Temperature Sensor

A temperature sensor is a device that collects the data about temperature from a
particular source and converts the data into understandable form for a device or an
observer. Temperature sensors measure temperature readings through electrical
signals.
The sensors play a vital role in maintaining specific temperatures in a variety
of industries, including medical applications, HVAC systems, and the appliances in
our homes. Temperature sensors are critical to the accuracy and temperature control
of such industries.
Types of Temperature Sensors Used in Industrial Applications
Broadly speaking, there are two categories of temperature sensors—contact
and non-contact. As the terms imply, the temperature measurement in contact
temperature sensors is performed through physical contact with the object or
solution, while in the case of non-contact sensors, IR waves or sound waves are
used to measure the temperature, and hence, physical contact is not required.

Contact temperature sensors: Contact temperature sensors measure the hot or

cold level of an object or substance by direct contact. They are commonly used to
detect various temperatures in different solids, liquids or gases.

Non-contact temperature sensors : These thermometers never come into direct

contact with an object or substance, and therefore, they are widely used in
hazardous environments such as the power plant industry. They measure the heat or
coldness of something through the radiation emitted by the heat source.
Here are some types of contact-based temperature sensors:
 Thermistors, thermocouples, and RTDs are all examples of contact-based
temperature measurement.
 Thermocouples are voltage-based sensors. Voltage is generated when two
metals are placed adjacent to each other and there is a difference in temperature.
These simple and basic sensors can detect unusually high temperature
differences and can resist heat beyond 1500°C.
 Resistance temperature detectors, or RTDs, measure temperature based on the
way the resistance changes in different temperature environments.
 Integrated assemblies comprise silicone encapsulated sensors, which can have
integrated circuits or ICs. They provide voltage readings that can be directly read
on a display screen of a connected device, such as a microcontroller. These
sensors are widely used in consumer electronic devices.

Types of Temperature Sensors:

There are different types of temperature sensors that have sensing capacity
depending upon their range of application. Different types of temperature sensors
are as follows:
  Thermocouples  Semiconductors
 Resistor temperature detectors  Thermometers
 Thermistors  Thermostats
 Infrared sensors

Thermocouples
Thermocouple sensor is the most commonly used temperature sensor and it
is abbreviated as TC. This sensor is extremely rugged, low-cost, self-powered and
can be used for long distance. There are many types of temperature sensors that
have a wide range of applications.
A thermocouple is a voltage device that indicates temperature by measuring a
change in the voltage. It consists of two different metals: opened and closed. These
metals work on the principle of thermo-electric effect. When two dissimilar metals
produce a voltage, then a thermal difference exists between the two metals. When
the temperature goes up, the output voltage of the thermocouple also increases.
This thermocouple sensor is usually sealed inside a ceramic shield or a metal
that protects it from different environments. Some common types of thermocouples
include K, J, T, R, E, S, N, and B. The most common type of thermocouples is J, T
and K type thermocouples, which are available in pre-made forms.
The most important property of the thermocouple is nonlinearity – the output
voltage of the thermocouple is not linear with respect to temperature. Thus, to
convert an output voltage to a temperature, it requires mathematical linearization.
Thermocouples are one of the most common temperature sensors because of their
reliability, accuracy, sensitivity, simplicity and wide temperature operating range.

They have two wires that contain two different metals (e.g. copper and bronze),
which are connected at two different points to form a junction. One point is called the
“cold end” and is held at a specific temperature, and the other is called the “hot end”.
The temperature change is recorded by the voltage between the two wires.

Thermocouples may not be as accurate as resistance temperature detectors (RTDs);

however, they are more cost effective and have a wide temperature range (-200 °C –
1750 °C).

A thermocouple or simply “TC” is comprised of a couple of specific dissimilar wires

joined together, forming the “sensing point” or “junction”.
Based on physical characteristics called “Thermoelectric Effect”, when this junction is
placed at different temperatures, different millivolt signals are generated which can
be interpreted as an indication of the temperature.
In comparison with RTDs, Thermocouples are self-powered and require no external
excitation current source.
Thermocouples are commonly used for furnaces, Gas Turbine combustion chamber,
high-temperature exhaust ducts, etc.
The main restriction of Thermocouples is the “accuracy” which doesn’t make it the
best solution for precise applications.
Since the functionality of thermocouples is based on Thermoelectric Effect in
different types of conductors, when the location of a thermocouple is far from the
“measuring instrument” (e.g. electronic transmitter), the proper type of conductors
should be used for extension purpose. Otherwise, the tiny signal generated by
thermocouple will be added with some error at the point where thermocouple wires
are connected to the extension wire!

