Energy 289 (2024) 130029

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Perspective for waste upcycling-driven zero energy buildings

Sungmin Yoon , Jechan Lee *
Department of Global Smart City & School of Civil, Architectural Engineering, and Landscape Architecture, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study proposes the novel concept of waste upcycling-driven zero energy building (W-ZEB). W-ZEB aims to
Carbon neutrality accelerate the development of zero-energy buildings by incorporating waste upcycling processes (e.g., waste-to-
Energy saving energy (WtE), insulation material recovery, and biochar used in green roofs), ultimately advancing towards plus-
Waste management
energy building. W-ZEB includes three approaches: (1) generating additional energy through WtE, (2) enhancing
Waste recycling
Zero energy building
building energy efficiency by utilizing advanced building materials recovered from waste, and (3) maintaining
Upcycling all elements and assets of W-ZEB using earnings obtained or saved from waste upcycling and management. To
implement W-ZEB effectively, a building energy and waste management system (BEWMS) is suggested to co­
ordinate and optimize energy demand, waste generation, and utilization, contributing to a net zero energy status
and zero solid waste to landfills throughout building life cycle. Practical insights and research directions for
unlocking the untapped potential of waste upcycling strategies to achieve zero-energy buildings are also
provided.

1. Introduction
The building sector plays an important role in achieving the Net Zero
Emissions by 2050 (NZE) scenario. To this end, various building con­
cepts, such as net zero-energy or zero-energy buildings, nearly zero-
energy buildings, zero-carbon-ready buildings, and plus-energy build­
ings, have been developed and implemented. These concepts are focused
on achieving highly energy-efficient building operations with low car­
bon emissions. This is accomplished through strategies such as mini­
mizing the energy loads of buildings, maximizing the operational energy
efficiency, incorporating renewable energy sources, and adopting data-
driven applications and building energy management systems. Recently,
focus has also been placed on incorporating grid-interactive building
operations that interact with power grids in the context of zero-energy
buildings [1].
Solid-waste management is also an essential aspect of city develop­
ment and is becoming a critical issue in developing countries because of
the rapidly increasing rate of urbanization. It embraces the processes
and actions required to manage solid waste from its inception to final
disposal (i.e., collection, transport, treatment, and disposal), along with
the monitoring and regulation of the technologies, processes, relevant
laws, and economic mechanisms regarding the same [2]. Waste upcy­
cling, which is the valorization of waste into value-added products, has
become a crucial part of solid waste management and is associated with
shortage of waste landfill sites and the demand for achieving carbon
neutrality.
The treatment of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated from
buildings might significantly contribute to achieving global carbon
neutrality. If MSW can be upcycled into heat, electricity, energy sources,
and energy-efficient materials, it has the potential to meet the energy
demands of building operations and reduce the overall building load.
The concept of MSW upcycling in relation to Zero Energy Buildings
(ZEB) not only helps reduce carbon emissions from waste treatment but
also contributes to energy efficiency and low carbon emissions in the
building operations using the waste upcycling-driven energy-efficient
materials, presenting a promising synergistic potential. Nevertheless,
there is a lack of research focusing on the synergy between waste
upcycling and ZEB. The federal energy management program, estab­
lished by the US Department of Energy, has published three handbooks
for new and existing federal buildings and campuses, providing guid­
ance for achieving net-zero status for energy, water, and waste [3].
While these handbooks address the individual aspects of energy, water,
and waste, they do not cover synergistic perspectives between net-zero
energy and waste upcycling in buildings.
Therefore, the objective of this study is to introduce a new and
innovative concept of waste upcycling-driven zero-energy building
(named W-ZEB) with the ultimate goal of achieving carbon neutrality.
