Sensors, also known as transducers, are one of the fundamental

building blocks of modern data acquisition systems (AKA DAQ or

DAS systems). These systems are comprised of the following basic
components:
 Sensors
 Signal Conditioning (See What Is A Signal Conditioner?)
 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) (What is an ADC
Converter?) 
 And some sort of computer with DAQ software for signal
logging and analysis.

The sensor is usually the beginning of a measurement chain in the modern data
acquisition system

What Do the Sensors Do?

The easiest way to explain what a sensor is is to look at what a
sensor does.
A sensor is a device that detects the change in the
environment and responds to some output on the other
system. A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into a
measurable analog voltage (or sometimes a digital signal)
converted into a human-readable display or transmitted for
reading or further processing.
One of the best-known sensors is the microphone, which converts
sound energy to an electrical signal that can be amplified,
transmitted, recorded, and reproduced.
Sensors are used in our everyday lives. For example, the common
mercury thermometer is a very old type of sensor used for
measuring temperature. Using colored mercury in a closed tube, it
relies on the fact that this chemical has a consistent and linear
reaction to changes in temperature. 

By marking the tube with temperature values, we can look at the

thermometer and see what the temperature is. The precision is
somewhat limited due to the visual size of the scale markings, but it
is sufficient for its intended purpose.

Of course, there is no output (other than the visual one). This kind
of thermometer, while useful in the oven, or outside the kitchen
window, is not particularly useful for data acquisition applications
because, in order to record the values from it, we must have an
output that can be digitized. So, temperature sensors have been
invented to measure temperature and other physical phenomena
and to provide an output that we can display, store, and analyze. 

Let’s learn more about the most common and popular sensors in
use today.

Types of Sensors
 There are many types of sensors
Image source: Electronics Hub - link
There are many types of sensors that have been invented to
measure physical phenomenon:

 Thermocouples, RTDs and Thermistors: for measuring

temperature
 Strain gages: to measure strain on an object, e.g. pressure,
tension, weight, etc.,
 Load cells: for measuring weight and load
 LVDT sensors: LVDTs are used to measure displacement in
distance
 Accelerometers: measuring vibration and shock
 Microphones: for capturing sound waves
 Current transducers: for measuring AC or DC current
 Voltage transformers: for measuring high voltage potentials
 Optical sensors: used to detect light, transmit data, and
replace conventional sensors
 Camera sensors: used to capture single and continuous 2D
images
 Digital sensors: used for discrete on/off counting, linear and
rotary encoding, position measurements, etc.
 Positioning sensors (GPS): used to capture the longitudinal,
latitudinal position based on GPS, GLONASS, and other
 satellite positioning systems. Different GPS sensors with
different accuracy are available.
 and countless more.
Depending on the type of sensor, its electrical output can be a
voltage, current, resistance, or another electrical attribute that
varies over time. Some sensors are available with digital outputs,
whereby they output a series of bytes of scaled or unscaled data.
The output of these analog sensors is typically connected to the
input of a signal conditioner, which we will discuss in the next
section.

Next, we will take a brief look at each of the major sensor types in
use today.

Check out Dewesoft's data acquisition systems that can connect

any type and any number of sensors to record, store, analyze,
and visualize data.

Temperature Sensors
The most common and popular sensors for temperature
measurement include:

 thermocouples,
  thermistors, 
 RTDs,
 and even infra-red temperature detectors.

Different types of temperature sensors. From left to right: thermocouple, thermistors,

and RTD.
Millions of these sensors are at work every day in all manner of
applications, from the engine temperature shown on our automobile
dashboard, to the temperatures measured in pharmaceutical
manufacturing. Virtually every industry utilizes temperature
measurement in some way.

Sensor type Thermistor RTD Thermocouple

Temperature Range (typical) -100 to 325°C -200 to 650°C 200 to 1750°C

Accuracy (typical) 0.05 to 1.5°C 0.1 to 1°C 0.5 to 5°C

Long-term stability @ 100°C 0.2°C/year 0.05°C/year Variable

Linearity Exponential Fairly linear Non-linear

Power required Constant voltage or current Constant voltage or current Self-powered

Response time Fast Generally slow Fast

0.12 to 10s 1 to 50s 0.10 to 10s

Susceptibility to electrical noise Rarely susceptible Rarely susceptible Susceptible / Cold junction
High resistance only compensation

Cost Low to moderate High Low

Main Characteristics of Different Temperature Sensors

Thermocouples
The thermocouple is the most popular temperature sensor overall
due to its relatively low cost and reliability. Thermocouples are
based on the Seebeck effect, which demonstrates that when a pair
of dissimilar metals in contact with each other at each end are
subjected to changes in temperature, they create a small voltage
potential.
Pairing different kinds of metals give us a variety of measuring
ranges. These are called “types.” A very popular one is Type K,
which pairs chromel and alumel, resulting in a wide measuring
range of −200 °C to +1350 °C (−330 °F to +2460 °F). Other popular
types are J, T, E, R, S, B, N and C.

