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Political Science
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olitical science is a field of study that explores the theory and practice of
government, politics, and power. It examines the structures, institutions,
behavior, and policies that shape the way societies govern themselves. Politics, on
the other hand, is the process by which power is acquired and exercised in a society. It
involves the making of decisions and policies that affect the lives of individuals and
communities. Political science uses various methods to study political phenomena. Some
of the most commonly used methods are historical analysis, comparative analysis,
statistical analysis, survey research, and qualitative research. The discipline is also
divided into several subfields, including political theory, international relations,
comparative politics, public administration, and public policy. Each of these subfields
has its own set of theories, methods, and areas of inquiry. The nature of political science
is interdisciplinary. It draws on concepts and theories from other social science
disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology, economics, and psychology, to understand
the political dynamics of society. Political science is also normative, meaning that it
involves making judgments about what ought to be, as well as what is. Political science
is sometimes considered both a science and an art. As a science, it seeks to establish
generalizations and causal relationships about political phenomena. As an art, it
involves the application of knowledge and judgment to the practical problems of
governance and policymaking. The meaning of political science has changed over time,
reflecting the changing social, economic, and political conditions of society. In the early
20th century, political science was primarily concerned with studying the formal
structures of government and the behavior of elected officials. Today, political science
encompasses a much broader range of topics, including the role of media, interest
groups, and public opinion in shaping political outcomes. The scope of political science
is vast, encompassing a range of topics, including the study of political institutions,
political behavior, political theory, comparative politics, international relations, and
public policy. Political science also examines the impact of political decisions on various
aspects of society, such as economic development, social welfare, and environmental
policy. Its scope extends from the local to the global level, and from the study of
individual decision-making to the analysis of complex political systems. In conclusion,
political science is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field of study that seeks to
understand the theory and practice of government, politics, and power. It uses a variety
of methods and approaches to explore the complexities of political phenomena and their
impact on society. The discipline is constantly evolving, reflecting the changing social,
economic, and political conditions of society.
∆ Definition:-
1. James Garner - part of social science which deals with the foundations of the
state and the principles of the government.

2. Dr. Stephen Leacock- Political science deals with government.

3. R.N. Gilchrist- R.N. Gilchrist stated that political science is concerned with the
analysis of power relations and the ethical principles that should guide political
action.
4. Max Weber- Max Weber stated that political science is the study of the
distribution of power within a society, including the analysis of the structures,
processes, and values that shape political behavior.

5. David Easton: - David Easton stated that political science is concerned with the
authoritative allocation of values, including the analysis of how political systems
make and Implement decisions.

6. William A. Robson- Political science is concerned with studying how individuals

and groups gain and exercise power to influence others or resist the exercise of
power by others.

∆ Meaning of Political Science and Politics:-

 The word "political" is derived from the Latin word "politicus," which in turn
comes from the Greek word "politikos." "Politikos" refers to the affairs of the
city-state, or "polis," in ancient Greece.
 Political Science is an academic discipline that studies government systems,
political behavior, and the various factors that shape politics. It is a social science
that employs various methods, including qualitative and quantitative research, to
analyze the workings of political systems and institutions.
 Politics, on the other hand, refers to the activities and processes involved in the
governance of a society, including the formation and implementation of policies,
the exercise of power, and the resolution of conflicts. It is concerned with how
individuals and groups compete for power, how decisions are made, and how
resources are allocated.
 In short, Political Science is the study of politics and the various factors that
shape it, while Politics refers to the actual processes and activities involved in the
governance of a society.
∆ Nature of Political Science :-
• PoliticalScience is a social science that seeks to understand politics, government, and
public policy. It is a highly interdisciplinary field that draws upon theories, concepts,
and methods from other disciplines such as sociology, economics, psychology, and
history. The nature of Political Science is multifaceted, as it encompasses a wide range
of topics and approaches. Some of the key characteristics of Political Science include:

