Name: Ayush Shahi

Class: 11 Roll no: 3

Section: B5
Activity 1
Sensors
Sensors are the devices that are generally used to detect and respond to electrical or optical
signal. A sensor converts physical parameter like temperature, pressure, speed, strain etc. Into a
signal which can be measured electrically. Nowadays it is used to detect blood pressure, heart
beats, glucose content etc.
Strain Gauge
Strain Gauge is a pressure sensing device whose electrical resistance is proportional to the
quality if strain applied on the device. It converts force, pressure, tension, weight etc, into a
change in electrical resistance which can then be measured.
The resistance R is definitely directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
So, resistance (R) ∝ l (1)
The resistance R is certainly inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of a particular
conductor
Therefore, resistance ∝ 1A of cross section of the conductor (A)
Or, R ∝ 1A (2)
Now from equation (1) and (2)

R ∝ la
Or, R = pla (3)
Here ρ (rho) happens to be the proportionality constant. Most noteworthy, it is the electrical
resistivity of the material of conductors.

When an electrical conductor is stretched with an elastics limit within an elastic limit it becomes
longer, but gets narrower, i.e., length increases and cross sectional area decreases, which
ultimately increase the electrical resistance. Conversely, if conductor is compressed, the
electrical resistance decreases. The new resistance when the conductor is geometrically changed,
l'
R'= p
A'
Where, l' and A' are changed in length and change in cross-sectional area respectively. If we take
the ratio,
R' L A' L A'
= * = *
R A L' L' A
Although length and cross sectional area of a conductor changes, total volume does not change
whether we stretch or compress.
 1 DIAGRAM OF STRAIN GAUGE
So volume
before stretching= volume after stretching
AL'=A'L'
A L'
=
A' L
L A'
If we consider, = =m
L' A
R' 2
Then, =m
R
So, R=m 2R
Now, the change in resistance,
ΔR=R'-R=m2R-R= (m2-1) R
Thus the strain produced by the conductor affects the electrical resistance.

A typical strain gauge consists of a long conductive strip in a zigzag pattern of parallel lines. The
pressure on the strips is converted into an electrical signal that can be transmitted and displayed.
The fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to the strain, expressed
quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change
in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length.
Δ R/ R
I.e., GF=
Δ L/ L
Where, ΔR is the change in resistance when the length of conductor is charged by ΔL.
ΔL
Also, = Longitudinal strain= C
L
ΔR /R
Then, GF=
Ε
Light Dependent Resistor
A light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a type of resistor which changes its resistance value
according to the intensity of the light falling on it. Ldrs are also known as photoresistors,
photocells or light sensors. They are made of semiconductor materials with high resistance in the
dark and low resistance in the light. Ldrs are commonly used in light sensing applications like
street lights, cameras, light meters, etc. When light falls on an LDR, the photons excite the
electrons and reduce the band gap which increases the conductivity of the material and hence
reduces the resistance. Ldrs are available in different resistance values and sizes depending on
the Specific application requirements.

2 DIAGRAM OF L DR

Thermistor
Thermistors are the type of temperature sensor that measures temperature by detecting change in
electrical resistance as temperature changes. The resistance of a thermistor is inversely
proportional to the temperature of the device, which means that as temperature increases, the
resistance of the thermistor decreases, vice-versa.
There are two types of Thermistor. They are:
1) Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
NTC thermistors are the most commonly used type of thermistor. They are made from a
mixture of metallic oxides, such as manganese, nickel, and copper, and they have a
negative temperature coefficient, which means that their resistance decreases as the
temperature increases. NTC thermistors are typically used in applications such as
temperature sensing, temperature compensation, and temperature control. They are
commonly used in a range of consumer and industrial products, including thermostats,
temperature controllers, and automotive systems.

2) Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)

 PTC thermistors, on the other hand, have a positive temperature coefficient, which means
that their resistance increases as the temperature increases. They are typically made from
materials such as barium titanate or lead zirconate titanate, and they are often used in
applications such as overcurrent protection, self-regulating heating elements, and
temperature compensation. PTC Thermistors are commonly used in the products such as
heaters, power supplies, and motor controls.
In conclusion, thermistors are a useful type of temperature sensor that can be used in a
wide variety of applications. By understanding the different types of thermistors,
including NTC and PTC thermistors, we can select right device for our specific needs..

NTC as a temperature sensor

NTC thermistors are commonly used as temperature sensors. This is because the resistance of an
NTC thermistor decreases as the temperature increases, and the rate of change in resistance is
relatively larger compared to other types of temperature sensors. This makes NTC thermistors
very sensitive to changes in temperature, allowing them to provide accurate temperature
measurements over a wide range of temperatures.
NTC thermistors are often used in temperature measurement applications such as thermostats,
refrigerators, and air conditioning systems. They are also used in automotive applications, such
as engine temperature monitoring and climate control system.
In addition, NTC thermistors can be used in temperature compensation applications. For
example, they can be used to compensate for the temperature dependent characteristics of other
electronic components. This can help to ensure that electronic circuits operate accurately and
reliably over a wide range of temperatures.
Overall, NTC thermistors are a popular choice for temperature sensing applications due to their
high sensitivity to temperature changes, accuracy, and reliability.
The relationship of resistance and temperature in the NTC used devices is;
ΔR =αδ t
Where, ΔR is the change in resistance, Δ T is the change in temperature and α is the
First order temperature resistance. The value of α is negative in NTC and positive in PTC
thermistor.
The nature of graph in the resistance and temperature in NTC thermistor is exponentially
decreasing nature as shown in figure.
3 RESISTANCE VS TEMPERATURE PLOT FOR NTC