Thermocouple types J, K, T, and E are also known as Base Metal

Thermocouples. Types R, S, and B thermocouples are known
as Noble Metal Thermocouples, which are used in high-
temperature applications
The output from a thermocouple must be linearized by the
measuring system.

It must also be referenced using the Cold Junction Compensation

(CJC). The “hot junction” is the measuring end of the thermocouple
assembly, and the other end is the cold junction, where the
reference is typically located. Cold Junction Compensation removes
the effect of the voltages generated by these cold junctions for more
accurate temperature measurement.
Thermocouple Challenges
Due to the very small microvolt and millivolt output of these
sensors, electrical noise and interference can occur when the
measuring system is not isolated. Dewesoft modules tackle this
head-on with powerful isolation. There is no better way to reject
common-mode voltages that get into the signal chain.

Another way to reduce noise is to place the measuring system as

close to the sensor as possible. Avoiding long signal lines is a
proven strategy for maximizing signal fidelity and reducing costs.
Look at our SIRIUS and KRYPTON modular instruments for best-in-
breed solutions here.
An inadequate CJC results in wrong readings. This assembly needs
to be protected from ambient temperature changes to provide a
solid reference. We use a separate CJC chip for each channel in
our CJCs, which are milled from a solid block of aluminum, and
precisely assembled to achieve the best possible reference.
Learn more about Dewesoft and thermocouple temperature
measurement:
Measuring Temperature With Thermocouple Sensors
Dewesoft PRO Training > Temperature Measurement
RTD Sensors
Compared to the thermocouple, the RTD (Resistance Temperature
Detector) is generally more linear and drift-free within its measuring
range. However, due to their platinum content and more complex
construction, they are more expensive than thermocouples. 
You will typically find RTDs used in applications such as
pharmaceuticals, where precise temperature measurements must
be made over a long time. They don’t range much above 600° C,
however, so thermocouples are a better choice for high temperature
“contact” applications.

Unlike the thermocouple which is self-powered, the RTD must be

powered by the measuring system. 

The RTD measures temperature via electrical resistance which

changes in a highly linear fashion with respect to temperature.
Although at its core an RTD is a 2-wire sensor, the addition of one
or even two more wires (3 and 4-wire hookup) provides better
compensation against self-heating and lead wire resistance and is
recommended. Dewesoft signal conditioners provide 2, 3, and 4
wire hook-up possibilities.

Types of RTD Sensors

Pt100 (“PT” = platinum and “100” = 100Ω at 0°C) and Pt1000 are
the most popular variants of the RTD sensors. There are, however,
also other types such as Pt200, Pt500, and
Pt2000 sensors. Dewesoft data acquisition systems support the
connection and measurement of all types of RTD sensors.
As mentioned, RTD hook-up is more complex than a thermocouple,
however, Dewesoft DSI-RTD adapters make it easy and convenient
to connect your sensors to our measuring systems. Noise is always
a consideration for any sensor with small output, but our high
isolation inputs are the best prevention imaginable.
Another way to reduce noise is to place the measuring system as
close to the sensor as possible. Avoiding long signal lines is a
 proven strategy for maximizing signal fidelity and reducing costs.
Look at our SIRIUS and KRYPTON modular DAQ systems for best-
in-breed solutions here.
Thermistors
  Pros Cons Best Application

Thermocoupl  Wide measuring  Non-Linear  Thousands of applications in

e range factory, process and industrial
 CJC Reference Required
 Self-powered temperature monitoring
 Not inherently isolated
 Simple to hook  Automotive environmental testing
up  Internal combustion and hybrid
 Rugged engine testing

 Inexpensive  Electrical motor and turbine testing

 Medical, healthcare monitoring
 Aerospace engine and control
systems testing

RTD  Most Stable  Expensive  Pharmaceuticals, drug

 Most Accurate  Current source required manufacturing

 More Linear  Small ∆R  Food processing

than  Low absolute resistance  Precise scientific measurements
thermocouple
 Self-heating
 Lead resistance error
 Response time
 Vibration resistance
 Size