1. Empirical study: Political Science emphasizes empirical research, which

means that it is based on systematic observation, data collection, and analysis.
Political scientists use a variety of research methods, including surveys,
experiments, case studies, and statistical analysis, to study political
phenomena.
2. Normative and descriptive: Political Science is both normative and
descriptive. Normative Political Science focuses on how things should be,
while descriptive Political Science focuses on how things are. Normative
Political Science involves the evaluation of political systems, policies, and
institutions against moral, ethical, or political values. Descriptive Political
Science, on the other hand, aims to describe, explain, and predict political
behavior, institutions, and processes.
3. Comparative and global: Political Science is comparative and global in scope.
Political scientists study political systems, institutions, and processes across
different countries and regions, and they often compare and contrast
different political systems to identify patterns and trends.
4. Multi-level analysis: Political Science involves multi-level analysis, which
means that it focuses on the interactions between different levels of
government and society. Political scientists study the relationships between
individuals, groups, organizations, and institutions, as well as the
relationships between different levels of government, such as local, state, and
federal.

• Overall, the nature of Political Science is diverse and dynamic, as it involves the
study of a constantly changing political landscape. Political Science aims to provide
a deeper understanding of politics and its impact on society, and it plays a crucial
role in shaping public policy and informing political decision-making

∆Political Science: Science or Art:-

 Political science is often considered both a science and an art. As a science,
political science uses empirical research methods to study political
phenomena and seeks to establish generalizations and causal relationships.
This involves the use of quantitative and qualitative research methods to test
hypotheses and theories about political behavior and institutions.
  At the same time, political science is also an art, as it involves the application
of knowledge and judgment to the practical problems of governance and
policymaking. This aspect of political science involves the use of normative
theories and value judgments to inform policy decisions.

 In practice, political science is often a combination of both science and art, as

scholars use empirical research methods to inform their normative views on
policy and governance. The study of political science also requires creativity
and critical thinking skills, which are essential to understanding complex
political systems and institutions.

 In conclusion, political science can be seen as both a science and an art,

depending on the specific focus and approach of the scholar. While political
science often involves empirical research methods and the establishment of
causal relationships, it also requires judgment and creativity in the practical
application of knowledge to policymaking and governance.

∆Scope of Political Science:-

• Political Science is a social science that focuses on the study of politics, government,
and public policy. Its scope encompasses a broad range of topics related to political
behavior, institutions, processes, and policies. Some of the key areas of study within
political science include:-

1. Political theory: This area of political science focuses on the philosophical and
ethical underpinnings of political systems and institutions.
2. Comparative politics: This field of study involves the analysis of political
systems, institutions, and processes across different countries and regions.
3. International relations: This area of political science is concerned with the
study of relations between states, as well as non-state actors, such as
international organizations, NGOs, and multinational corporations.
4. Public administration: This field focuses on the study of public policy, public
administration, and governance, with an emphasis on the implementation of
policies and the functioning of government agencies.
5. Political economy: This area of study explores the relationship between
politics and the economy, with an emphasis on the distribution of resources
and the role of government in economic decision-making.
6. Political methodology: This field involves the development and application of
statistical and mathematical methods to the study of politics.

• Overall, the scope of political science is vast and constantly evolving. Political
scientists may focus on any of these areas, or they may specialize in other subfields,
such as political psychology, political sociology, or political communication,
depending on their research interests and expertise.
 STATE
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S
tate is a politically organized society that exists within a defined territory. It
is an entity that exercises the ultimate authority to make and enforce laws,
regulate the behavior of individuals within its jurisdiction, and defend its
territorial integrity. The State is composed of several constituent elements,
including territory, population, government, sovereignty, and recognition. The
territory provides the physical space where the State exists, while the population
comprises the people who live within that territory. The government is responsible
for exercising the authority of the State, while sovereignty refers to the ultimate
authority that the State possesses. Recognition is also an essential element, as it
allows the State to interact with other States on equal terms. The State is often
compared to other social and political entities, such as the government, society, and
associations. While the State and government are closely related, they are not the
same thing. The government is an institution that operates within the State, while
the State is a broader entity that encompasses the government and other social and
economic institutions. Similarly, the State and society are closely intertwined, as the
State is composed of individuals who make up society. However, the State represents
the collective will of society, and it is responsible for promoting the common good
and ensuring social and economic development. Associations, on the other hand, are
voluntary groups that exist within society and play an important role in shaping
public opinion and influencing government policy. Nonetheless, they are not
sovereign entities like the State and do not have the authority to make and enforce
laws. Thus, State is a vital institution that plays a crucial role in the political, social,
and economic development of society.