This concept seeks to (1) enhance building energy efficiency using

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jechanlee@skku.edu (J. Lee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.130029
Received 27 September 2023; Received in revised form 5 December 2023; Accepted 14 December 2023
Available online 15 December 2023
0360-5442/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Yoon and J. Lee
advanced functional materials derived from waste upcycling technolo­
gies, and (2) generate additional energy from waste-to-energy processes,
establishing an interactive and synergetic approach that combines both
net-zero energy strategies and waste management. By integrating these
two aspects, which are typically addressed individually, this concept
aims to leverage synergies and accelerate the achievement of zero-
energy buildings while effectively treating MSW in the context of net-
zero energy and waste in the building sector. This can contribute to
overcoming the exiting limitations of individual approaches (e.g., WtE
and waste upcycling). Furthermore, the proposed concept of the W-ZEB
incorporates grid-interactive building operations at the building com­
munity level to improve the feasibility of its implementation and over­
come the exiting limitations in each building. This approach is designed
to minimize the physical distance between the waste production,
collection, sorting, transport, treatment, and utilization processes within
the building community, resulting in reduced greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions compared to conventional waste treatment methods.
Existing upcycling technologies for MSW have also been discussed
using typical energy efficiency measures and renewable energy systems
for ZEB to determine their potential and effects on energy savings and
generation in achieving the ZEB status. Based on the knowledge and
findings from the literature review, this study presents future research
directions and suggestions, offering insights into MSW upcycling stra­
tegies toward ZEB. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to
propose the concept of waste-upcycling-driven zero-energy buildings.
The proposed concept can contribute to achieving zero-energy buildings
with existing building technologies, thus accelerating progress towards
the NZE scenario and the concept of zero-carbon-ready buildings sug­
gested by the International Energy Agency and enabling the transition to
an advanced concept (e.g., plus-energy buildings). Moreover, this can
have a synergetic effect on MSW treatment and building energy effi­
ciency in terms of (1) achieving net zero energy and waste, and (2)
establishing the relationships between the three scopes of GHG ac­
counting and reporting (direct emissions, indirect emissions, and waste-
related emissions) in the GHG Protocol [4]. Fig. 1 schematically depicts
the overall concept of this study.
Fig. 1. Diagram of the concept proposed in this study.
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Energy 289 (2024) 130029
2. Potential applications of waste upcycling technologies to zero
energy building
2.1. Waste-to-energy for heat and electricity generation
2.1.1. Combustion-based energy production
Solid waste (e.g., MSW) is always produced during the management
and maintenance of buildings as a result of human use. Waste-to-energy
(WtE) is a process that generates energy (either in the form of heat or
electricity) via combustion (i.e., energy recovery from waste) and pro­
duces fuel sources from waste [5]. Cogeneration uses a single energy
source to produce two forms of energy: electrical and thermal. The heat
produced by burning fuel, which is often released into the atmosphere,
can be recaptured to warm a building or drive a turbine to generate
electricity that can be supplied to the building. WtE cogeneration
technologies allow the control of urban waste (e.g., MSW) and elevate
waste as a useful resource for the production of energy. High-efficiency
WtE cogeneration systems can reduce CO2 emissions and concomitant
fuel costs compared with conventional power generation systems [6].
Therefore, innovative and efficient use of WtE will promote the transi­
tion to low-carbon cities and ultimately contribute to the development
of a low-carbon society [7].
Uncontrollable amounts of MSW are generated daily from buildings.
As waste has huge deposits of energy that can have renewable energy
potential, energy recovery from MSW via combustion at cogeneration
plants helps find a sustainable means of waste disposal in buildings. WtE
cogeneration plants provide services in heat and electricity markets. The
energy recovered from MSW can participate in the day-ahead and real-
time electricity markets and satisfy the heat demand of local district
heating areas with the support of heat-only units [8]. Currently, most
WtE-based cogeneration facilities serve as supporting energy supplies to
cities (at least, counties). For example, the northern Jeju metropolitan
waste incineration facility (daily capacity:200 tons; operated by Veolia)
supplies waste heat (steam) to a nearby resort by reusing the thermal
energy for heating and hot water requirements at the resort as well as to
local residents and spa facilities [9]. This may help a city (or county)
fulfill some of its sustainable development goals (SDGs).