Thermistor  High output  Output must be  Electrical circuit monitoring

level converted from change  Automotive engine applications
 Fast response in resistance to a
temperature reading  Consumer electronics
 Easy installation  Fire alarms
 Limited range to ~
 Very 200°C  Thermostat control
inexpensive
 Fragile

A thermistor is a piece of semiconductor made of metal oxides that are

pressed into a small
bead, disk, wafer, or other shape and sintered at high temperatures.
Lastly, they are coated with epoxy or glass.
When a current is passed through a thermistor, you can then read
the voltage across the thermistor and determine its temperature. A
typical thermistor has a resistance of 2000 Ω at 25ºC. 3.9 percent
temperature coefficient.
Thermistors are inexpensive and have a fast response, but they are
not linear, have a limited range, are relatively fragile unless
mounted inside a probe for protection.

Pros and Cons of Different Temperature Sensors

Learn more about temperature measurement:
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Temperature Measurement

Strain Gage Sensors

When a strain gage (aka “strain gauge”) sensor is properly aligned
and glued onto an object under test, and we apply stress to the
object by bending or twisting it, the resistance of the strain gage will
change linearly, and we can then measure it. We can also apply
mathematics to calculate strain and other forces.
 Typical single foil strain gage sensor
Image source: courtesy of Cristian V. [CC BY 4.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0)]
Strain Gage Applications
 Strain and stress measurements
 Weight and load measurements
 Force measurement
 Shock and vibration measurements
Strain Gage Advantages
 Sensors themselves are inexpensive
 Equally good at static and dynamic measurements
 Useful across a broad range of applications
Strain Gage Disadvantages
 Installation requires specialized knowledge
 Signal conditioning required is relatively complex
 Temperature can affect measurements
Learn more about the strain gages and strain measurement:
How to Measure Strain and Pressure With Strain Gage Sensors
How to Measure Weight using Load Cell Sensors
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Strain Measurement

Load Cell Sensors

If we take another step and permanently affix four strain gage
sensors to a body of a given shape, we create a different sensor
called a Load Cell. This is essentially a force or pressure sensor.

The most well-known load cells are the ones installed at the bottom
of your digital bathroom scale. When you step onto the scale and
compress the load cells, they output a change in resistance, which
a microcontroller measures and converts into a value in kg (lbs).

A “bar” or “bending beam” (aka “binocular beam”) load cell is

commonly used for industrial weighing applications. One end of the
bar is fixed to a structure, while a force is applied to the free end of
the sensor (see F in the graphic below). 

This force causes the four strain gauges that are built into top and
bottom and each end of the load cell to elongate or compress
depending on how much application or removal of the force
stresses the load cell structure. These tiny changes in potential
from the strain gages are easily converted to weight within our DAQ
system.
 Typical Bending Beam Load Cell
Daraceleste [CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)]
Load cells are available in many shapes and sizes: some for very
tiny spaces and small loads, and others for huge loads of hundreds
of thousands of tons, etc. 

Load Cell Applications

 Materials testing - weighing parts as they are manufactured
for consistency
 Aerospace - jet engine thrust, load on wheels and
undercarriages
 Marine - mooring line tensions
 Transportation - torque measurements on engines, highway
truck weigh stations
 Industrial -  tension and force measurements in paper and
metals mills
 Medical / Healthcare - Infant incubator scales, physical
therapy equipment.
 Construction - Cable forces in elevators, forces on
scaffolding 
 Entertainment - cable tension tests on cables used to hoist
acrobats
  Petrochemical - measuring the forces on oil and gas drilling
tools
 Farming and Ranching - weighing livestock, hopper, tankard
and silo weighing
 Household / Consumer - digital bathroom scales, kitchen
food scales
Load Cell Advantages
 Accurate and repeatable measurements
 Available from very small loads to hundreds of thousands of
kg/pounds
 Available in a variety of shapes and sizes for numerous
applications
Load Cell Disadvantages
 Measurements can be affected by ambient temperature
 Require relatively expensive strain gage signal conditioning
Learn more about load cells and weight measurement:
How to Measure Weight using Load Cell Sensors

LVDT Sensors
LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) transducers are used
to measure linear displacement/position over relatively short
distances. They consist of a tube that contains a rod. The base of
the tube is mounted to a fixed position, and the end of the rod is
affixed to something that moves.
 Cross-section of a typical LVDT sensor
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
As the rod is pulled out from the tube or slides back in, the sensor
outputs a signal that represents the position of the rod from its
starting point to its maximum deflection. The rod does not touch the
inside of the tube, making it virtually frictionless, and the LVDT itself
contains no electronics, making it popular in harsh environments.