∆Definition state:-
1. Plato: In Plato's Republic, the state is an ideal society that is organized into three
classes: rulers, soldiers, and workers. The state's main goal is to promote the common
good and achieve justice for all its citizens.

2. Aristotle: Aristotle believed that the state is a natural entity that arises from human
nature. He argued that the state exists to promote the flourishing of its citizens and to
provide them with the necessary conditions for a good life.

3. Thomas Hobbes: According to Hobbes, the state is a social contract between

individuals who agree to surrender some of their freedoms to a sovereign in exchange
for protection and security
4. John Locke: Locke believed that the state exists to protect individuals' natural rights,
such as life, liberty, and property. He argued that individuals have the right to
overthrow a government that fails to protect their rights.

5. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau argued that the state is created by a social contract
between individuals who agree to surrender their individual wills to the general will of
the community. He believed that the state's primary goal is to promote the common
good and ensure the freedom and equality of its citizens.

6. Karl Marx: Marx believed that the state is a tool of the ruling class that is used to
maintain the status quo and protect the interests of the wealthy. He argued that the
state will eventually wither away in a communist society where the means of production
are owned collectively by the workers.

∆State and its concept:-

 The term "state" is commonly used internationally as a synonym for a country .
A state is a political entity that has a defined territory and population, and the
power to make and enforce laws within its borders.
 It has a monopoly on the use of force, which means it can use violence to
maintain order and security.
 The state is sovereign, which means it has supreme authority and is not subject
to external control.
 The government represents the state and exercises its authority on behalf of the
population.
 The type of government can vary, with democracies giving power to the people
through free and fair elections, while authoritarian regimes are ruled by a single
leader or group with little regard for individual rights or freedoms.
 Regardless of the type of government, the state has the power to collect taxes to
finance its operations and provide public services, as well as regulate trade and
commerce within its borders.
 The state is also responsible for protecting the rights and welfare of its citizens
and can establish and enforce laws that apply to all individuals and
organizations within its borders.
 Institutions such as the police, courts, and military are established and
maintained by the state to ensure the enforcement of its laws.
 The state also has the power to regulate behavior, establish and regulate
property rights, create and maintain a system of currency, and establish and
regulate education, healthcare, and transportation systems.
 In addition, the state can enter into treaties and other international agreements
with other states.
 Overall, the state plays a crucial role in maintaining order and providing
essential services for its citizens.
∆State as a Politically Organized Society within a Defined
Territory:-
 A politically organized society within a defined territory refers to a community
of people living within a specific geographic location, who have established a
system of governance to regulate their social, economic, and political
interactions. This system of governance may take various forms, such as a
democracy, dictatorship, monarchy, or republic, among others.
 In such a society, there is a clear distinction between the ruling government and
the governed population, with the former having the power to make and enforce
laws, collect taxes, and provide public services. The society may also have a
constitution or a set of fundamental laws that outline the rights and
responsibilities of both the government and the citizens.
 The concept of a politically organized society within a defined territory is the
basis for the modern nation-state, which emerged in Europe during the 17th and
18th centuries and has since become the dominant form of political organization
worldwide. Nation-states are defined by their sovereignty, which means they
have exclusive control over their territory and are recognized as independent by
other nation states.

