a 6-week imagery
training intervention, Lebon et al. (17)
assessed maximal strength on a leg
press and bench press task with 22 uni-
versity student athletes competing in
a range of sports, including soccer,
track and field, and basketball. Strength
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
was measured before and after the
intervention using a 1 repetition maxi-
mum test for both leg and bench press
to assess maximal voluntary contrac-
tion. Participants were also asked to
perform as many repetitions as possible
at 80% of their maximal voluntary con-
traction. Finally, circumference of the
arms, chest, and thighs was measured
before and after the intervention to
account for potential hypertrophy.
The findings demonstrated that partic-
ipants who engaged in imagery train-
ing displayed significant improvements
in the leg press (increased strength of
5%), yet there was no significant differ-
ence for the bench press compared
with the control. Based on the signifi-
cant outcomes from this study, the au-
thors suggested that imagery has the
potential to improve performance on
lower-body strength tasks by enhanc-
ing one’s technical execution and moti-
vation to perform. To help explain the
lack of significance on the bench press
task, participants suggested that exe-
cuting the leg press was more physi-
cally painful and uncomfortable than
the bench press. Therefore, Lebon
et al. (17) noted that imagery may have
played a role in reducing apprehension
toward the more taxing exercise, lead-
ing to a greater performance enhance-
ment as a result. Another example
comes from Di Rienzo et al. (7) who
used an imagery intervention on 18
male university student athletes to
determine whether imagery training
generated immediate effects on perfor-
mance (i.e., during the rest period in
training). Participants were asked to
perform 10 isometric contractions of
their dominant elbow to assess force
output on a biceps flexion task. Results
revealed significant improvements in
biceps strength with the imagery group
producing 3.5% more force than a pas-
sive recovery control group. Although
this improvement may not seem large,
this finding suggests that imagery can
have an immediate impact on strength
performance, which is highly valuable
throughout both training (e.g., rest pe-
riods) and competitive contexts (e.g.,
before a lift execution). As such, there
are benefits to be gained from engaging
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
in imagery within a training program
to improve strength and conditioning
in powerlifting.
Motivation and self-confidence.
Motivation and self-confidence have
served as explanatory mechanisms for
the relationship between performance
and imagery (3,5,17). Imagery use has
been associated with enhanced
self-reported motivation and confi-
dence, which may lead to improved
performance. For instance, Barnicle
and Lepage used a single-participant
case study approach to explore the
psychological, emotional, and compet-
itive impact of imagery in powerlifting.
Among their findings, the authors sug-
gested that a 4-month applied sport
psychology intervention (i.e., focusing
on imagery, arousal, and self-talk)
improved the participants’ weight re-
cords on the squat, bench press, and
deadlift by nearly 6 percent. In partic-
ular, qualitative data suggested that the
use of imagery resulted in enhanced
confidence and motivation to perform
during practice, which, in turn, was
associated with improved performance
at competitions. Therefore, among
other applied sport psychology tools,
imagery seemed to have played a criti-
cal role in enhancing the athletes’ psy-
chological state when training and
competing in powerlifting.
In addition, Christensen and Weibull
interviewed 15 elite Swedish power-
lifters to explore the relationship
between imagery and deliberate prac-
tice. Results revealed that all partici-
pants engaged in imagery, 3 of the
participants discussed imagery as
a form of deliberate practice, and gen-
erally, participants used imagery train-
ing as a method of improving
motivation, technique, and/or self-
confidence. Consequently, the authors
recommended the inclusion of imag-
ery into powerlifting training and high-
lighted the importance of voluntarily
developing images that are relevant
and meaningful to the imager (5). In
sum, these studies suggest that the
improvement in performance is attrib-
utable in part to the enhancement of
105
 Imagery and Powerlifting
psychological factors, such as self-
confidence and motivation.
Anxiety and arousal control.
Sport psychology research has sug-
gested that imagery training techni-
ques can aid in fluctuating levels of
anxiety and arousal in athletes to
achieve optimum levels of perfor-
mance (6,13,34). Owing to its explosive
nature, athletes in powerlifting, unlike
many sports, often benefit from higher
levels of physiological arousal to
enhance performance. For example,
achieving high levels of physiological
arousal was positively correlated with
strength performance in elite athletes
participating in explosive sports (e.g.,
weightlifting and track and field;
(20)). As such, imagery training has
the potential to influence anxiety and
arousal levels in sport.