LVDT Applications
 Thousands of Industrial, factory and process measurement
applications
 Aerospace - actuator and control surface test
 Transportation - monitoring ride height between truck and
train body
  Petrochemical - positioning of drilling tools
LVDT Pros
 Highly accurate and repeatable measurements
 Long lifespan due to virtually frictionless operation
 Available from very micrometers to ~ 0.7 m (27 in.)
 Absolute output (after power restoration the reading returns to
correct value)
 Available in a variety of types and sizes for different
applications
LVDT Cons
 Measurements can be affected by ambient temperature
 Require AC excitation 

Vibration Sensors - Accelerometers

Accelerometers are used for measuring vibration and shock on
machines and basically anything that moves. Their outputs can also
be integrated and double-integrated to calculate displacement and
velocity.

Accelerometers for making dynamic measurements are normally

based on the piezoelectric principle: when a  quartz crystal is put
under stress it releases a stream of charged ions proportional to the
stress. These charge sensors are connected to a charge type signal
conditioner. An even more popular type is IEPE (aka ICP®)
sensors, which have an integrated preamplifier, and which require a
less expensive signal conditioner. 
 Two accelerometers and modal hammer connected to Dewesoft DAQ system 
There are also capacitive type accelerometers that are based on a
different principle, and which are popular in less demanding
industrial applications.

Additionally, there are MEMS-based accelerometers that are

heavily used in navigation applications, tablet, and phone
orientation, automotive testing, and motion capture.

Accelerometer Applications
 Shock and vibration tests of all kinds, across all industries
 Aerospace - fuselage strain and stress tests, jet and rocket
engine vibration test
  Transportation - Recording shock and vibration during
transporting fragile items
 Automotive - body panel shock and vibration, passenger
comfort tests, engine vibration
 Human body vibration tests
 Torsional and rotational vibration tests
Accelerometer Advantages
 Easy connection
 Models available for dynamic and dynamic and static
measurements
 Available in a variety of types and sizes for different
applications
 Charge sensors require no external power
 IEPE sensors allow longer cable and less expensive cables
and signal conditioning
Accelerometer Disadvantages
 Sensors can be damaged by too much shock
 Charge sensors require signal conditioning that is more
expensive than IEPE sensor signal conditioning
 Mounting of sensors requires some specialized knowledge
Learn more about the vibration measurement:
Measuring Shock and Vibration With Accelerometer Sensors
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Vibration Measurement

Sound Sensors - Microphones

In addition to being used in the entertainment industry, microphones
are also manufactured to be used in data acquisition applications
for analyzing and measuring sound and noise. 
 Typical sound measuring microphone
Image courtesy of GRAS Instruments
Microphones are used in noise and vibration studies, human
hearing studies, automotive pass-by noise applications, and
thousands more. 

Microphone Applications
 Noise and vibration tests of all kinds, across all industries
 Aerospace - Jet engine noise testing
 Transportation - Recording shock and vibration during
transporting fragile items
 Automotive - engine noise, pass-by noise test, brake noise
tests
 Medical - ambient noise impact studies, hearing testing
Microphone Advantages
 Easy connection - readily available 50Ω BNC cables are used
 Available in a variety of types for different applications
 Easy to install
Microphone Disadvantages
 Relatively expensive sensor
 Can be damaged if dropped or mishandled
 Some mics require phantom power from the signal conditioner
Learn more about sound measurement and analysis:
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Sound Level Measurement
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Sound Power Measurement
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Sound Pressure Measurement

Current Transducers
Along with voltage, a current is one of the most fundamental forms
of energy that we measure for monitoring and analytical purposes.
Whether it’s testing the quality of the energy of the power grid, or
the energy consumption of a hybrid electric automobile, or a
machine, power is critically important.