Resistor Temperature Detector (RTD): RTD sensor is one of the most accurate
sensors. In a resistor temperature detector, the resistance is proportional to the
temperature. This sensor is made from platinum, nickel, and copper metals. It has a
wide range of temperature measurement capabilities as it can be used to measure
temperature in the range between -270oC to +850oC. RTD requires an external
current source to function properly. However, the current produces heat in a resistive
element causing an error in the temperature measurements. The error is calculated
by this formula:

Delta T=P*S

Where, ‘T’ is temperature, ‘P’ is I squared power produced and ‘S’ is a degree C/mill
watt.
There are different types of techniques to measure temperature by using this
RTD. They are two wired, three-wired and four-wired method. In a two-wired method,
the current is forced through the RTD to measure the resulting voltage. This method
is very simple to connect and implement; and, the main drawback is – the lead
resistance is the part of the measurement which leads to erroneous measurement .
Three-wired method is similar to the two-wired method, but the third wire
compensates for the lead resistance. In a four-wired method, the current is forced on
one set of the wires and the voltage is sensed on the other set of wires. This four-
wired method completely compensates for the lead resistance.
silicon temperature sensors to avoid overheating.
thermo-resistive temperature measuring devices
 Resistance Temperature Detectors
 Thermistors
Principle of RTD
An RTD operates on a fundamental principle of when metal’s temperature rises, so
does its electrical resistance. The resistance element in the sensor is used to
measure the resistance of the current being passed through it when an electrical
current is being carried through it.
Construction of Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD
The wire is commonly coiled on a form (in a coil) on a notched mica cross frame to
achieve small size, improve thermal conductivity to shorten response time, and
achieve a high rate of heat transfer. A stainless steel sheath or a protective tube
encases the coil in industrial RTDs.
As a result, the minimal physical strain is caused by the wire’s expansion and
lengthening due to temperature changes. The tension rises if the pressure on the
wire does as well. This will cause the wire’s resistance to alter, which is not ideal.
Therefore, other than temperature variations, we do not wish to alter the resistance
of the wire.

Additionally, this is helpful for RTD maintenance while the plant is in use. Mica is
inserted between the resistance wire and steel sheath to improve electrical
insulation. Resistance wire requires less stress, thus it should be gently wound over
a mica sheet. An industrial resistance temperature detector’s structural view is
depicted in below figure.

The most popular metal for RTD elements is platinum for following reasons
1. Chemical inertness
2. Nearly linear temperature versus resistance relationship;
3. Temperature coefficient of resistance that is large enough to give easily
measurable resistance changes with temperature
4. Stability (in that its temperature resistance does not significantly change over
time).
RTD Applications
 In automobiles, RTD sensors are utilized as intake air temperature sensors,
oil level sensors, and engine temperature sensors.
 In instrumentation and communication for monitoring the temperature of
transistor gain amplifiers, etc.
 Medical research & Food service processing
 Petrochemical and plastic processing
 Air conditioning, Refrigeration & Furnace servicing
Benefits of RTD Sensor
 High repeatability
 High accuracy and consistency
 Capacity to provide accurate measurement even under harsh conditions.
 Long-term steadiness.
 Higher temperature ranges are suitable for platinum RTDs.
 Most reliable and consistent over time (when compared to thermocouples and
thermistors)
RTD Disadvantages
 Response time is high
 Cost is high

Thermistors : Another type of sensor is a thermistor temperature sensor, which is

relatively inexpensive, adaptable, and easy to use. It changes its resistance when
the temperature changes like RTD sensor. Thermistors are made from manganese
and oxides of nickel, which make them susceptible to damages. So, these materials
are called ceramic materials. This thermistor offers higher sensitivity than the resistor
temperature detectors. Most of the thermistors have a negative temperature
coefficient. It means, when the temperature increases the resistance decreases.
Thermistors or thermistors change their physical appearance when there is a change
in temperature. They consist of ceramic materials (nickel or manganese/cobalt
oxides plated on glass) that can easily damage them.

Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC). This means that
their resistance decreases as the temperature rises. However, some thermistors
have a positive temperature coefficient (PTC); as the temperature increases, the
resistance increases.

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistors

NTC thermistors are sensitive temperature sensors that respond to very small
temperature changes and provide high accuracy and great resistance even at low
temperatures.NTC thermistors have a temperature range of -50 °C to 250 °C. Once
the temperature starts to rise, the resistance drops rapidly. It is important to note that
NTC thermistors require linearization due to their high resistance and fast reflection.

Thermistors are temperature-dependent resistors and are widely used in industrial

purposes, such as: – Over-current protection, – Self-regulating heating elements, –
Inrush current limiters

Thermistors can be NTC or PTC.

In NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) thermistors, resistance decreases as
temperature rises. NTC’s are commonly used as inrush current limiters.
With PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) thermistors, resistance increases as
temperature increases. PTC thermistors are commonly used as overcurrent
protection and in resettable fuses.

Thermometers : A thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of

solids, liquids, or gases. The name thermometer is a combination of two words:
thermo – means heat, and meter means to measure. Thermometer contains a liquid,
which is mercury or alcohol in its glass tube. The volume of the thermometer is
linearly proportional to the temperature – when the temperature increases, the
volume of the thermometer also increases.

When the liquid is heated it expands inside the narrow tube of the thermometer. This
thermometer has a calibrated scale to indicate the temperature. The thermometer
has numbers marked alongside the glass tube to indicate the temperature when the
line of mercury is at that point. The temperature can be recorded in these scales:
Fahrenheit, Kelvin or Celsius. Therefore, it is always desirable to note for which
scale the thermometer is calibrated.
Semiconductor Sensors : Semiconductor sensors are the devices that come in the
form of ICs. Popularly, these sensors are known as an IC temperature sensor. They
are classified into different types: Current output temperature sensor, Voltage output
temperature sensor, Resistance output silicon temperature sensor, Diode
temperature sensors and Digital output temperature sensor. Present semiconductor
temperature sensors offer high linearity and high accuracy over an operating range
of about 55°C to +150°C. However, AD590 and LM35 temperature sensors are the
most popular temperature sensors.

Semiconductor-based Temperature Sensors :

Semiconductor-based temperature sensors (also called IC sensors) have a
dual integrated circuit (IC) that contains two similar diodes. The diodes and
temperature-sensitive voltage measure temperature. These sensors provide a
reasonably linear output; however, they are less accurate between 1 and 5 °C.

Semiconductor-based sensors are well suited for embedded applications, but

unlike other temperature sensors, they are not as robust electrically and
mechanically as thermocouples and RTDs.

Semiconductor Temperature Sensor” is based on the fact that the junction

voltage across a p-n combination of semiconductors, like a diode junction or “base-
emitter” junction of regular transistors, is a function of temperature.
This technology is vastly used in electronic devices and IC technologies.
Linear characteristic, small size, and low cost are advantages of this technology, but
it should be noted that the limited range of around -40°F to 248°F makes it suitable
for specific applications.
A semiconductor temperature sensor, also known as a solid-state
temperature sensor, is an electronic device integrated into integrated circuits (ICs)
capable of measuring temperatures accurately within a range of -55 °C to 150 °C. It
offers high performance, affordability, and ease of use, making them popular in
automation and microprocessor-based measurement devices.
Semiconductor temperature sensors, such as AD590 and LM35, are
manufactured on thin silicon wafers, enabling mass production and are widely
preferred for their reliable performance.
Working of a Semiconductor Temperature Sensor
The semiconductor temperature sensor operates by measuring the temperature-
dependent voltage drop across a forward-biased PN junction or the variation in
voltage across a diode junction.
The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands in
semiconductors changes with temperature, affecting the electrical conductivity.
When a diode is forward-biased, the voltage across the junction changes linearly
with temperature, allowing it to function as a temperature sensor.
Semiconductor temperature sensors do not require complex connection circuits and
can be implemented using diodes or transistors. By operating two identical
transistors at a different but constant collector current density, the difference in their
base-emitter voltages can be directly related to the absolute temperature. This
voltage difference is then converted to a single-ended current or voltage, often with
an offset to convert the signal to Fahrenheit or Celsius.