∆State as the only Sovereign entity with a single Government:-

 In political theory, the concept of sovereignty refers to the ultimate authority and
power within a defined territory. A sovereign entity is one that has complete
control over its own affairs and is not subject to the authority of any other entity.
 When a state is recognized as the only sovereign entity within a given territory,
this means that it has exclusive control over the exercise of political power and
authority within its borders. In this context, the state is the highest source of law
and its authority is not subordinate to any other entity.
 Furthermore, when a state is recognized as the only sovereign entity, it typically
means that it has a single government that exercises political power on behalf of
the state. This government is responsible for making and enforcing laws,
collecting taxes, and providing public services
 The concept of a single sovereign state with a single government is central to the
modern system of nation-states, which emerged in Europe during the 17th and
18th centuries and has since become the dominant form of political organization
worldwide. In this system, each state is recognized as a distinct entity with its
own government, and is regarded as the ultimate source of political authority
within its own borders.
∆State as a Community of Persons:-
1. In political theory, the concept of the state as a community of persons refers to
the idea that a state is not just a geographic territory or a political entity, but
rather a community of individuals who share a common identity, values, and
interests. This perspective emphasizes the role of citizens as active participants in
the political process, and emphasizes the importance of collective action in
achieving shared goals.
2. From this perspective, the state is seen as an extension of the community.
representing the collective will and interests of its citizens. The state exists to
serve the needs of the community, and its legitimacy derives from the consent
and participation of its citizens
3. The idea of the state as a community of persons has been influential in the
development of democratic political theory, which emphasizes the importance of
civic engagement and the active participation of citizens in the political process.
In democratic societies, citizens are viewed as the ultimate source of political
authority, and the state is seen as a tool for advancing their common interests
and goals.
4. Overall, the concept of the state as a community of persons reflects a view of
politics that is rooted in the idea of social solidarity, collective action, and shared
responsibility for the common good.

∆ Constituent Elements of State and importance of each Element

• The constituent elements of a state can vary depending on the theoretical framework
being used, but there are generally accepted elements that are considered essential to
the concept of a state. The four basic elements of a state

1. Territory: The territory of a state refers to a clearly defined geographic area

over which the state has sovereignty and control. A state must have a defined
territory with recognized borders that separate it from other states. The
importance of territory lies in the fact that it provides a physical space for the
state to exercise its power and authority, and to provide services and protection
to its citizens.
2. Population: The population of a state refers to the people who inhabit the state's
territory and are subject to its laws and governance. A state must have a
population that is relatively stable and self-sustaining, with a sense of shared
identity and values. The importance of population lies in the fact that it provides
the state with a source of labor, resources, and political legitimacy, as well as a
sense of social cohesion and identity.
 3. Government: The government of a state refers to the political institutions and
structures that exercise authority and control over the state's population and
territory. A state must have a government that is capable of maintaining law and
order, providing public goods and services, and regulating social and economic
activity. The importance of government lies in the fact that it provides the state
with the means to exercise its power and authority, and to represent the interests
of its citizens.
4. Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the ultimate authority and power within a
state's territory, and the ability to exercise this power free from external
interference. A state must have sovereignty over its own affairs, and be
recognized as an independent entity by other states. The importance of
sovereignty lies in the fact that it provides the state with the ability to make
decisions and policies that reflect the interests of its citizens, and to protect its
own interests and security.

• In summary, the constituent elements of a state are territory, population, government,

and sovereignty. Each element is essential to the concept of a state. as they provide the
state with the physical space, social and political foundation, institutional structures,
and ultimate authority to exercise power and authority over its citizens and territory.

∆Comparative Study-State and Government, State and Society,

State and Association:-
1) State and Government

 The state is the foundation of political authority, while the government is the
instrument that implements that authority. Therefore State and government are
two concepts that are often used interchangeably, but they refer to different
aspects of political organization:-

State
1. The state refers to the legal and institutional
framework that establishes the rules and
norms governing a society.
2. The state is a permanent and enduring
entity that endures beyond any particular
government.
3. The state is the foundation of political
authority, and is responsible for ensuring
order, security, and justice within society.
4. The state is a more abstract and formal
concept, that reflects the legal and institutional
framework of society.
Government
1. The government refers to the group of
people who exercise political power and make
decisions on behalf of the state.
2. Governments are temporary and may
change over time, depending on elections,
revolutions, or other political processes.
3. The government is the instrument that
implements the policies and decisions of the
state, and is responsible for managing the day-
to- day affairs of government
4. The government is a more concrete and
practical concept, that reflects the people and
institutions responsible for exercising political
power.

5. The state is the ultimate source of political
legitimacy, and derives its authority from the
consent of the governed.
5. The government derives its authority from
the state, and is responsible for implementing
the policies and decisions that reflect the will
of the people, as expressed through the state.

 Thus, the state is the broader legal and institutional framework that
establishes the rules and norms governing a society, while the government is
the specific group of people who exercise political power on behalf of the
state.

2) State and Society:-

 The state is a formal, institutionalized expression of social norms and values,

while society is a more informal, dynamic, and complex system of social
relations.

State
1. The state refers to the legal and institutional
framework that establishes the rules and
norms governing a society.
2.The state is a formal, institutionalized
expression of social norms and values, and is
responsible for ensuring order, security, and
justice within society.
3.The state is a more centralized and formal
expression of social organization, with clear
hierarchies and lines of authority.
4. The state has the power to enforce its laws
and policies through a system of legal and
coercive institutions.
5. The state is often seen as an external force
that operates independently of society, and
that may sometimes conflict with the interests
and values of social groups.
Government
1. Society refers to the broader social, cultural,
and economic forces that shape the way people
live and interact.
2. Society is a more informal, dynamic, and
complex system of social relations that
Includes families, communities, organizations,
and other social groups.
3. Society is more decentralized and diverse,
with multiple overlapping social networks and
communities that operate at different levels of
social organization.
4. Society relies on informal norms and values,
as well as voluntary associations and collective
action, to regulate behavior and manage social
relations.
5. Society is often seen as an internal force that
operates independently of the state, and that
may sometimes resist or challenge the policies
and decisions of the state.

 Thus, Understanding the dynamics between state and society is crucial for
understanding the complex interactions between formal institutions of
governance and the broader social forces that shape political outcomes.

3) State and Association

 The state refers to the legal and institutional framework that establishes the rules
and norms governing a society, while associations refer to groups of individuals
or organizations that come together voluntarily to pursue common interests or
goals.
 State Association
1. The state refers to the legal and institutional 1. An association is a group of individuals or
framework that establishes the rules and organizations that come together voluntarily
norms governing a society. to pursue common interests or goals.
2. The state is a formal, institutionalized 2. An association is a more informal and
expression of social norms and values, and is flexible expression of collective action, that
responsible for ensuring order, security, and relies on voluntary cooperation and shared
justice within society. goals.

3. Associations are more decentralized and

3. The state is a more centralized and
democratic, with decision-making power
hierarchical expression of social organization,
shared among members, and with a greater
with clear lines of authority and power.
emphasis on participation and inclusion.
4. The state has the power to enforce its laws 4. Associations rely on voluntary participation
and policies through a system of legal and and cooperation, and have limited power to
coercive institutions. enforce their decisions or policies.
5. Associations do not have the authority to
5. The state has a monopoly on the legitimate
use force, and rely on persuasion, negotiation,
use of force, and is responsible for maintaining
and other forms of nonviolent action to
law and order within society.
achieve their goals.

 Thus, The state is a formal, institutionalized expression of social norms and

values, while associations are more informal and flexible expressions of collective
action. Therefore Associations play an important role in shaping public opinion, 
promoting social change, and advocating for specific interests or values, but they
operate within the broader legal and institutional framework established by the
state.

