Antibiotics in the environment : origin,fate and

implications on the plant system:

INTRODUCTION

Antibiotics are the substances which are produced by microorganism

and act against microorganism (e.g., Pencillium notatum). Most
antibiotics known till date are products of actinomycetes and some
are from fungi and bacteria (e.g., Streptomyces spp.). Antibiotics are
drugs of natural or synthetic origin that have the capacity to kill or to
inhibit the growth of micro-organisms (FAO, 2005). Most antibiotics
have been tried for plant disease control. The commonly used
antibiotics are streptomycin, tetracycline, griseofulvin, cycloheximide
and aurofungin. Although antibiotics are used for disease control, it
has many side effects, one of them being gene mutations (Svetleva
et. al., 2005). These antibiotics enter in the tissues/organs as
chemical compounds and penetrate membrane system. Chemical
reaction may occur before a pharmacodynamic action and
metabolites formed may cause unwanted toxic effects before being
excreted. If these chemical compounds react with genetic material
(DNA) heritable changes (beneficial/harmful) may be induced
(Ehrenberg, 1971). Antibiotics induce chromosomal abnormalities
such as erosions, diplo chromatids, pycnosis, micronuclei, bridges
with or without fragments etc (vig, 1997 ). Nowadays, tetracyclines
are ranked first in the production and usage of antibiotics in China
(Cheng 2005). Tetracycline antibiotics (TCs) are a class of broad-
spectrum antibiotics discovered in the 1940s with hydrogenated
tetraphenyl as the parent nucleus. However, using TCs for livestock
and agricultural activities has become a major source of pollution.
The excessive use of TCs by some farmers has led to significant
environmental contamination while generating economic benefits.
Animals do not completely metabolize most TCs, and many TCs are
released into the environment in their raw form ( Zhi et al.).

HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTICS

Antibiotics are medicines that kill bacteria, helping us fight infections.

They were first discovered in 1928 when Alexander Fleming found
penicillin. Since then, scientists have made many more antibiotics to
treat different kinds of infections. But sometimes, bacteria can
become resistant to antibiotics, which is why it's important to use
them properly and develop new ones when needed. In the long term,
the discovery and development of antibiotics have had profound
effects on medicine and public health. They have transformed the
treatment of bacterial infections, making once deadly diseases easily
treatable. This has led to increased life expectancy and improved
quality of life for millions of people worldwide. Additionally,
antibiotics have facilitated advancements in medical procedures such
as surgeries, organ transplants, and cancer treatments, which rely on
preventing or treating bacterial infections.

However, overreliance and misuse of antibiotics have resulted in the

emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This poses a significant
threat to global health as infections become increasingly difficult,
and sometimes impossible, to treat. Addressing antibiotic resistance
requires a multifaceted approach, including responsible antibiotic
use, research into new antibiotics, and public awareness campaigns.
Despite these challenges, antibiotics remain essential tools in
modern medicine, and their continued development and judicious
use are crucial for maintaining their effectiveness in the long term.

FATE AND ORIGIN OF ANTIBIOTICS IN ENVIRONMENT

Medical and Veterinary Use: Antibiotics are widely used in human

and veterinary medicine. Excretion of these drugs by patients and
animals leads to their entry into wastewater and subsequently into
the environment.

Agricultural Use: Antibiotics are also used in agriculture, primarily in

animal husbandry for disease prevention and growth promotion.
Runoff from farms and improper disposal of animal waste can
introduce antibiotics into the environment.

Manufacturing Processes: The production of antibiotics involves the

synthesis and processing of various chemicals, which can lead to the
release of antibiotics into the environment through wastewater
discharge and air emissions.

Once in the environment, antibiotics can undergo

various fates:

Persistence: Some antibiotics are resistant to degradation and can

persist in the environment for long periods, leading to potential
accumulation over time.
Transformation: Antibiotics can undergo chemical and biological
transformations in the environment, resulting in the formation of
metabolites or degradation products, some of which may still retain
antibiotic activity.

Transport: Antibiotics can be transported through soil, water, and

air, leading to their distribution over large geographic areas. This can
contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes among
bacteria.

Bioaccumulation: In aquatic environments, antibiotics can

bioaccumulate in organisms such as fish and shellfish, potentially
leading to adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health.

Overall, the presence of antibiotics in the environment poses a risk of

selecting for antibiotic-resistant bacteria and impacting ecosystem
health. Efforts to mitigate this risk include improving wastewater
treatment processes, promoting responsible antibiotic use in
medicine and agriculture, and developing alternative strategies for
disease control.

ANTIBIOTICS ON PLANT SYSTEM

Antibiotics are primarily used to treat bacterial infections in humans

and animals, and their use in plant systems is limited. However, in
agriculture, antibiotics are sometimes used in plant disease
management, particularly in controlling bacterial diseases in crops.
This practice is controversial due to concerns about antibiotic
resistance and potential harm to the environment. Agricultural
authorities regulate the use of antibiotics in farming to minimize
these risks.

Mechanism of antibiotic uptake in plants

Passive Diffusion: Antibiotics may passively diffuse across the lipid

bilayer of plant cell membranes.

Active Transport: Some antibiotics are actively transported into plant

cells by specific transport proteins.

Endocytosis: Certain antibiotics may enter plant cells through

endocytosis, where the cell membrane invaginates to engulf the
antibiotic-containing fluid.
Root Uptake: Antibiotics applied to the soil can be taken up by plant
roots and transported throughout the plant via the vascular system.

Foliar Uptake: Antibiotics applied to the leaves can be absorbed

directly through the leaf surface and transported to other parts of
the plant.