WtE technologies have great potential to provide a connecting link to
support the pursuit of SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 11
(Sustainable Cities and Communities) [10]. The Maximum Available
Control Technology in USA and the Waste Incineration Directive in
European Union, which are the more stringent legislations on air
S. Yoon and J. Lee
quality, have spurred the development of more complicated and effi­
cient incineration systems than simpler conventional systems. In gen­
eral, incineration-based WtE processes using MSW as feedstock have
lower efficiencies of electricity generation (between 25 % and 30 %
[11]). Nevertheless, advanced incineration systems have enhanced the
efficiency of WtE cogeneration systems by up to 80 % with a combina­
tion of combined heat and power (CHP) [12].
2.1.2. Stationary fuel cell-based energy production
Fuel cells are a promising clean energy technology because they emit
low or no greenhouse gases at the point of use and have higher efficiency
than conventional combustion technologies (e.g., CHP). In addition, fuel
cells can be scaled to power a large variety of applications such as light
and heavy-duty vehicles, portable electronic equipment, and stationary
power generation units. Among fuel cell applications, stationary fuel
cells operating on natural gas (methane) are well-established and
commercially available WtE technologies. Therefore, stationary fuel
cells have begun to enter the commercial market for applications such as
prime power for critical loads and emergency backup power [13]. Sta­
tionary fuel-cell systems can be used to supply electricity to office
buildings, dormitory rooms, hospitals, laboratories, and other perma­
nent facilities.
Transforming MSW to energy has considerable potential for reducing
dependence on fossil fuels, GHG emissions, and waste generation. This
potential has been recognized in the success of commercial, govern­
mental, and military projects [13]. The prime power and heat supplied
by stationary fuel cells can save approximately 2 MWh of electricity per
base annually, with an assumption of 30 % grid efficiency [14]. The
Joint Forces Training Base (Los Alamitos, California, USA) could save an
average of 117,000 kWh monthly at 80 % efficiency using fuel
cell-derived heat and power [14]. Fuel cell technology can achieve total
energy savings of 188 million kWh annually at a grid efficiency of 30 %
[15].
The integration of stationary fuel cells with anaerobic digesters of
organic waste (e.g., food waste) has also been successfully demonstrated
[16], involving the anaerobic digestion of organic waste to produce
methane, which can be used as the fuel for fuel cell. HDR Engineering
Inc. (Omaha, Nebraska, USA) installed a system in an onion farm to
convert onion waste into clean methane gas. Onion waste-derived
methane was used to operate a 600-kW solid oxide fuel cell system to
supply power and heat to the onion processing facility in the farm. The
fuel cell system resulted in a 99 % reduction in onion waste and
providing 47 % electrical efficiency at 480 V. The overall efficiency was
further improved by using heat generated from the fuel cell. Although
the costs for methane gas cleanup and fuel cell operation were about
$9.6 million, an internal return on investment for the system was set to
be less than 6 years, assuming $800,000 in annual energy and hauling
savings [17].
2.2. Production of insulation materials from waste
Insulation materials made from MSW have been in focus in terms of
sustainable development and building design across the building in­
dustry [18]. Bulky fiber materials (e.g., cellulose, natural fibers, rock/­
slag wool, and fiberglass) are commonly made from waste feedstocks
that can resist conductive and convective heat flows in building cavities.
Various waste substances (e.g., leather waste [19], textile waste [20],
and food processing residues [21]) have been used as feedstocks for the
preparation of thermal insulation materials. The addition of natural fi­
bers (e.g., bamboo fibers) to an optimal degree improved the thermal
conductivity of polyester composites [22]. Some of the reported thermal
insulation materials meet national standards [23].
Building construction and demolition waste accounts for a consid­
erable portion of the solid waste in landfills [24]. The upcycling of
building construction and demolition waste via pyrolysis is considered
to be a promising option for producing recycled fiber materials that can
3
Energy 289 (2024) 130029
be reused as building insulation materials. The net value of
pyrolysis-based carbon fiber recycling is estimated to be approximately
$6,100, which is more profitable than typical mechanical recycling.
