Failure of concrete :

Despite its durability, concrete can be damaged and degraded by a long list of factors. To
name just a few…

 Insufficient reinforcement
 Chloride attack
 Chemical damage
 Carbonation
 Weather exposure
 Impact damage
 Excessive loads
 Structural damage
 Fire damage
 Seismic damage
 Blast damage

One of the main causes for concern is corrosion of the steel within the concrete. This is such
a big problem because rust can easily occupy ten times the volume of steel, which creates
significant tensile stresses and leads to cracking, staining and spalling.
 

An insight into how rust breaks apart concrete structures

This can be a difficult issue to avoid, as corrosion is an entirely natural process. All that’s
happening is the steel is attempting to return from an artificial state to the more stable state of
iron ore (which is what it started out life as before being refined, smelted and deprived of
oxygen).
And there are a number of inescapable environmental issues that can kick start and
exacerbate corrosion issues. Not only will the wind, sun and rain all play a role, but so too
will the water table, internal moisture from kitchens and bathrooms as well as heat, light and
power emanating from the building. These factors need to be understood on a case-by-case
basis, as each structure has a number of micro-climates acting upon it
The two most common causes of failure are carbonation and chloride contamination of the
concrete. Both of these lead to corrosion of the embedded steel reinforcement and as the steel
corrodes it expands and exerts pressure on the concrete so that, eventually, the concrete
cracks and spalls.
Carbonation
Carbonation is the process whereby the natural alkalinity within the concrete is lost.  This is
caused by the ingress of acid gases, principally CO2, from the atmosphere.
When steel is cast into fresh concrete it is cast into a highly alkaline environment. As the
concrete sets, a passivating layer of iron oxide forms around the rebar effectively protecting it
from corrosion. Problems occur when the alkalinity of the surrounding concrete is lost, i.e.
when the concrete becomes carbonated. When the carbonation front reaches the rebar, the
passive layer is broken down and the steel will corrode if sufficient oxygen and moisture are
present.
The extent to which carbonation is a problem on any particular structure is down to a number
of factors, such as:

 The quality of concrete

 The depth of concrete cover over the rebar
 The environmental conditions

Chloride Attack

The other major cause of reinforcement corrosion is chloride attack. Chloride may be present
in the concrete because it was cast into the concrete as an accelerator, because it has entered
the concrete via the use of de-icing salts or from a chloride rich coastal environment.
Once chloride ions have reached the steel in sufficient quantity they can initiate corrosion
cells, even in alkaline concrete. Chloride attack causes localised heavy pitting of the
reinforcing steel and as result it is, in some ways, more insidious than carbonation induced
corrosion as it can result in severe loss of section and potential loss of structural integrity.

An example of pitting and corrosion caused by chloride attack

Again, the extent to which chlorides are a problem can depend very much on the quality of
the concrete, the cover over the steel, and the exposure of the structure.
Stages of Corrosion

Corrosion is a predictable process and, unless treated, will always follow the same stages. So,
look out for…
Stage 1: Initially, despite the fact that aggressive agents are entering the concrete, it appears
to be sound with relatively little cracking and no ‘rusty’ discoloration from corrosion product
formation.
Stage 2: The corrosive agents have reached the steel surface and corrosion has begun. Some
macroscopic cracks have appeared and the concrete surface is stained by reddish corrosion
byproducts.

The tell-tale reddish spots that indicate the rebar inside is corroding
Stage 3: Spalling of the concrete covering the reinforcing steel is starting to become clearly
visible due to the buildup of corrosion byproducts causing the concrete to breakdown and
fragment.
Stage 4: Severe spalling of the concrete over the reinforcing steel is evident, leaving the
reinforcing steel bars directly exposed to the atmosphere.
Diagnosis

Once you’ve spotted the tell-tale signs of corrosion the next step is to diagnose exactly what’s
causing it. There are a number of different tests that can be run to try and pinpoint the
problem.

If you suspect that chlorides are the culprit, then this is normally checked by titration tests
and using QuanTabs. If there is more chloride present in the concrete than there really should
be then this will get flagged up. Only a very small amount of chloride needs to be present in
the concrete to make corrosion likely. Chloride readings can be checked against BRE
guidelines but in general, if chlorides exceed 0.4% by weight of cement at the depth of steel,
there is a risk of on-going corrosion.
The test for carbonation involves the very fun word “phenolphthalein” which is a dye that
changes colour depending on the pH of the concrete. When applied to a fresh fracture in the
concrete the indicator solution will change colour, if it turns purple then the pH is above 8.6.
Where the solution remains colourless the pH of the concrete is below 8.6, which suggests
carbonation. A fully-carbonated paste has a pH of about 8.4.
In practice, a pH of 8.6 may only give a faintly discernible slightly pink colour. A strong,
immediate colour change to purple suggests a pH that is rather higher, perhaps pH 9 or 10.
A fracture after phenolphthalein has been used to test the concrete’s chloride levels
These two test will hopefully help to ascertain if the most common causes of corrosion have
taken place. Otherwise there’s a whole host of other investigative techniques that can be
employed to get to the bottom of the matter, such as:

 Pull-off testing
 Covermeter
 Core drilling and testing
 Schmidt hammer
 Half-cell potential
 In the world of concrete repairs, the cause of the problem is not often visible, rather it
is just a symptom of the real cause. Before any external faults show, stresses build up,
internal chemical reactions may take place and unknown costs are already needed to
repair the concealed failure. By the time it is visible, it could all be too late.
 Each failure requires unique testing, product selection and application to restore the
structure to its original state. Major failures used usually triggered by an external
force, which then results in a domino effect of failures from imperfections in the
concrete or flaws in the reinforcement.
Bluey offers a wide range of products for concrete repairs, testing equipment as well
as installation teams to restore a wide range of all concrete failures. Below we’ve
listed the 5 most common concrete failures that we frequently repair and their causes.
 1. MECHANICAL
Most mechanical failures occur because of physical impacts such as collisions.
Vibrations, overloading and other movements can also result in cracking and loss of
entire concrete sections.
  2. CHEMICAL
Although an initial chemical reaction is required to create a reliable, load-bearing
concrete, other chemical reactions such as ASR and contaminants from soil such as
sulphates can weaken the cement matrix.
 3. FIRE
The excessive heat generated from fires can alter the properties of concrete. When
exposed to extreme temperatures, problems such as expansion and deterioration can
occur.
 4. STRAY CURRENTS
Stray electrical currents carrying high volts can often act as the catalyst for the
corrosion of rebar from the inside. This can lead to spalling, otherwise known as
‘concrete cancer’.
 5. CORROSION
When concrete fails to provide adequate protection from extremities such as road
salts, seawater and chlorides, the steel rebar will corrode. Cracks, low cover, porosity
and low alkalinity are also other causes of inadequate protection.
 Concrete failure is a complex hazard. It is important to know what shortcoming is
causing the defect prior to starting repair works. Bluey has a range of solutions and
products including repair mortars, resins, injection chemicals and grouts to select
from, to ensure the right product is used in the right application.
 Before you begin repairs, we recommend that you speak to Bluey so that we can offer
sound engineering advice, conduct testing of the concrete and help you select the right
product to eliminate any chance of further failures.

Failures in concrete structures can be due to any of the following factors:

1. incorrect selection of materials

2. errors in design calculations and detailing

3. poor construction methods and inadequate quality control and supervision

4. chemical attack

5. external physical and/or mechanical factors including alterations made to the structure