Schematic diagram showing processes involved in antibiotic uptake in the soil-

plant system
Factor influencing antibiotic uptake efficiency

Physicochemical Properties: Antibiotic characteristics such as

molecular size, lipophilicity, and charge can influence uptake
efficiency.

Plant Species: Different plant species exhibit varying levels of

antibiotic uptake due to differences in root structure, cuticle
composition, and transport mechanisms.

Environmental Conditions: Factors such as soil pH, temperature,

moisture levels, and nutrient availability can affect antibiotic uptake
by influencing root growth and activity.

Antibiotic Concentration: Higher concentrations of antibiotics in the

soil or on plant surfaces can increase uptake efficiency up to a certain
threshold.

Soil Properties: Soil composition, texture, and organic matter content

can influence antibiotic adsorption, mobility, and availability for
uptake by plant roots.

Microbial Interactions: Soil microbiota can affect antibiotic

degradation, transformation, and availability for plant uptake,
thereby influencing uptake efficiency.

Plant Developmental Stage: The stage of plant growth can impact

root morphology, physiology, and metabolic activity, affecting
antibiotic uptake efficiency.

Transport pathways for antibiotics in plant systems

Xylem Transport: Antibiotics can be transported upward through the

xylem vessels from the roots to the shoots, facilitated by
transpiration and capillary action.
Phloem Transport: Some antibiotics can move bidirectionally within
plants through the phloem, allowing for systemic distribution to
various plant tissues.

Apoplastic Transport: Antibiotics may move through the apoplastic

space between plant cells, bypassing cell membranes, particularly in
roots.

Symplastic Transport: Antibiotics can also move through

plasmodesmata, the cytoplasmic channels connecting adjacent plant
cells, enabling intercellular transport.

Transmembrane Transport: Within cells, antibiotics may undergo

transmembrane transport facilitated by specific transport proteins or
diffusion across membranes.

Impact of Antibiotic Uptake on plant physiology

The impact of antibiotic uptake on plant physiology can vary

depending on factors like the type of antibiotic, concentration, and
duration of exposure. In general, antibiotics can disrupt the normal
microbial communities in the soil, which play crucial roles in nutrient
cycling, plant health, and disease resistance. This disruption can
affect plant physiology in several ways:

Nutrient uptake: Some antibiotics can affect the microbial

communities responsible for nutrient cycling, potentially impacting
the availability of essential nutrients to plants.

Growth and development: Antibiotics may influence plant growth

and development, including root elongation, shoots growth, and
flowering, either directly or indirectly through alterations in nutrient
availability.
Defense mechanisms: Soil microbes contribute to the plant's defense
against pathogens through mechanisms such as induced systemic
resistance. Disruption of these microbial communities by antibiotics
could compromise the plant's ability to fend off diseases.

Secondary metabolite production: Soil microbes play a role in the

synthesis of secondary metabolites in plants, some of which are
involved in defense against herbivores and pathogens. Changes in
microbial communities due to antibiotics could impact the
production of these compounds.

Microbiome composition: Antibiotics can alter the composition of

the plant-associated microbiome, which can have cascading effects
on various aspects of plant physiology, including nutrient acquisition,
hormone signaling, and stress responses.

Overall, the impact of antibiotic uptake on plant physiology

underscores the interconnectedness between plants and soil
microbial communities, highlighting the importance of considering
these relationships in agricultural practices and environmental
management.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION AND EMERGING CHALLENGES

There is a worldwide consensus that the need for novel anti‐infective

drugs in healthcare is enormous and we are fast running out of time.
In 2021, only six of the thirty‐two antibiotics in clinical development
met the WHO list for priority infections and were categorized as
being novel. 15 Many modern medical advances, particularly in the
treatment of infectious diseases, are dependent on the availability of
effective antibiotics. Research showed that tetracycline (TC) and
oxytetracycline (OTC) were detected with a concentration of 61 mg/L
and 334.3 mg/L discharged through the effluent in wastewater
treatment plants of northern China, respectively. Zhi et al. reported
that the max value of total TCs would reach 21,930.43 μg/L in
wastewater in the Erhai Lake basin Yunnan, China. The vast majority
of research in the field of antibiotics is centered in academia. The
development of new and emerging technologies has aided in the
search for new agents and potent strategies. For example,
opportunities to investigate biological systems (i.e., metabolic
pathways, signaling, immunologic, regulatory pathways) beyond
their components are now available. These comprehensive
techniques provide novel research strategies for understanding the
functional molecular networks created by host‐pathogen interactions
in response to treatments. To combat drug resistance, these
strategies and technologies must be considered.

CONCLUSION

The current findings support the possibility that tetracycline damags

plant cells through genotoxicity.
In tetracycline stress, genotoxicity developed early and affected mito
tic activity.This suggests that cytogenetic dam age in living things cou
ld occur as a result of exposure to a tetracycline -
contaminated environment.The findings further imply that the T.
aestivum bioassay can be employed as reliable tetracycline toxicity, p
articularly genotoxicity, test. Antibiotic resistance remains an
internationally worrisome problem that requires urgent intervention.
The idea of antibiotic potentiation by molecules or approaches that
block key metabolic pathways is a viable alternative to the “one
compound, one target” model that has dominated antibiotic drug
development. Although employing this combinatorial technique to
build and improve antibiotics presents obstacles in terms of clinical
trials and regulatory hurdles. The development of agents with the
dual activity of inhibiting bacteria while also enhancing the immune
system appears to be a promising strategy. Furthermore, antibiotic‐
induced suppression of bacteria's downstream repair processes
could be the ultimate haymaker for tackling bacterial pathogens.
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