Moreover, pyrolysis has been demonstrated as a ready-to-go approach
for recycling materials made of fiberglass-reinforced polyester or epoxy
[25].
Recycled fiber materials obtained from the pyrolysis of glass or
carbon fibers can exhibit suitable properties for thermal and acoustic
sound insulation. Recycled glass fibers could exhibit a thermal con­
ductivity comparable to commercial insulation material [26]. In addi­
tion, recycled glass-fiber-reinforced polymer materials have an average
acoustic absorption coefficient of 0.8, applicable to acoustic absorptions
of 100–6400 Hz [26]. Recycled fibers are less expensive than virgin fi­
bers although they exhibit good thermal and sound insulating properties
[27].
In addition to the aforementioned waste-derived insulation mate­
rials, an approach that uses waste substances together with phase-
change materials (PCM) to manufacture composite materials for build­
ing materials has recently emerged. The PCM absorbs and releases
thermal energy during melting and solidification (latent heat). Through
phase transitions, PCM can store and release large amounts of heat
within a relatively small range of temperature changes [28]. Choi et al.
prepared composite materials using coffee waste and a micro­
encapsulated PCM for application as building interior finishing mate­
rials [29]. Coffee waste was successfully degreased with ethanol to
produce composites, and addition of 10 % PCM improved the thermal
performance with a latent heat of 3.8 J g− 1. The coffee waste/PCM
composite had a higher sound absorption coefficient and exhibited
improved acoustic performance, particularly at medium frequencies (i.
e., café noise). More recently, Abdulmunem et al. reported materials
composed of recycled waste paper, PCM, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
panels used as inner claddings for buildings [30]. With a recycled waste
paper content of 75 %, the acoustical insulation capacity was improved
by 7 %, and the necessary electricity cost and cooling load was decreased
by 16.3 % and 19 %, respectively, compared with PCM-filled PVC panels
alone. These results have experimentally proven that composite mate­
rials consisting of waste and PCM have great potential as new sustain­
able building insulation materials that can contribute to reducing the
cooling and heating load of buildings.
2.3. Using biochar in green roofs
A green roof is a building roof that is partially or fully covered with
vegetation/growth medium planted over a waterproofing membrane
and includes layers of root barriers, drainage, and irrigation systems.
Green roofs have many advantages, which include creating an urban
wilderness, enhancing building aesthetics, reducing stormwater runoff,
acting as air pollutant filters, increasing agricultural space, contributing
to Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) points, and
reducing the average temperature of buildings, particularly in summer.
Biochar is a residual byproduct of biomass and organic waste that
undergoes thermochemical conversions (e.g., gasification, pyrolysis,
and hydrothermal carbonization), considered as a sustainable functional
material. Recently, biochar has emerged as an ideal soilless component
for green roof installations. Biochar-containing green roofs exhibit high
water holding capacity (mainly attributed to their large specific surface
area and abundant micropores), thereby decreasing the discharge of
nutrients (e.g., N and P) [31]. Water-holding capacity is an important
function of green roof growing media, as it ensures low nutrient con­
centrations in storm water runoff. The addition of biochar allows lighter
green roof substrates and enhances plant water supply, making it
possible not only expand plant selection in dry climates but also to
improve the stormwater retention of the substrates [32]. CharGrow
(Mills River, North Carolina, USA) sells wood-derived biochar for green
roofs (BioChar Prime™) certified by the US Department of Agriculture
BioPreferred Program.