∆Definition of 'State' under Article 12

 Under Article 12 of the Indian Constitution, the term 'State' has a specific meaning
that includes not only the government and legislature but also all other authorities
that are established by law and derive their powers and authority from the
Constitution or any other law.

 This means that the term 'State' under Article 12 encompasses not only the
executive, legislature, and judiciary, but also bodies such as local authorities,
statutory corporations, and other bodies that perform public functions or are
funded by the government. It also includes any person or entity that is under the
control or direction of the government, such as public sector undertakings and
agencies.

 The definition of 'State' under Article 12 is important because it determines the

scope of the fundamental rights guaranteed under the Constitution. If a body or
entity falls within the definition of 'State' under Article 12, it is bound to respect
and uphold the fundamental rights of citizens.
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 Political science -1
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Sovereignty as the Basic Element of the State

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S overeignty is a fundamental concept in political theory and international

relations that refers to the supreme authority of a state over its own
affairs, including its people, territory, and government. The term
"sovereignty" derives from the Latin word "superanus," which means
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supreme, above all else. Sovereignty is the cornerstone of the modern nation-
state system, and it is the source of a state's legitimacy and autonomy in the
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international arena. There are two aspects of sovereignty: internal and

external. Internally, sovereignty refers to a state's ability to exercise its
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authority over its citizens and institutions. Externally, sovereignty refers to a

state's ability to interact with other states on the basis of equality and mutual
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respect. The essential characteristics of sovereignty include the exclusive right

to make decisions and enforce laws within a state's borders, equality among
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states, and the responsibility to uphold human rights and contribute to

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international stability and security. There are three notions of sovereignty:

legal sovereignty, political sovereignty, and popular sovereignty. Legal
sovereignty refers to the supreme legal authority in a state, while political
sovereignty refers to the supreme political authority. Popular sovereignty
refers to the idea that the people are the ultimate source of political power.
∆ Meaning and Definition of Sovereignty
 Sovereignty is a fundamental concept in political theory and international relations
that refers to the supreme authority of a state over its own affairs, including its
people, territory, and government. The term "sovereignty" derives from the Latin
word "superanus," which means supreme, above all else. Sovereignty is the
cornerstone of the modern nation-state system, and it is the source of a state's
legitimacy and autonomy in the international arena.

 The concept of sovereignty has been subject to much debate and interpretation
throughout history. It was first articulated in the Westphalian Peace Treaty of 1648,
which ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principles of territorial
integrity and non-interference in the internal affairs of states. Since then, the
concept has evolved and been shaped by various political, legal, and social forces.

 In essence, sovereignty implies that a state has the exclusive right to make decisions
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and enforce laws within its own borders. This means that no external authority can
interfere with a state's internal affairs without its consent. Sovereignty also implies
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that states are equal in their status and rights, regardless of their size, wealth, or
power.
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 Sovereignty has both internal and external dimensions. Internally, it refers to a

state's ability to exercise its authority over its citizens and institutions. Externally, it
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refers to a state's ability to interact with other states on the basis of equality and
mutual respect. Sovereignty also implies responsibility, as states are expected to
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uphold human rights, promote the welfare of their citizens, and contribute to the
stability and security of the international system.
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 In conclusion, sovereignty is a complex and multifaceted concept that is central to

the functioning of the modern state system. It is the source of a state's autonomy,
legitimacy, and authority, and it plays a crucial role in shaping international
relations and global governance.

∆ Two Aspects of Sovereignty: Internal and External

•Both aspects of sovereignty are important for a state's functioning and legitimacy. The
internal aspect ensures that a state has the authority and capacity to provide for the
welfare and security of its citizens, while the external aspect ensures that a state can
interact with other states on equal terms and participate in the international community.
Aspect of
Internal External
Sovereignty

Refers to a state's ability to exercise Refers to a state's ability to interact

Definition its authority over its citizens and with other states on the basis of
institutions within its own borders equality and mutual respect

