Thermosensitive Sensors, Part-1

(RTD and Thermistor)

Prepared and Compiled By

P. N. Kapil
 Lecture Overview
• Thermometry and need for Temperature measurement

• Methods for Temperature Measurement

• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

• Thermistor
 Thermometry
Thermometry is the process of measuring temperature. Temperature is basically a measure of the amount of
kinetic energy, particles possess. Today, temperature measurements also touch other areas, such as humidity
and the field of thermophysical quantities.

Need for Temperature Measurement !!!!!

Temperature measurement may span a large range, from ultra-cold temperatures of –273 °C up to
temperatures of several thousands of °C. A precise and accurate knowledge of temperature is important in
science, technology and industry where precision and pushed limits are targeted.

Primary thermometry, including precise instrumentation and standards, the establishment of an internationally
common temperature scale and its realization, represent an important basis for all applications, and for science
and innovation. Temperature measurements are important for a vast range of areas and applications in industry
(metallurgy, chemistry and biochemistry, quantum computing), the health sector (e.g. medical ablation
techniques in human tissue by thermal heating) and environment (by monitoring and prevision of climate and
climate changes in air, soil and water).

Reference: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM).

 Methods for Temperature Measurement

Thermometer Probes Non-Contact

Total Radiation
(Expansion type) (Sensors) (Pyrometers)

Selective Radiation
RTD
Solids Liquids Gas (Resistance Temperature Detector)

Thermistor
Bi-metals

Liquid in Glass Liquid in Metal Thermocouple

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) can also be called a resistance
thermometer as the temperature measurement will be a measure of the output
resistance. The main principle of operation of an RTD is that when the
temperature of an object increases or decreases, the resistance also increases
or decreases proportionally. As platinum is the most commonly used metal for
making RTD’s, the device can also be called Platinum Resistance Thermometers
(PRT’s).
RTD elements are usually long, spring-like wires surrounded by an insulator and
enclosed in a sheath of metal. This particular design has a platinum element that
is surrounded by a porcelain insulator. The insulator prevents a short circuit
between the wire and the metal sheath. Inconel, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy, is
normally used in manufacturing the RTD sheath because of its inherent corrosion
resistance. When placed in a liquid or gas medium, the Inconel sheath quickly
reaches the temperature of the medium. The change in temperature will cause
the platinum wire to heat or cool, resulting in a proportional change in
resistance.

This expression is for huge range of temperature. For

small range of temperature, the expression can
be,
RTD types are broadly classified according to the different sensing elements used. Platinum, Nickel and Copper
are the most commonly used sensing elements. Platinum is considered the best as it has the widest temperature
range. This is shown in the resistance versus temperature graph below. Platinum type RTD is also known for its
best interchange ability than copper and nickel. It also has the highest time stability. It can also be used in
radioactive environments. In industrial applications, a PRT is known to measure temperatures as high as 1500
degree Fahrenheit while copper and Nickel can measure only to a maximum of 400 degree Fahrenheit.
Signal Conditioning in RTD:
The main problem concerning RTD is that it is a locally mounted sensor and its connection terminals / connecting
leads are to be brought to the control panel where the control circuit which is normally a bridge circuit calibrates
the change in resistance and output of bridge as change in temperature. Normally this control circuit is far from the
application where the RTD is mounted so the lead resistance of RTD also plays a part in the circuit and if not
compensated then it might lead to error in the reading. The lead compensation circuits for RTD are as under:

As shown in figure (A), the lead resistances L1 and L2 which are

dependent upon length of wire and are same in magnitude can be
compensated by incorporating a compensation resistance equal to
L1+L2 in series with resistor R3. This new resistor R3 will negate the
lead resistance in the circuit.
(A) 2 wire RTD lead compensation

(B) 3 wire RTD lead compensation
(C) 4 wire RTD lead compensation
In a 3-wire RTD as shown in figure B, there are three leads coming
from the RTD instead of two. L1 and L3 carry the measuring
current, while L2 acts only as a potential lead. Ideally, the
resistances of L1 and L3 are perfectly matched and therefore
cancel out each other. The resistance in R3 is equal to the
resistance of the sensor Rt at a given temperature—usually the
beginning of the temperature range. At this point, V out = zero. As
the temperature of the sensor increases, the resistance of the
sensor increases, causing the resistance to be out of balance and
indicated at V out.
In a four-wire circuit as shown in figure C, it removes the error
caused by mismatched resistance of the lead wires. A constant
current is passed through L1 and L4; L2 and L3 measure the
voltage drop across the RTD. With a constant current, the voltage
is strictly a function of the resistance and a true measurement is
achieved. This design is slightly more expensive than two or three-
wire configurations, but is the best choice when a high degree of
accuracy is required.
 Self Heating in RTD:
Since an RTD measures temperature by passing a current
through a resistor (the RTD), the error known as self-heating
occurs. Primarily the sensor’s mass, its internal construction,
the measurement current and to a large degree environmental
conditions determine the magnitude of this error.