A study by Cumming et al. (6) assessed
physiological (i.e., heart rate) and psy-
chological (i.e., confidence and anxi-
ety) states of individual university
sport athletes who read imagery scripts
focusing on either arousal, anxiety,
relaxation, confidence building, or cop-
ing. Results revealed that participants
interpreted heart rate levels differently
depending on the imagery script pre-
sented, such that increased heart rate
was perceived as harmful or debilitat-
ing during the anxiety script compared
with alternative scripts. Therefore, the
appraisal of physiological symptoms is
an important factor to consider in per-
formance enhancement. This notion
was further discussed in a study by Wil-
liams et al. (34) who assessed the use of
imagery scripts to influence the
appraisal or interpretation of high-
stress situations. Twenty male and
female competitive athletes were asked
to listen to various imagery scripts and
told to create clear, vivid images of
what was being described. Physiologi-
cal assessments of heart rate, stroke
volume, and cardiac output were gath-
ered as well as self-report data on per-
ceived levels of anxiety, self-
confidence, and imagery script
appraisal (i.e., whether the script inter-
preted as a threat or a challenge). The
106 VOLUME 41 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2019
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
findings demonstrated that sensations
of arousal and anxiety were interpreted
positively if accompanied by an imag-
ery script framing the upcoming event
as a challenge rather than a threat. In
sum, the ability to interpret a high-
pressure situation, such as a competi-
tion or an increased heart rate, as facil-
itative rather than debilitative would be
beneficial for powerlifting athletes in
the competitive context.
Injury rehabilitation. Specific to
powerlifting, injuries are most com-
monly found in the shoulder, lower
back, and knee, occurring at a rate of
approximately 1 injury per 1,000 train-
ing hours (29). Some injuries can be
more severe and require rehabilitation,
but across sports, only 27% of athletes
report using imagery during rehabilita-
tion (2). This is unfortunate when con-
sidering that imagery has the potential
to enhance pain management, motor
recovery, and adherence to rehabilita-
tion programs (8,9,11). Although
research investigating imagery and
sport injury rehabilitation is sparse,
there are a small number of studies that
suggest imagery can enhance various
functional motor outcomes and aid in
the rehabilitation process (8,11). For
example, Driediger et al. (8) inter-
viewed 10 injured athletes who were
receiving physiotherapy and found that
athletes believed imagery served a cog-
nitive, motivational, and healing pur-
pose toward recovery. Under the
cognitive domain, athletes reported
imaging rehabilitation exercises and
sport-specific skills and strategies, such
as performing running patterns or
game plays in their sport. Motivation
was the most frequent purpose of
imagery use in the rehabilitation pro-
cess as all athletes reported using imag-
ery to control the stress of being
injured, enhance confidence, as well
as maintain focus and a positive atti-
tude in recovery. Finally, imagery was
also used by some athletes to envision
the healing process, such as picturing
a torn ligament rejoining or to imagin-
ing oneself as strong and capable of
recovering. It is clear that imagery
serves a number of valuable functions
for athletes dealing with injury rehabil-
itation. Thus, coaches and relevant
support staff (e.g., team doctors, phys-
iotherapists, and trainers) should be
aware of the benefits associated with
imagery use and recovery to facilitate
success (8).
Perhaps the most relevant study for
powerlifters was the investigation as-
sessing the effectiveness of an imagery
intervention to manage pain and
enhance range of motion for people
with stage II shoulder impingement
syndrome (11). This syndrome is of
particular relevance to powerlifters as
it can be caused by improper or exces-
sive bench press training and because
the shoulder area is frequently injured
in the sport of powerlifting (27). Partic-
ipants in the experimental condition
were provided with anti-inflammatory
drugs, physical therapy treatment, and
imagery training for 10 sessions com-
pared with a control who did not
receive imagery training. Findings re-
vealed that the imagery group noted
a near-complete reduction in pain,
whereas the control continued to
report minor pain (27). Owing to the
extremely low risks inherent with
imagery practice, this finding is prom-
ising for powerlifting athletes as imag-
ery can be easily implemented into
a rehabilitation program to accelerate
the recovery of injuries. Future
research in powerlifting injury rehabil-
itation must be conducted to further
investigate the effectiveness of imagery
in this context. The existing body of
research on imagery and rehabilitation,
however, holds promise both within
and outside of the sporting context.
Overall, imagery training has the
potential to influence a number of
physical and psychosocial variables
that correlate with performance
enhancement in powerlifting. More
specifically, the literature suggests that
imagery training can lead to significant
improvements in strength, particularly
when the intervention is 4 weeks in
length (25) and 3 sessions per week
(19). These improvements are likely
due to the impact of imagery on psy-
chological variables, such as
 motivation, confidence, anxiety, and
arousal, which have been suggested
to help explain the relationship
between imagery use and performance
(3,5,6). For example, imagery training
may enhance self-confidence levels or
reduce competitive anxiety before
a competition, therefore resulting in
performance improvement. Finally,
the literature has shown the beneficial
role that imagery can play in injury
rehabilitation and pain management.