For small to medium levels of current, we can use current shunts to

convert current to voltage. A shunt is basically a resistor that is
installed directly into the circuit where we want to measure the
current.
Most of the other kinds of current sensors and transducers on the
market operate via induction or a related method whereby they are
NOT part of the circuit. This allows much higher currents to be
measured. Shown below, a typical current clamp - a device that
detects the electromagnetic field created by a current and
measures it. The sensor output is a proportional voltage that
our DAQ system can display, store, and later analyze.
There are flexible Rogowsky coils that are easy to install even in
places where it is difficult to reach, or when disconnecting the circuit
is undesirable. There are also zero flux and fluxgate current
sensors for high accuracy applications, especially those in power
quality and related fields. There is a broad range of current sensors
and transducers, specifically engineered for all kinds of
applications.
 Current clamps from Dewesoft
Current Transducer Applications
 Energy Production and Distribution tests of all kinds, power
quality tests, fossil fuel, and nuclear power plant monitoring
 Aerospace - engine and power system testing
 Automotive - electrical system test, hybrid, and electric motor
tests
 Transportation - electric subway cars, third rail and
pantograph tests, electrical energy distribution centers
Current Transducer Advantages
 Clamp models easy to attach to AC cables
 FLEX Rogowski models easy to connect around hard-to-reach
places
 Passive and powered clamps for AC applications
 Long-life operation
Current Transducer Disadvantages
 Relatively expensive sensor
 DC clamps, Rogowsky and Flux sensors require external
power
Learn more about current measurement and analysis:
How To Measure Current Using Current Sensors and Transducers
Dewesoft PRO Training > Current Measurement
Dewesoft PRO Training > Voltage Measurement
Voltage Transformers - Potential
Transformers
Along with current, voltage is one of the most fundamental forms of
energy that we measure for monitoring and analytical purposes.
Whether it’s testing the quality of the energy of the power grid, or
the energy consumption of a hybrid electric automobile, or a
machine, power is critically important.

Nearly every DAQ system and data logger in the world can directly
accept low and medium voltages in the ranges of 0-10V or 0-50V,
so we do not need any transducer to reduce this voltage. From 50V
to approximately 1000V there are signal conditioners available for
DAQ systems such as the SIRIUS-HV module, which can directly
and safely accept these voltages and internally step them down so
that they can be digitized, displayed and stored.
But at higher voltages, or in any case, when life-threatening
currents and voltages are present, it is essential to use a high
voltage transformer to step down the high voltage and isolate the
human test operator from dangerous voltage and current. Such a
device is called either a Voltage Transformer (VT) or a Potential
Transformer (PT).

Typical Potential Transformer

The typical PT uses a transformer to step down a very high
potential - even higher than 10kV - down to a safe level. It can be
placed in series with or across the circuit being monitored. The
transformer’s primary winding has a large number of turns
compared to the secondary. 

Because the DAQ system connected typically has a very high

impedance, a very little current will flow, therefore the PT’s
secondary winding experiences almost no load at all. Most PTs
output between 50 and 200V, which nearly every DAQ system can
accept.

PTs are available for outdoor usage and those designed for indoor
usage. There are also those designed for electrical metering
applications. There is also an alternative to the pure transformer
type which uses a bank of capacitors after an intermediate
transformer to further step down the voltage. These can be less
costly because the relatively low step-down ratio intermediate
transformer is less expensive than the conventional wound
transformer with a high step-down ratio. 

A third variant is the optical VT. Optical VTs are usually found in
power substations, and not often in DAQ applications. Since they
operate on the principle of the Faraday effect, whereby the
polarization of light is affected directly by a magnetic field, they are
inherently isolated. They are also extremely accurate.

Outdoor 36 and 200 kV outdoor voltage transformer

Photo courtesy of ABB https://bit.ly/2uO97xa 
Voltage Transformers Applications
 Energy Production and Distribution high voltage power line
testing, synchronizing generators with the main power grid, 
 Aerospace - engine and power system testing
 Automotive - electrical system test, hybrid, and electric motor
tests
 Transportation - electric subway cars, third rail and
pantograph tests, electrical energy distribution centers
Voltage Transformers Advantages
  They provide essential safety to the test engineer and
technician
 Easy to use
 Most models do not require external power
 Long-life operation
Voltage Transformers Disadvantages
 Can be expensive
Learn more about voltage measurement and analysis:
Voltage Measurement in Data Acquisition Applications
Dewesoft PRO Training > Voltage Measurement
Dewesoft PRO Training > Current Measurement

Optical Sensors
There are several applications for optics within the sensor market
today:

 Sensing light, IR and UV

 Detecting Object Distance, Absence/Presence
 Replacement of Conventional Sensors
Sensing Light, IR, and UV
There are countless applications for detecting or measuring how
much ambient light is around the sensor. The most obvious
examples include automatic switches for turning off or on lights: this
requires a photodetector.

Even our mobile phones have a light sensor so that they can
automatically adjust screen brightness. Most cars today turn on
their headlamps automatically when daylight ends, and even turn
on/off high-beams at night when an approaching vehicle is
detected. Automatic cameras measure the ambient light in order to
set the exposure correctly.
The main technologies used for the applications listed above (and
more) include photovoltaics, photocells aka photoresistors. They
are designed to detect and measure light

And although most of these sensors are designed for the human
visible spectrum, some are designed to work within the infrared (IR)
spectrum and even the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum. The IR spectrum
is what many robotic systems use, as well as our television remote
controls at home. IR radiation cannot be seen by the human eye,
but it can be damaging to our eyes in high doses, so detecting it is
important for safety purposes among many other applications.