Comparison between Temperature Sensors

To wrap up this video, the comparison between different types of temperature
sensor technologies is a multi-facet task.
For example, if “accuracy” is considered as the key performance indicator, usually
RTD’s are better than Thermocouples; approximately 10 times more accurate.
From the “sensitivity” point of view, while both RTDs and Thermocouples respond
quickly to temperature changes, at similar costs, thermocouples are often faster.
If I have to measure electronic PCB and/or IC temperature, silicon-based types are
the best choices.
IR sensor: IR sensor is an electronic instrument which is used to sense certain
characteristics of its surroundings by either emitting or detecting IR radiation. These
sensors are non-contacting sensors. For example, if you hold an IR sensor in front of
your desk without establishing any contact, the sensor detects the temperature of the
desk based on the merit of its radiation. The physics behind infrared sensors is
governed by three laws:
Planck’s radiation law: Every object at a temperature T not equal to 0 K emits
radiation
Stephan Boltzmann Law: The total energy emitted at all wavelengths by a black
body is related to the absolute temperature
Wein’s Displacement Law: Objects of different temperature emit spectra that peak
at different wavelengths

These sensors are classified into two types such as thermal infrared sensors and
quantum infrared sensors.

All objects which have a temperature greater than absolute zero (0 Kelvin) possess
thermal energy and are sources of infrared radiation as a result.
Sources of infrared radiation include blackbody radiators, tungsten lamps, and silicon
carbide. Infrared sensors typically use infrared lasers and LEDs with specific infrared
wavelengths as sources.
Thermal IR Sensors

Thermal IR sensors, also referred to as heat sensors, operate by

detecting the thermal radiation emitted by objects. They are commonly used in
applications such as temperature sensing, presence detection, and security
systems.
Thermal IR sensors work on the principle of detecting changes in the
temperature of an object. When an object’s temperature changes, it emits infrared
radiation. The sensor detects this radiation and converts it into an electrical signal,
which can then be processed to determine the temperature or presence of an object.
 One of the commonly used technologies in thermal IR sensors is the
thermopile. A thermopile consists of multiple thermocouples connected in
series. Each thermocouple generates a voltage proportional to the temperature
difference between its two junctions. By combining the voltages from all the
thermocouples, the sensor can accurately measure the temperature or detect the
presence of an object.

Photoelectric IR Sensors

Photoelectric IR sensors, also known as reflective sensors, work based on

the principle of detecting the reflection of infrared light. These sensors are commonly
used in applications such as object detection, position sensing, and gesture
recognition.
Photoelectric IR sensors consist of an emitter and a receiver. The
emitter emits a beam of infrared light, which is then reflected back by the object
being detected. The receiver detects the reflected light and measures its
intensity. If the intensity of the reflected light exceeds a certain threshold, it
indicates the presence of an object.
The Key Applications of Infrared Technology
 Night Vision Devices
 Infrared Astronomy: Infrared astronomy is a field of astronomy that studies
astronomical objects that are visible in infrared radiation. By using telescopes
and solid-state detectors, astronomers are able to observe objects in the
universe which are impossible to detect using light in the visible range of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Infrared observatories have been set up in space
such as the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Herschel Space Observatory
have been set up in space. The observatories are not affected by the
absorption of infrared light by water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere.
Other key application areas that use infrared sensors include:

 Climatology  Water analysis

 Meteorology  Anesthesiology testing
 Photobiomodulation  Petroleum exploration
 Gas detectors  Rail safety

