Analog

and Digital
Signals
Week 3
IEN, BHM, HBU, DND
 Classification of signals

Sensor and Transducers

What are we
going to learn? Transducer Characteristics

Resistance Temperature Detector

 Thermistor

Thermocouple
What are we
going to learn? Strain Gauge

Wheatstone Bridge
Classification of Signals
In electronics, a signal is often a time-varying voltage that is
also an electromagnetic wave carrying information, though it
can take on other forms, such as current. There are two main
types of signals used in electronics: analog and digital signals.
 Classification of Signals

Analog Signal Digital Signal

An Analog signal is a continuous signal which represents Digital signals are discrete-time signals generated by
physical measurements. Denoted by sine waves. digital modulation. Denoted by square waves.
Sensor and
Transducers
In data acquisition systems,
transducers sense physical phenomena
and provide electrical signals that the
system can accept.
 Active transducers
Convert non-electrical energy into an
electrical output signal. They do not
require external excitation to operate.
Example : Thermocouple

Categories of
Transducer Passive transducers
Change an electrical network value,
such as resistance, inductance or
capacitance, according to changes in
the physical quantity being measured.
Example: Strain gauges (resistive
change to stress) and LVDTs
(inductance change to displacement) .
 01 02

Accuracy Sensitivity
How close a measurement is The amount of change in the
to the actual value of the output signal from a
process variable being transducer to a specified
measured. change in the input variable

Transducer 03
being measured.

04
Characteristics Repeatability Range
The ability to generate the minimum and
almost identical output maximum measurable
responses to the same values of a process variable
physical input throughout between which the defined
its working life. limits of all other specified
transducer characteristics
are met.
Resistance
Temperature
Detector(Passive
Transducer)
An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a
sensor whose resistance changes as its
temperature changes. The resistance increases
as the temperature of the sensor increases. The
resistance vs temperature relationship is well
known and is repeatable over time. An RTD is a
passive device. It does not produce an output on
its own.
Resistance Temperature Detector
Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements
due to a number of factors, including its (1) chemical inertness,
(2) nearly linear temperature versus resistance relationship, (3)
temperature coefficient of resistance that is large enough to give
readily measurable resistance changes with temperature and
(4) stability (in that its temperature resistance does not
drastically change with time).

Other metals that are less frequently used as the resistor

elements in an RTD include nickel, copper and Balco.
https://www.electrical4u.com/resistance-temperature-detector-or-rtd-construction-and-working-principle/
 Temperature Range
−260°C to +850°C

Relative Cost
Most expensive

Resistance Time Constant

Temperature 1 to 7 seconds

Detector Stability
˜0.05°C

Sensitivity
Low
Resistance Resistance
Temperature Temperature
Detector's Detector's
Advantages Disadvantages
Best response time
Expensive
Linear output
Low sensitivity
Widest operating temperature range
Best for measuring a range of
temperatures
Thermistor (Passive Transducer)
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent
on temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of
metallic oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated
with an impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.

Thermistor types (come in a variety of shapes-disk, chip, bead, or rod)

 Thermistor
There are two types of thermistors:
Negative Temperature Coefficient
(NTC) and Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC).

NTC thermistor >> when the

temperature increases, resistance
Thermistor symbol decreases.
PTC thermistor >> when temperature
increases, the resistance increases.
 Temperature Range
Within ˜50°C of a given center temperature

Relative Cost
Inexpensive

Time Constant
Thermistor 6 to 14 seconds

Stability
Very stable, 0.0009°C

Sensitivity
High
Thermistor's Thermistor's
Advantages Disadvantages
Durable
Long-lasting Nonlinear output
Highly sensitive Limited temperature range
Small size Slow response time
Lowest cost
Best for measuring single point
temperature
Thermocouple (Active Transducer)
A thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different types of
metals, joined together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a
voltage is created that can be correlated back to the temperature. A thermocouple is a simple,
robust and cost-effective temperature sensor used in a wide range of temperature measurement
processes.

Each wire is made of a specific metal or metal alloy.

For example, the positive (+) conductor of a type K thermocouple is made of a chromium/nickel alloy called chromel and the
negative (-) conductor is made of an aluminum/nickel alloy called alumel
Thermocouple
Its operation is based on the principle that temperature gradients in electrical conductors
generate voltages in the region of the gradient. Different conductors will generate different
voltages for the same temperature gradient. Therefore, a small voltage, equal to the difference
between the voltages generated by the thermal gradient in each of the wires (V = VA – VB), can
then be measured at the reference junction.
Thermocouple-Junction Type
Sheathed thermocouple probes are available with one of three junction types: grounded,
ungrounded or exposed. At the tip of a grounded junction probe, the thermocouple wires are
physically attached to the inside of the probe wall. This results in good heat transfer from the
outside, through the probe wall to the thermocouple junction. The exposed, or bead, junction
thermocouple has its junction exposed to air. Thermocouples with exposed junctions are
generally used to measure gas temperature, and they have an extremely fast response time. In
an ungrounded probe, the thermocouple junction is detached from the probe wall. Response
time is slower than the grounded style, but the ungrounded offers electrical isolation.

https://www.omega.com/en-us/resources/thermocouple-hub
Strain Gauge (Passive
Transducer)
A Strain gauge (sometimes refered to as a
Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance
varies with applied force; It converts
force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into
a change in electrical resistance which
can then be measured. When external
forces are applied to a stationary object,
stress and strain are the result. Stress is
defined as the object's internal resisting
forces, and strain is defined as the
displacement and deformation that
occur.
Strain Gauge
The strain gauge operates on the principle
that when strained, the length, cross-
sectional area and resistivity of the metal
film changes, thus changing the resistance
of the conductor. When attached to a unit
under test by an adhesive of some kind, the
strain gauge experiences the same strain as
the unit. The amount of strain can be
measured by detecting changes in the
resistance. Provided the change in length of
the strain gauge is small, the relationship
between resistance and strain is linear.
Wheatstone
Bridge
Due to its sensitivity, the
Wheatstone bridge circuit is a
commonly used circuit for the
measurement of small changes in
electrical resistance, particularly for
strain gauges. It comprises four
resistive elements and can be excited Standard Wheatstone bridge configuration
by either a voltage or current source
Wheatstone
Bridge
When excited by an input voltage VEX it
can be shown that the output voltage V0 is
given by the equation:

When the ratio of resistances R1 to R2 is

equal to the ratio of resistances R3 to R4, Standard Wheatstone bridge configuration

then the measured output voltage is 0 V,

and the bridge is said to be balanced.