S. Yoon and J. Lee
3. Waste upcycling-driven ZEB (W-ZEB)
3.1. Overall concept of waste upcycling-driven ZEB
This section describes the concept of W-ZEB. The proposed concept
aims to accelerate the development of zero-energy buildings by incor­
porating waste upcycling approaches, thereby facilitating the transition
to the advanced concept of plus-energy buildings. As shown in Fig. 2, the
proposed concept includes the following objectives: (1) generating
additional energy through waste-to-energy processes, (2) enhancing
building energy efficiency by utilizing advanced building materials
upcycled from MSW, and (3) conducting continuous maintenance of all
elements and assets of W-ZEB using earnings obtained or saved from
waste upcycling and management. To unleash the synergetic potential
between waste-to-energy and waste-to-material approaches, the energy
obtained from waste treatment is utilized as an energy source for pro­
ducing energy-efficient building materials through waste upcycling
processes. Functional carbon materials derived from organic waste (e.g.,
animal manure) (or ultimately MSW) can potentially be applied to en­
ergy conversion, storage, and harvesting in W-ZEBs [33,34]. The earn­
ings generated from trading waste-upcycled materials in markets can
provide financial support for the procurement and maintenance neces­
sary to sustain the continuous implementation of this concept
throughout a building’s life cycle. By combining net-zero energy stra­
tegies with waste upcycling (including the potential for achieving
net-zero waste), this concept aims to establish interactive and synergetic
approaches towards achieving carbon neutrality. This can contribute to
overcoming the exiting limitations of individual approaches (e.g., WtE
and waste upcycling).
To enhance the feasibility of the proposed concept and overcome the
existing limitations in each building, it is crucial to extend its application
Fig. 2. Diagram for the concept, approaches, and strategies of W-ZEB in the building community.
4
Energy 289 (2024) 130029
to grid-interactive building operations in community-level ZEBs. This
approach can minimize the physical distances between waste produc­
tion, collection, sorting, transport, treatment, and utilization processes
in the building community, leading to a reduction in GHG emissions
compared with existing waste treatment systems. Specifically, the en­
ergy and materials derived from community-level MSW are used effec­
tively for individual buildings depending on their load characteristics,
energy efficiency status, or new building construction. Waste from
buildings that have already achieved net zero energy status can be
upcycled and utilized for other buildings that have not yet achieved net
zero energy status or energy-inefficient buildings. This concept reveals
the untapped synergistic potential for realizing both net zero energy and
net zero waste in building communities.
3.2. Two approaches to achieving W-ZEB
Two approaches contribute to achieving a net-zero energy status in
the building community: (1) energy-based and (2) material-based ap­
proaches, as depicted in Fig. 3.
3.2.1. Energy-based W-ZEB
Additional energy in the form of heat or electricity generated from
WtE processes is utilized during building operations. This energy can be
produced directly through WtE methods (e.g., cogeneration), as dis­
cussed in Section 2.1.1, or indirectly through WtE-driven energy sources
(e.g., fuel cell sources), as discussed in Section 2.1.2. WtE-driven energy
production can be directly used within buildings or connected to ther­
mal and power grids for demand response. Thermal energy can be in­
tegrated into fourth-generation district heating systems [35], whereas
electricity can be incorporated into grid-interactive building operations.
Moreover, as stated in the IEA’s report on "Energy and Digitalization,"
S. Yoon and J. Lee
Fig. 3. Two approaches for W-ZEB.
electricity usage for digital operational technology (sensors, actuators,
displays, and controllers) in buildings for energy efficiency is expected
to have a significant share in total energy consumption under carbon
neutrality scenarios [36]. In this context, WtE was adopted as a new
energy-generation approach to achieve the goals of zero-energy build­
ings and compensate for the changing energy demands in buildings.
3.2.2. Materials-based W-ZEB
Waste upcycling has been employed to produce energy-efficient
building materials from community waste. These materials are (1)
designed to reduce building thermal and energy loads, (2) used for en­
ergy conversion, storage, and harvesting, and (3) considered as
advanced functional materials fabricated for IoT (Internet of Things)
devices and sensors deployed in ZEB management systems. In particular,
waste-upcycled materials can be used to fabricate passive building ele­
ments, including thermal insulation (as discussed in Section 2.2),
biochar-based green roofs (as discussed in Section 2.3), shading devices,
plastic air ducts, air filters, membrane-based enthalpy exchangers,
fouling-resistant polymer nanocomposite coatings for heat exchanger
fouling mitigation, and advanced films for heating, and cooling in
reducing building energy loads while improving indoor environmental
quality. Carbon materials derived from MSW have great potential for use
in a variety of applications, such as carbon dots, carbon nanotubes,
carbon nanospheres, carbon nanosheets, 3D carbon architectures, and
carbon-based composites with proper modification and activation [37].