There are several types of IR sensors available, each with its own unique
features and applications. Let’s take a closer look at some of the most commonly
used types:
1. Proximity Sensors: These sensors are designed to detect the presence or
absence of an object within a certain range. They are commonly used in
automatic doors, mobile phones, and robotics.
2. Motion Sensors: Motion sensors use IR radiation to detect movement in
their surroundings. They are widely used in security systems, automatic
lighting, and gaming consoles.
3. Heat Sensors: Heat sensors, also known as thermal sensors, are used to
measure the temperature of an object or the surrounding environment. They
find applications in industrial processes, HVAC systems, and medical
devices.
4. Object Detection Sensors: These sensors are used to detect the presence
or absence of objects in their field of view. They are commonly used
in automated manufacturing, robotics, and traffic control systems.
 5. Obstacle Detection Sensors: Obstacle detection sensors are specifically
designed to detect obstacles in the path of a moving object. They are widely
used in autonomous vehicles, drones, and robotics.
6. Presence Sensors: Presence sensors are used to detect the presence of a
person or an object in a specific area. They are commonly used in security
systems, automatic doors, and occupancy detection.
7. Ambient Light Sensors: Ambient light sensors measure the intensity of
light in their surroundings. They are commonly used in smartphones, tablets,
and automatic brightness adjustment systems.
8. Temperature Sensors: Temperature sensors, as the name suggests, are
used to measure the temperature of an object or the surrounding
environment. They find applications in weather stations, industrial
processes, and medical devices.
9. Distance Sensors: Distance sensors, also known as range sensors, are
used to measure the distance between the sensor and an object. They are
commonly used in robotics, drones, and industrial automation.
10. Reflective Sensors: Reflective sensors use IR radiation to detect the
presence or absence of an object based on the reflection of the emitted
radiation. They are commonly used in proximity sensing, object detection,
and line following applications.
11. Non-contact Sensors: Non-contact sensors are designed to
measure various parameters without physically touching the object. They
are commonly used in medical devices, industrial automation, and scientific
research.
12. Photoelectric Sensors: Photoelectric sensors use light, including IR
radiation, to detect the presence or absence of an object. They are widely
used in packaging, material handling, and conveyor systems.
13. Position Sensors: Position sensors are used to measure the position or
displacement of an object. They find applications in robotics, automotive
systems, and industrial machinery.
14. Gesture Recognition Sensors: Gesture recognition sensors use IR
radiation to detect and interpret hand or body movements. They are
commonly used in gaming consoles, virtual reality systems, and smart home
devices.
15. Occupancy Sensors: Occupancy sensors are used to detect the presence
or absence of people in a specific area. They are commonly used in lighting
control systems, energy management, and security systems.
16. Security Sensors: Security sensors are designed to detect unauthorized
access or intrusions. They are widely used in alarm systems, access control
systems, and surveillance cameras.
17. Automation Sensors: Automation sensors are used to monitor and
control various processes in industrial automation. They find applications in
manufacturing, assembly lines, and robotics.
18. Industrial Sensors: Industrial sensors are specifically designed for use
in harsh environments and industrial applications. They are commonly used
in process control, machine monitoring, and predictive maintenance.

Thus, this is all about different types of temperature sensors. The cost of the
temperature sensor depends on the type of work it is intended for. However, the
accuracy of the sensor will decide the price. So, the cost depends on the accuracy of
the temperature sensor. Present temperature sensors intended at reducing the cost
as well as efficiency.
 Semiconductor Sensors IR sensor

Thermistors
Thermocouples

Temperature Sensor?

Thermostats: A thermostat is a contact temperature sensor consisting of a

bimetallic strip containing two different metals (aluminum, nickel, copper or
tungsten).

When exposed to heat, the difference in the linear coefficient of expansion of the two
metals produces a mechanical bending motion.

What applications use temperature sensors?

Temperature sensors are useful for a variety of industries that meet both commercial
and consumer needs. The following are the most common applications that use
temperature sensors.
Medical Applications
Temperature sensors are used to quickly and accurately measure a patient’s body
temperature. They are also used in MRI imaging machines and portable ultrasound
scanners.

Appliances in our homes : Temperature sensors are used in many appliances that
you may not know about. They are found in refrigerators to keep food and drinks
cold, in ovens used to cook food to a specific temperature, and in air
conditioners/wall heaters. They are also found in battery chargers to prevent
undercharging and overcharging of appliances.

Vehicles : Temperature sensors are located in the radiators of different vehicles.

These warn you if the engine is getting too hot, thus preventing the engine from
exceeding its temperature limits. They are also used in climate control settings,
allowing you to cool or heat the interior of your vehicle.

Oil Extraction : Temperature sensors are the foundation of safe and effective
practices in the oil extraction industry. Oil drilling rigs are equipped with built-in
temperature sensors that notify workers when they need to stop drilling.

HVAC Systems : HVAC systems require temperature sensors to provide the optimal
temperature for a specific room or building. They can also be used to detect leaks,
such as in air conditioning units.

Chemical Industry : The chemical industry uses high quality and effective
temperature sensors to measure the extremely high temperatures in chemical
reactions.

Renewable Energy : Renewable energy sources need to produce energy efficiently

to function; therefore, they rely on temperature sensors to regulate and measure
temperatures. Wind turbines, biomass combustion applications, solar heat pumps
and geothermal monitoring all require temperature sensors.
Integrated Circuits: Integrated circuits are found in the desktop computers, laptops,
cell phones and other electronic devices we use every day. They rely on integrated