Implies that a sovereign state is free

Implies that a state has exclusive and
from external interference and has the
supreme control over its own affairs,
right to conduct its own foreign policy,
Implications including the power to make and
establish diplomatic relations with
enforce laws, collect taxes, and
other states, and participate in
provide for the welfare of its citizens
international organizations

Allows a state to provide for its Allows a state to interact with other
citizens, maintain internal order and states on equal terms, pursue its own
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Importance stability, and manage its own affairs interests and goals, and benefit from
in a manner that respects the rights cooperation and collaboration with
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and freedoms of its citizens other states

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Requires a state to have effective Requires a state to respect the

institutions and infrastructure to sovereignty and territorial integrity of
Requirements
carry out its functions and other states, and to comply with
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responsibilities International norms and laws

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Gives a state the ability to negotiate

Allows a state to benefit from
with other states on equal terms and
cooperation and collaboration with
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Benefits participate in decision-making

other states, such as through trade,
processes that affect the
aid, and security arrangements
international community as a whole

•Overall, the two aspects of sovereignty are essential for a state's functioning and position
in the international arena, and they must be carefully balanced and managed to ensure the
well-being and security of its citizens.
∆ Essential Characteristics of Sovereignty
1. Absolute power: Sovereignty is characterized by absolute power, which means that
the state has the supreme authority to make and enforce laws within its own
territory. No other entity can override the state's decisions or challenge its authority.

2. Territoriality: Sovereignty is linked to the concept of territory, which means that

the state has exclusive control over a defined geographical area. The state has the
power to defend its territory against external threats and to control the movement
of people and goods within its borders.

3. Permanence: Sovereignty is considered permanent, meaning that the state's

authority is enduring and cannot be revoked or transferred without its consent.

4. Independence: Sovereignty is associated with the concept of independence, which

means that the state is free from external interference or control. It is able to
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determine its own policies and decisions without being subject to outside pressure.

5. Legitimacy: Sovereignty is based on the principle of legitimacy, which means that

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the state's authority is recognized and accepted by its citizens and the international
community. A sovereign state must have the support of its people and the respect of
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other states in order to maintain its sovereignty.

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•Overall, sovereignty is characterized by the absolute power of the state over its territory,
the enduring nature of its authority, and its independence from external control.
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Sovereignty is also based on the principle of legitimacy, which requires the support of the
state's citizens and the international community.
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∆ The Notion of Legal Sovereignty, Political Sovereignty and

Popular Sovereignty
While these different aspects of sovereignty are related to each other, they each highlight
different dimensions of the relationship between the state and its citizens, as well as its
relationship with other states. Internal sovereignty emphasizes the state's control over its
own affairs and governance, while external sovereignty focuses on the state's ability to
participate in global affairs. Legal sovereignty emphasizes the primacy of the legal system
and the rule of law, while political sovereignty emphasizes the role of government in
decision-making. Finally, popular sovereignty highlights the importance of citizen
participation and engagement in the political process.
 Aspect of
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∆ History of the Development of the Concept of Sovereignty
 The concept of sovereignty emerged during the Renaissance period in Europe, as
monarchs sought to consolidate their power and establish their authority over their
territories. Prior to this time, the authority of rulers was often tied to their religious
legitimacy, but as the power of the Church declined, rulers began to assert their own
secular authority.

 One of the earliest thinkers to develop the concept of sovereignty was Jean Bodin, a
French philosopher who wrote in the late 16th century. Bodin argued that the
sovereign was the ultimate source of power within the state, and that the authority
of the ruler was not subject to any external constraints. He also argued that the
sovereign had the power to make and enforce laws, and that this power was absolute.