Typical photocell
By Levan jgarkava - own work, Public
Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7726138 
A photocell, also called a photoresistor or LDR (light dependent
resistor) can detect the presence and amount of light because of its
output changes in proportion with how much light falls on the cell,
which has a pattern on it usually made from cadmium sulfide. When
no light shines on the cell, its resistance is extremely high. But
when light hits the cell its resistance drops in proportion with the
amount of light.
Paired with the appropriate signal conditioning, it can be used as an
on/off sensor, or to measure the intensity of light. Based on the
chemistry of the cell, these small and inexpensive cells can detect
all the way into the infrared spectrum.

Detecting Object Distance, Absence/Presence

Photodetectors aka proximity sensors, as well as their
semiconductor-based cousin, the photodiode, are used to measure
the distance to or between objects, and also to sense either the
presence or absence of an object.
These are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, including
factory process lines, making sure that objects are spaced properly
on a belt, or to detect when a new object is in position on an
assembly belt. They are also used in automotive applications,
detecting the presence of another car or object, as well as alarm
systems, and CD and DVD drives.
 Typical photodetector from a CD drive
Jacopo Werther / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)
Replacement of Conventional Sensors
The next level is to use optics to do the sensing itself, both
augmenting and replacing conventional technology sensors like
strain gauges, accelerometers, temperature sensors, and more.
More about this new trend will be added to this article in the near
future, so please check back.

Fiber Optic Transmission

In addition to sensor performance, another advantage is the fiber
optic transmission of the sensor data itself compared to using
copper cables.

 
 Fiber Optic cable construction
Photo source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Fiber-optic-
construction.png
Today, fiber optics are being used instead of electrical transmission
to send signals from one point to another. We see this even in our
own homes, where fiber is used to bring television and the internet
to our homes at transmission speeds that are higher than
conventional cable. Fiber optical transmission also provides several
distinct advantages over electrical transmission, including:

 Immune to magnetic interference

 Immune to resistance and heating
 Very long signal transmission path without signal loss
 Multiple signal wires can be reduced to a single thin cable
 Very high bandwidth
Optical Sensor Applications
 Turning on/off lights automatically, alarm systems
 Factory process applications, assembly lines, conveyor
systems
 Robotics, movement direction, and detection
 Smoke detectors
 Medical sample analysis
 Laser range finders, night vision goggles
 Automatic door openers
Optical Sensor Pros
 Fiber Optic transmission is a very high speed and not
susceptible to interference from electromagnetic interference
and other external forces
  Optical sensors are non-contact and thus long-lived
 Most optical sensors are inexpensive and quite small
Optical Sensor Cons
 Photocells (aka photoresistors) are relatively slow to react to
light changes

Camera Sensors
We think of cameras as something only used to take pictures or
movies, but they are heavily used in all kinds of industrial and
scientific applications as well. Factories use single and continuous
image sensor cameras (aka video cameras) to monitor and control
a wide variety of fabrication and assembly line processes.

Industrial high-speed DS-CAM video camera from Dewesoft

Cameras are also an important part of DAQ system measurement
applications. In fact, all of the DAQ systems made by Dewesoft can
utilize one or more video cameras and record video in sync with the
analog and digital data that they’re recording.
Datafile recorded with the Dewesoft DAQ system showing analog and digital data
synchronized with the video
Professional vs. Consumer Cameras
On one end of the capabilities spectrum, it is possible to use a very
inexpensive web camera to add a video to your recordings in some
DAQ systems. But on the other end are industrial grade cameras
with better lenses and the ability to synchronize the framerate of the
camera to the process being recorded and/or with the data
acquisition sample rate. 

For example, the DS-CAM-600 shown here can output up to 336

frames per second at full HD resolution, and up to 600 frames per
second if the size of the image is reduced. The camera is also
sealed to IP 67 so that it can be used in wet, dusty, and harsh
environments. Within Dewesoft DAQ systems, multiple cameras
can be used at the same time, providing different viewing angles of
the object(s) under test. 
When Dewesoft added the common webcam to its DAQ systems in
the early 2000s, it completely revolutionized the DAQ market. The
next logical step was using industrial cameras whose frame rates
could be precisely controlled, and which offered better resolution
and speed. 