This heat basically increases the resistance of the RTD over and
above the applied heat due to which erroneous readings are
obtained. To avoid this error, every RTD has a self heat
dissipation constant and it is expressed as mW/°C. This shows
the order of rise in self heat temperature due to heat
dissipation in RTD. The coefficient typically has a value from
20-100 mW/°C where in it is minimum in still air where as this
coefficient in moving air. Consider the example to understand
the concept. At the end it shows that for every 0.56 mW power
dissipated through heat the erroneous rise in temperature is
0.011 °C.
Advantages
• Very high accuracy
• Excellent stability and reproducibility
• Interchangeability
• Ability to be matched to close tolerances for temperature difference measurements.
• Ability to measure narrow spans
• Suitability for remote measurement

Disadvantages
• Susceptibility to mechanical damage
• Need for lead wire resistance compensation
• Sometimes expensive
• Susceptibility to self-heating error
• Susceptibility to signal noise
• Unsuitability for bare use in electrically conducting substance
• Generally not repairable
• Need for power supply
 Thermistor

NTC Type PTC Type

(Metal Oxides like Zinc Oxide, Lead Oxide etc) (Barium Titanate BaTiO3 , Doped polycrystalline Ceramics etc)

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The
word is a combination of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters,
temperature sensors (negative temperature coefficient or NTC type typically), self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and
self-regulating heating elements (positive temperature coefficient or PTC type typically).

Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material
used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals.
The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature
ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a greater precision within a limited
temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C.
NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. The NTC thermistor provides variable resistance based on temperature. As
temperature increases, the resistance drops from high to low and allows current to pass through. NTC thermistors are the most
commonly used thermistor. They fit a wide range of applications including: automotive, military, industrial, and emissions
controls.Various items around your home contain NTC thermistors including your oven, air conditioning, and fire detector.

PTC stands for Positive Temperature Coefficient. The PTC thermistor also provides variable resistance based on temperature. As
temperature rises, resistance increases from low to high and blocks the spike in current. Typically, NTC-based limiting is used for most
applications. However, there are certain scenarios that require a PTC thermistor over an NTC thermistor. These include equipment with
a near-zero reset time, extreme temperature conditions, and systems that experience frequent shorts. Threshold temperature is the
temperature at which the PTC type thermistor configured as protective device gives actuating signal for the system to be disconnected
from supply.
Thermistor Linearization Circuit

The thermistor being a passive sensor is also connected in a bridge network to

realize the variation in resistance due to variation in temperature. Mostly all
thermistors being non-linear in nature requires some linearizing circuit to make
the response of resistance with respect to temperature as linear. This helps in
better calibration and utilization of sensor. To make the sensor response linear,
a resistance RP is connected in parallel with the thermistor which is expressed
as RT , here RP is having positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Rs is a
series thermally stable resistor for extracting the output as well to limit the
current flowing through thermistor. The equivalent resistance of RP and RT
ensures that the response of the resistance v/s temperature curve is nearly
linear.
Advantages
• The thermistor has fast response over narrow temperature range.
• It is small in size.
• Contact and lead resistance problem not occurred due to large resistance.
• It has good sensitivity in NTC region.
• Cost is low.

Disadvantages
• The thermistor need of shielding power lines.
• The excitation current should be low to avoid self heating.
• It is not suitable for large temperature range.
• The resistance temperature characteristics are non linear so a linearizing
circuit is must.
 REFERENCES
Web References
1. www.en.wikipedia.org
2. www.wikilectures.eu
3. www.bipm.org
4. www.sciencedirect.com
5. www.rdfcorp.com
6. www.instrumentationtools.com
7. www.jms-se.com
8. www.instrumentationtoday.com
9. www.edn.com
10. www.ametherm.com
11. www.elprocus.com
12. www.controlandinstrumentation.com
13. www.electrical4u.com
14. www.thermosensors.com
15. www.polytechnichub.com
16. www. test-and-measurement-world.com
Book References
1. A. K. Sawhney, A Course in Electrical
Measurement and Measuring Instruments,
Dhanpat Rai & Sons, New Delhi.
2. E. W. Golding and F. C. Widdis, Electrical &
Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation,
Reem Publications Pvt. Ltd.
3. B. G. Liptak, Instrument Engineer's Handbook
Vol-2, CRC Press.
4. A. D. Helfrick and W. D. Cooper, Modern
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques.
5. E.O. Doeblin, Measurement Systems: Application
& Design, McGraw-Hill Professional.
6. D. Patranabis, Principles of Industrial
Instrumentation, Tata McGraw Hill.