Waste-to-material strategies may potentially be applied to manufacture
electrode materials for energy conversion (e.g., electrocatalytic water
splitting and CO2 reduction reactions) and energy storage (e.g., super­
capacitors, batteries, and fuel cells) in the ZEB context. Moreover,
5
Energy 289 (2024) 130029
advanced functional materials including silicone rubbers, polymers, fi­
bers, and fabric materials have been upcycled from MSW to fabricate
biosensors, environmental sensors, and IoT devices for intelligent and
smart building management [38]. This advanced sensing can enable
occupant behavior-centric energy-efficient operations with a building
energy management system (BEMS), considering occupant presence,
conditions, thermal comfort, and various indoor environmental qualities
[39]. The energy required for these waste upcycling can be partially or
fully covered by the energy production from Approach 1 or other ap­
proaches in community-level building operations. Unlike the one-time
waste-to-energy transition in the first approach, the second approach
allows energy savings and efficiency improvements using the
energy-efficient building materials and the advanced functional mate­
rials during the long-term operation of a building.
These building materials are utilized in both new construction pro­
jects and retrofits within communities. For new building construction,
the types of materials derived from existing waste upcycling processes
within the community can be carefully considered. In the case of ret­
rofitting energy-inefficient buildings, if the ZEB elements required to
achieve net zero energy are identified using data-driven diagnostic ap­
plications [40], and waste upcycling can be implemented to produce the
necessary materials for these target ZEB elements (e.g., envelope insu­
lation) in the building community. Table 1 presents the characteristics of
the W-ZEB approaches based on the ZEB elements and building lifecycle.
3.3. Strategies of BEWMS to efficient and sustainable W-ZEB
Two strategies for the efficient and sustainable implementation of W-
ZEB are introduced, as shown in Fig. 4, proposing a building energy and
S. Yoon and J. Lee Energy 289 (2024) 130029

Table 1 distance from waste production to utilization and disposal processes

Characteristics of W-ZEB approaches.
Approaches Key ZEB elements Main life cycle
Energy- ● Renewable systems Operation
based ● Energy sources for waste upcycling
Material- ● Passive elements Fabrication,
based ● Materials for renewable energy construction, or
● Advanced functional materials for retrofit
management applications (e.g.,
sensors)
waste management system (BEWMS).
3.3.1. Efficient operation for W-ZEB
Establishing smart waste management systems such as smart waste
collection [41] and sorting [42] systems and integrating them into a
grid-interactive BEMS are crucial steps towards developing intelligent
Building Energy and Waste Management System (BEWMS). By incor­
porating waste management functionalities into BEMS, buildings can
enhance their energy generation and operational efficiency while
effectively handling and upcycling waste materials. This integration
allows for better coordination between energy demand, waste genera­
tion, and waste utilization, ultimately contributing to a net zero energy
status and zero solid waste to landfills over the building life cycle.
Using the BEWMS, the types of materials derived from existing waste
upcycling processes can be thoroughly assessed for their suitability for
new building construction within the community. When retrofitting
energy-inefficient buildings or conducting maintenance in operational
buildings, waste upcycling is recommended to focus on producing the
specific materials required for the retrofitting and maintenance of ZEB
elements. Operational faults and inefficient elements can be diagnosed
using a building energy diagnostic application [43] integrated into the
BEWMS. This approach ensures that waste upcycling efforts are targeted
and aligned with the energy-efficiency needs of operational buildings,
new building construction, and retrofit projects in the community.
3.3.2. Continuous maintenance for W-ZEB
Waste upcycling and management systems can generate additional
revenue by trading surplus functional materials beyond community
waste demands and can achieve cost savings by minimizing the physical
within the community. By optimizing waste management and upcycling
processes through the proposed BEWMS, this strategy not only supports
self-sufficiency within the community, but also creates potential eco­
nomic benefits through external material trading and reduced waste
treatment costs. Although the monetary benefits obtained from waste
upcycling may not be substantial, they can be used effectively to reduce
building maintenance costs related to energy efficiency and waste
upcycling. With the advancement of grid-interactive BEMS, periodic
maintenance is essential to prevent (1) the deterioration of building
equipment, energy systems, IoT sensor networks, and communication
devices and (2) poor building operations from data-driven applications
with erroneous sensors and communications. The funds accumulated
from waste management can support the procurement and maintenance
of the continuous implementation of ZEB technologies with the pro­
posed concepts and approaches throughout the building lifecycle. For
instance, building system performance depends on operational heat
exchanger fouling levels [44], and the soiling of photovoltaic panels can
significantly affect power generation [45]. Moreover, the reliability of
sensors in building automation and energy management systems has a
significant impact on building energy consumption, indoor environ­
mental quality, and data-driven application performance within the
context of ZEB [46,47], where advancements in machine learning, big
data analytics, sensor networks, and communication technologies have
been utilized. Thus, faulty sensing applications can be addressed by
calibrating or replacing the sensors with new ones to prevent the po­
tential impact of measurement errors in BEWMS.
4. Summary and perspective
This study proposes the concept of waste-upcycling-driven ZEB,
including two approaches and strategies for W-ZEB at the building
community level. To assess the feasibility of implementing this concept
in support of net-zero energy and waste, a quantitative investigation is
needed to determine the appropriate community size and type (or
optimal community boundary), such as university campuses, apartment
complexes, and industrial complexes, depending on building energy and
waste characteristics. It is important to establish smart waste-
management systems and incorporate them within a grid-interactive
BEMS towards the BEWMS.

Fig. 4. BEWMS for sustaining the efficient W-ZEB.

6
S. Yoon and J. Lee
The interactions between Scope 1 (direct emissions), Scope 2 (indi­
rect emissions), and Scope 3 (waste-related emissions) were considered
for GHG accounting and reporting purposes while proposing the concept
of waste upcycling-driven zero energy buildings that can contribute to
the GHG inventory development and management within the building
community. By effectively managing and upcycling waste from building
operations, this concept can reduce Scope 3 emissions, particularly those
related to waste generation and disposal. The generation of renewable
energy and the use of energy-efficient materials contributing to reduc­
tion Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions, respectively. Consequently, the
implementation of this concept can positively impact overall GHG
management by addressing multiple aspects of energy use and waste
management in buildings.
The W-ZEB concept proposed in this study can accelerate the
development of zero-energy buildings by integrating waste upcycling
approaches in building communities enabled by the integration of a
building energy and waste management system (BEWMS). The proposed
concept includes generating additional energy through waste-to-energy
processes, enhancing building energy efficiency using advanced upcy­
cled materials from MSW, and conducting continuous maintenance
using the earnings from waste upcycling. The BEWMS enables the
optimization of W-ZEB operations, enhancing the coordination between
energy demand, waste generation, and waste utilization. The energy
obtained from waste treatment can be utilized as an energy source to
produce energy-efficient building materials through waste upcycling.
Functional carbon materials from waste upcycling can be utilized in
energy conversion, storage, and harvesting. Additionally, earnings from
trading waste-upcycled materials can provide financial support to sus­
tain this concept throughout a building’s life cycle. By combining net
zero energy strategies with waste upcycling, W-ZEB aims to establish
interactive and synergetic approaches towards achieving carbon
neutrality.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Sungmin Yoon: Conceptualization, Writing - original draft, Writing
- review & editing. Jechan Lee: Conceptualization, Writing - original
draft, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) grants funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No.
2022R1C1C1008541 and RS-2023-00209044).
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