Mechanical mounting and rugged construction are also critical with

any sensor, and this has been designed into today’s best industrial
machine vision cameras.

Infrared or Thermal Cameras

Infrared cameras are also sometimes used in scientific and
industrial applications and are another important sensor for DAQ
applications. Infrared cameras can “see” the temperatures within its
field of view, so it’s the perfect way to measure temperature without
making any contact.

Data file export from the Dewesoft X using synchronized analog data, IR and
standard cameras
Infrared is extremely useful in troubleshooting in power plants
because power supplies and generators that are hotter than normal
indicate a problem. With one look using an IR camera is it easy to
see trouble spots.

The same is true with automotive brake testing, where IR cameras

make it possible to measure the precise temperature of the brakes
in operation and measure accurately how fast they heat up and cool
down under a variety of conditions. They are being used more and
more in ADAS (advanced driver assistance systems), as they allow
the car to detect people and other sources of thermal energy before
they come into view, especially at night.

Being able to “see” in a completely different spectrum opens up

many possibilities in virtually every test and measurement
application today. The best-known maker of IR cameras is FLIR,
and Dewesoft has integrated many of their cameras seamlessly into
their DAQ systems so that continuous thermographic data can be
acquired in sync with the analog and digital sensor data, as shown
in the example above.
High-speed Cameras
High-speed cameras are useful for capturing extremely fast-
changing events. You’ve probably seen slow-motion replays of a
balloon popping, or a bullet impacting glass of water - those videos
were captured with high-speed video cameras. 
 An assortment of high-speed video cameras from Photron
High-speed cameras from Photron capture up to 500,000 pictures
per second. This data is captured to RAM and then is immediately
available for replay. It is possible to synchronize Dewesoft DAQ
systems with Photron cameras so that they are both triggered at the
same time, and when the test is over, the high-speed video is
immediately transferred to the Dewesoft DAQ system and
automatically synchronized with the other data. You can replay it in
perfect sync with all the data from other sensors.
Video from a fuse switch test using Dewesoft DAQ equipment and software
Summary
Cameras provide a unique context to the data that engineers
record, adding a vital layer of information and understanding to
countless research and testing applications.

Camera Sensor Applications

  Industrial cameras:  Factory automation and process
control; automotive pass-by noise tests, wind tunnel tests,
brake tests; aerospace control surface tests, escape slide
tests, engine tests
 InfraRed cameras: energy and power tests, automotive
ADAS (advanced driver assistance systems)
 High-speed cameras: Ballistics testing; fluid dynamics
research; materials testing; automotive crash testing;
aerospace wind tunnel testing
Camera Sensor Advantages
 Industrial cameras:  IP67 environmental protection;
synchronized output; frame rates up to 600 fps; direct
comparison of sensor data with images of the object(s) under
test; exchangeable lenses
 InfraRed cameras: Contactless temperature measurement;
direct comparison of sensor data with thermal imagery in real-
time
 High-speed cameras: Capturing rates up to 500,000 frames
per second
Camera Sensor Disadvantages
 Industrial cameras: More expensive than webcams 
 InfraRed cameras: Expensive; IR cannot “see” through glass
 High-speed cameras: Very expensive; short recording
duration due to high sample rates; require either a lot of
ambient light on the subject or a DC light

Digital Sensors
When we talk about digital sensors, we refer to those sensors that
output discrete values, usually related to the linear or angular
position, as well as those sensors that are used to detect when an
object is nearby. Let’s take a look at the most commonly used
digital sensors.

Proximity Sensors
A proximity sensor is able to detect a nearby object without making
contact with it, and then output a pulse or voltage signal. There are
several types of proximity sensors, which are chosen based on the
composition of the object(s) that should be detected. 

Typical proximity sensor

Rotary Encoders
A rotary encoder typically provides excellent angle resolution, as
they are available with up to thousands of steps per 360° revolution,
which allows for steps far smaller than 1°. Many encoders can also
detect the direction of rotation, which is essential in some
applications.

Typical Rotary Encoder

Incremental Encoders
Incremental encoders report relative changes in position and
direction - they do not track absolute position (angle). 
Incremental encoders output A and B signals, which indicate
changes in movement and direction. Some of them are capable of
being “homed” or referenced to a particular position. When this
position is reached an additional Z output signal is generated.
Incremental encoders are the most common and popular types of
encoders.

Linear Encoders
A linear encoder measures position along a linear path. Unlike a
rotary encoder which has a circular plate inside that allows it to
measure shaft position, most linear encoders move along an
external scale and determine their position from markings on the
scale.