 Another key figure in the development of the concept of sovereignty was Hugo
Grotius, a Dutch jurist who wrote in the early 17th century. Grotius argued that
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sovereignty was based on the consent of the governed, and that rulers had a duty to
protect the rights and freedoms of their citizens. He also argued that international
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law was based on the principle of natural law, which was independent of the
authority of any particular state.
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 Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher who wrote in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, further developed the concept of sovereignty by arguing that the power of
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the state was based on the principle of utility, or the greatest happiness of the
greatest number. He also argued that the purpose of government was to promote the
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welfare of its citizens, and that rulers had a duty to ensure that their policies were
based on rational principles.
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 The concept of sovereignty continued to evolve throughout the 19th and 20th
centuries, as new ideas about democracy, human rights, and international law
emerged. Today, sovereignty remains a central concept in political theory and
international relations, and continues to be a subject of debate and discussion
among scholars and policymakers around the world.
∆ Contribution of Jean Bodin, Hugo Grotius, Jeremy Bentham
Social Contract/Consent Theory. (Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau)
•Social contract theory, also known as consent theory, is a political philosophy that argues
that individuals willingly give up some of their individual liberties and freedoms in
exchange for protection and security provided by a governing body. The concept of the
social contract was first introduced by the ancient Greeks, but it was popularized in
modern times by Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

1. Thomas Hobbes was one of the first proponents of the social contract theory. In his
work "Leviathan," Hobbes argued that without a strong government, human life
would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Hobbes believed that people
naturally have a desire for self-preservation, and that they enter into a social
contract to surrender some of their individual freedoms to a strong central
government in exchange for protection and security.
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2. John Locke expanded on Hobbes' ideas and believed that the social contract was a
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two-way agreement between the government and the people. In his work "Two
Treatises of Government," Locke argued that the government had a duty to protect
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the natural rights of individuals, including life, liberty, and property. If the
government failed to protect these rights, the people had the right to revolt and
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overthrow the government.

3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau took a different approach to social contract theory in his

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work "The Social Contract." Rousseau argued that the social contract was a result
of the general will of the people, and that government should act in the best interests
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of the people. Rousseau believed that individuals were naturally good but that
society and civilization corrupted them. He argued that the social contract could
restore a state of nature in which individuals could live in harmony with each other.

•In summary, social contract theory proposes that individuals willingly give up some of
their individual liberties and freedoms in exchange for protection and security provided by
a governing body. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau were influential political philosophers
who developed and expanded upon the concept of the social contract. While their ideas
differed in some respects, they all shared the belief that a strong government was necessary
to protect the interests and rights of individuals.
∆ John Austin’s Theory of Sovereignty.
 John Austin was an English philosopher and legal theorist who is best known for his
theory of legal positivism, which emphasizes the separation of law and morality.
Austin's theory of sovereignty is closely related to his legal positivist approach.

 According to Austin, sovereignty is the ultimate and absolute power vested in a state
or government to create, enforce, and interpret laws. He defined sovereignty as the
power to make laws that are obeyed by the majority of the people, and the power to
enforce these laws with sanctions, such as fines or imprisonment.

 Austin believed that the source of sovereignty lies in a social fact - namely, the
existence of a supreme power in a given society that is recognized and accepted by
the majority of the people. This supreme power, according to Austin, is embodied in
the government or the ruling authority, and it is this power that gives rise to the
legal system.
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 Austin's theory of sovereignty has several important implications. Firstly, it implies

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that the law is created by the sovereign and that the sovereign is the ultimate
authority in the legal system. This means that the law is not based on moral or
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natural principles, but rather on the will of the sovereign.

 Secondly, Austin's theory implies that the law is enforceable through coercion. The
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sovereign has the power to use force to ensure that the law is obeyed, and this power
is necessary to maintain social order.
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 Finally, Austin's theory has important implications for the relationship between the
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sovereign and the people. According to Austin, the sovereign is not accountable to
the people for its actions, and the people have no right to rebel against the sovereign.
This means that the sovereign has unlimited power, and that the people are
obligated to obey its laws.

 In summary, Austin's theory of sovereignty emphasizes the importance of the legal

system and the ultimate power of the state or government to create, enforce, and
interpret laws. His theory has had a significant impact on legal philosophy and
political theory, and it continues to be studied and debated by scholars today.

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