In sum, imagery is a useful skill for
any powerlifting athlete because of its
potential to enhance training and com-
petitive performance in a variety of
contexts.
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
Based on the existing sport psychology
literature, the framework of the PET-
TLEP model and our experience as
sport psychology consultants and ath-
letic trainers, this section will present
practical guidelines to explain how
effective imagery use can enhance per-
formance in powerlifting. These rec-
ommendations will be useful for
powerlifting athletes, strength and
conditioning coaches and trainers, as
well as sport psychology professionals
who are involved in this sport:
 Athletes are encouraged to develop
images that are functionally equiva-
lent and involve stimulus, response,
and meaning propositions. For
example, ensure that images include
the surrounding environment (e.g.,
audience, platform, squat rack; stim-
ulus), the physiological reactions to
the event (e.g., heart rate, breathing,
sweat; response), and the signifi-
cance behind the image (e.g.,
national/international competition;
meaning; Emotion of PETTLEP).
Finally, athletes should incorporate
imagery within their practices to
enhance the neurological connec-
tion between mental and physical
performance.
 Implement imagery during training
and competition settings to maxi-
mize performance in the attire that
the athlete competes in (Physical in
PETTLEP). Within training, use
imagery during rest times between
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
exercises, especially for lower-body
movements (i.e., leg press, squat,
etc.). In competition, use imagery
just before a lift execution to enhance
technique of the movement and
motivation to perform. As skill
development increases, be sure to
alter one’s imagery skills to match
the level in which the athlete is per-
forming (Learning in PETTLEP).
For example, as an athlete progresses
in range of motion on a back squat,
ensure that the imagery produced
reflects this change in mobility.
 Develop images that are meaningful
and relevant to the athlete, inter-
preted in a positive, facilitative man-
ner, and are generated voluntarily.
Engage in imagery for 15-minute
sessions, 3 times per week for 4
weeks to maximize effectiveness
and image the event/task in real time
to ensure it mimics the actual perfor-
mance (Timing in PETTLEP). Ac-
cording to the PETTLEP model,
encourage the athlete to image in
first person to enhance the physio-
logical responses being created dur-
ing imagery, and in turn, the
effectiveness of imagery itself (Per-
spective in PETTLEP).
 Tailor the content of the imagery
scripts to meet the goals of the indi-
vidual athlete. For example, an ath-
lete experiencing burnout or fatigue
may benefit from an imagery inter-
vention targeted at increasing moti-
vation and confidence in training
and competition. In addition, an ath-
lete experiencing precompetitive
anxiety can implement imagery
training before a competition to opti-
mize arousal levels and, in turn,
enhance performance. Finally, an
athlete struggling with the lift execu-
tion itself would benefit from an
imagery intervention targeted at
technical practice and delivery (Task
in PETTLEP).
 Provide powerlifting athletes with
video footage of previous successful
lift executions. Given the ease with
which videos can be created and re-
viewed, incorporate this accessible
feedback and modeling medium into
training and competition contexts to
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
improve performance. This may pro-
vide the athlete with a better under-
standing of their environment and
have greater ease in which to image
a clearer and more vivid picture
(Environment in PETTLEP).
 Execute imagery training when an
athlete is injured or unable to com-
plete the physical movement or
exercise. Perform imagery in addi-
tion to the athlete’s rehabilitation
plan (i.e., physiotherapy or prescrip-
tion drugs) to speed up the recovery
process, specifically for upper-body
injuries. Remember that imagery
often serves 3 functions for athletes
with an injury: cognitive, motiva-
tional, and healing. Coaches and ath-
letes should be aware of these
purposes and the subsequent bene-
fits that each bring to injury rehabil-
itation (e.g., enhanced confidence,
focus, and desire to succeed).
CONCLUSION
Imagery has the potential to positively
influence performance in powerlifting
and can be easily implemented in
a variety of training and competitive
settings. Given the benefits and low
risks associated with its use, imagery
is a particularly useful tool for strength
and conditioning athletes. Particularly,
athletes competing in powerlifting can
benefit from the use of imagery toward
the improvement of individualized
mental and physical skills. Regrettably,
it remains one of the least used skills
by strength and conditioning coaches
(23). In light of the critical impact of
anxiety and arousal on strength perfor-
mance (2), powerlifting athletes and
coaches are encouraged to take advan-
tage of this important mental skill to
optimize the psychological aspects of
performance and maximize their
strength output in training and
competition.
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
107
 Imagery and Powerlifting
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