Linear Encoder
Image courtesy of Heidenhain
A perfect example is an inkjet printer, which uses a linear encoder
to precisely move the printhead back and forth along a scale during
printing. High resolution and accuracy are obviously required in this
and countless other applications.

The most prevalent sensing technology used with linear encoders is

optical, however, there are encoders that also employ magnetic,
capacitive and inductive technology. Optical encoders provide the
most accuracy and the highest possible resolution, however, care
must be taken to prevent contaminants from interfering with their
operation.
There are both analog and digital output linear encoders. Dewesoft
systems are better suited to digital outputs since they provide A and
B outputs very similar to incremental rotary encoders as described
in the previous section.

Gear Tooth Sensors

This angle-based sensor consists of gear with teeth around its
circumference plus a proximity sensor of some kind positioned so
that when the teeth pass by, they will be detected. This proximity
sensor is typically a Hall Effect type, but others are possible. The
gear needs to be mounted onto the rotating shaft that we want to
monitor.

Gear tooth with proximity sensor

The Hall effect proximity sensor detects the variation in flux found in
the air gap between a magnet and passing ferrous gear teeth. In
modern systems, the signal is converted into a binary square wave
that is immune to orientation requirements and can follow the gear
speed down to a full stop … and detect the first gear tooth that
passes immediately upon power on.

Most Hall Effect sensors can detect not only gear teeth passing by,
but can also be used to detect holes in disks and plates, ferrous
features (e.g., bolts) added to a wide variety of disks and plates,
notches in drive shafts and camshafts.

Digital Sensor Applications

 Proximity sensors: Counting RPM of rotating shaft
(tachometer applications); Counting parts passing through
production line; Intersection vehicle detection (buried in the
road)
 Rotary encoders: Speed measurement of motors, conveyors,
filling systems, pick and place systems; machine speed,
position and distance measurements (textiles, pulp & paper,
metals manufacturing)
 Linear encoders: CNC machines; Inkjet printers; laser
scanners; pick-and-place manufacturing systems; robotics
 Gear Tooth Sensors: Measuring RPM of rotating shafts;
engine combustion analysis; torsional and rotational vibration
studies
Digital Sensor Advantages
 Proximity sensors: Very reliable; low cost; capacitive types
can also be used to measure thickness; inductive types are
not affected by water, mud, etc.
 Rotary encoders: High speed/low latency; high resolution;
highly reliable and accurate
 Linear encoders: Same as with rotary encoders
 Gear Tooth sensors: Typically very rugged and hard to
break; very low initial and operating cost
Digital Sensor Disadvantages
 Proximity sensors: Limited detection distances (~70mm);
require external power
 Rotary encoders: RF and EM interference possible with
magnetic encoders; light interference possible with optical
encoders
 Linear encoders: Same as with rotary encoders
 Gear Tooth sensors: Limited detection distances; limited
angle resolution compared to encoders, which can provide
hundreds or thousands of steps around the 360° rotation of a
shaft.
Learn more about digital counters, encoders:
 How To Measure RPM, Angle, and Speed Using Digital, Counter
and Encoder Sensors
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Digital Counters
Dewesoft PRO Training -> Angle Measurement

Summary
We hope that you gained a better understanding of what sensors
are, how they work, and how they can be applied across a truly
mind-boggling range of monitoring and testing applications. Sensor
technology is always moving forward, making these sensors better
and better, and finding even more efficient ways of making accurate
and repeatable measurements. Sensor-based technology itself is
constantly evolving. 

Admittedly this article has only scratched the surface. There are
many more sensors available today, including ultrasonic sensors
that use reflected ultrasonic waves to measure distance, chemical
sensors for detecting gases and vapors, and so many more. 

Detailed Information About Various Sensors

Sensor Type Article Link

Strain Gages Measuring Strain and Pressure with Strain Gages

Load Cells Measuring Weight with Load Cells

Accelerometers Measuring Shock and Vibration with Accelerometers

Thermocouples Measuring Temperature with Thermocouple Sensors

RTDs **COMING SOON** Measuring Temperature with RTD Sensors

Thermistors **COMING SOON** Measuring Temperature with Thermistor Sensors

Voltage Transducers Measuring Voltages in Data Acquisition Applications

 Sensor Type Article Link

Current Sensors Measuring Current with Current Sensors

LVDTs **COMING SOON** Measuring Distance with LVDT Sensors

Encoders Measuring RPM, Angle, and Speed with Counter and Encoders Sensors

Specific details about each major kind of sensor are given in these
articles: