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The reliability of accelerometry to measure weightlifting

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Article in Sports Biomechanics · November 2012

DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2012.724703 · Source: PubMed

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The reliability of accelerometry to

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Kimitake Sato , William A. Sands & Michael H. Stone
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Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East
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To cite this article: Kimitake Sato, William A. Sands & Michael H. Stone (2012): The reliability of
accelerometry to measure weightlifting performance, Sports Biomechanics, 11:4, 524-531

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 Sports Biomechanics
November 2012; 11(4): 524–531

The reliability of accelerometry to measure weightlifting

performance

KIMITAKE SATO, WILLIAM A. SANDS, & MICHAEL H. STONE

Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson
City, TN, USA
Downloaded by [Kimitake Sato] at 04:57 08 November 2012

(Received 7 April 2012; accepted 15 August 2012)

Abstract
The purposes of the study were to track weightlifters’ barbell acceleration with a portable accelerometer
over three training sessions to examine test – retest reliability and to compare peak barbell acceleration
at different training intensities. Twelve nationally ranked weightlifters volunteered for this study. The
portable accelerometer was attached to the right side of the barbell to measure barbell resultant
acceleration during the snatch lift at a sampling frequency of 100 Hz. The data were collected over
three training sessions at intensity levels of 80%, 85%, and 90% of one repetition maximum. The data
were analyzed using intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) for the three training sessions and one-
way repeated measure ANOVA to compare the difference in peak barbell acceleration at three
intensities. Results showed that the device was highly reliable with an ICC of 0.88 and 95% confidence
interval of 0.81 – 0.93. There were significant differences in peak barbell acceleration at various lifting
intensities, indicating a decline of the acceleration as the mass of the barbell became heavier. The
portable accelerometer seems useful in measuring barbell acceleration data, which can be analyzed in
future studies to monitor a weightlifter’s performance in a practical setting instead of testing at a
laboratory.

Keywords: Barbell acceleration, training intensity, portable accelerometer, snatch lift

Introduction
When designing a workout program, a typical procedure to estimate appropriate workload is
to utilize a one repetition maximum (1RM) to calculate training volume loads (sets,
repetitions, and weights). This approach has been one of the most useful procedures to
improve strength from youth to elite levels (Baechle & Earle, 2000; Stone et al., 2006a,
2006b). Even though this approach may be one of the most reliable and accurate procedures
in training weightlifters and other athletes, coaches are still required to have a keen eye to
detect athletes’ small day-to-day performance change. If coaches do not have enough
experience and the appropriate tools to detect the small changes, they may find some
difficulty in detecting a level of improvement or physical fatigue.

Correspondence: Kimitake Sato, Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University,
Campus Box 70654, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA, E-mail: jpnsatok@hotmail.com

ISSN 1476-3141 print/ISSN 1752-6116 online q 2012 Taylor & Francis

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2012.724703
 The reliability of accelerometry 525

In order to evaluate lifting technique, motion analysis software is necessary. The software
provides quick visual feedback to detect errors in techniques. Quantitative measures provide
more sophisticated biomechanical data to evaluate the lifting technique and performance
(Isaka et al., 1996; Lee et al., 1996; Hiskia, 1997; Stone et al., 1998; Gourgoulis et al., 2000;
Schilling et al., 2002; Haff et al., 2003; Gourgoulis et al., 2004). In reality, if a lifter requests
biomechanical assessment, a testing site usually requires a laboratory setting. Laboratory
testing is logistically difficult for lifters and coaches because it is time consuming and the
athletes’ time can be constrained by the laboratory’s schedule.
Availability of sophisticated laboratory testing is also limited for many lifters. For these
reasons, it could be beneficial to have easy-to-use testing instruments to capture and evaluate
lifters’ performance at the training site with real-time feedback to coaches and athletes.
During the last 20 years, the biomechanics of weightlifting for both the snatch and clean
and jerk have been studied extensively. The intent of analyzing lifting technique has been to
(1) understand how successful lifts are different from unsuccessful lifts and (2) establish a
Downloaded by [Kimitake Sato] at 04:57 08 November 2012

baseline of typical technique of elite weightlifters (Garhammer & Hatfield, 1985; Bartonietz,
1996; Isaka et al., 1996; Barton, 1997; Hiskia, 1997; Stone et al., 1998; Gourgoulis et al.,
2000; Schilling et al., 2002; Haff et al., 2003; Gourgoulis et al., 2004; Sato et al., 2009a).
Commonly measured variables from previous studies are barbell path, velocity, mechanical
work, and power. However, Stone et al. (2006a) postulated that it is difficult to predict
perfect technique based on biomechanical characteristics because of small inter-lifter
variations in lifting technique. For example, although peak power is consistently higher
among world-class lifters than at lower competitive levels, there are also some variations in
kinematics such as barbell velocity and trajectory (Garhammer & Hatfield, 1985; Stone et al.,
2006a). When speaking about lifting technique from an anthropometric perspective, smaller
lifters may not require high barbell velocities because they require shorter vertical barbell
displacement for the catch in both snatch and clean as compared to taller lifters. Rather,
research focus should be examining the optimal barbell velocity in order to achieve a desired
barbell height for the catch. Barbell acceleration, which is a fundamental variable for
kinematic analysis, seems an under-reported variable in weightlifting studies. Studies
(Garhammer & Hatfield, 1985; Gourgoulis et al., 2000) have displayed a vertical barbell
acceleration graph, but no further discussion was provided regarding the interpretation of
the graph. As barbell acceleration is proportional to the force applied to the barbell, barbell
acceleration could be an important variable to assess weightlifting performance.
A recently published article reported that a wireless accelerometer is an economical device
that accurately measures acceleration as well as an expensive high-speed camera for
kinematic analysis (Sato et al., 2009b). The data transfer from the device to a laptop occurs
wirelessly thus avoiding any interference with the athlete from the researchers during the
training session. The software allows immediate feedback, and most importantly, data
collection can be done at a training site rather than lifters reporting to a laboratory. A portable
accelerometer has been used in performance-based studies, and it has proven helpful in the
assessment of athletes’ performances (Casatelli et al., 2010; Kraemer, 2010). Using this type
of wireless accelerometer could be useful in evaluating weightlifting performance, and there
is a need for testing an accelerometer in the training environment across multiple sessions to
ensure reliability and to interpret barbell acceleration data at various intensities. Therefore,
the primary purpose of this study was to assess the test – retest reliability of a portable
accelerometer system in measuring the peak barbell acceleration of national-level
weightlifters over three training sessions. The secondary purpose was to investigate the
effects of different training intensities on peak barbell acceleration. It was hypothesized that
the potable accelerometer system would show high test –retest reliability in barbell
 526 K. Sato et al.

acceleration over multiple training sessions and the peak barbell acceleration would show a
gradual decline as the overall intensity increases from 80% to 90% of 1RM.

Methods
Men’s and women’s weightlifting resident team members at the Colorado Springs Olympic
Training Center participated in this study (N ¼ 12). The athletes’ demographic profiles are
shown in Table I. The athletes were free of injuries at the time of data collection. The data
were collected during the period of their strength development phase leading up to a
competition. This study was conducted in compliance with policies of the United States
Olympic Committee on the testing of athletic participants.
A triaxial accelerometer (PS-2119, Pasco Scientific, Roseville, CA, USA) was used to
measure barbell acceleration, and was attached to a Bluetoothe wireless device (Pasco
Pasport Airlink SI (PS-2005)). Recently, published data reported that this device measured
Downloaded by [Kimitake Sato] at 04:57 08 November 2012

acceleration as accurately as a high-speed camera at the same sampling rate (Sato et al.,
2009b). The total mass of the unit is 170.1 g. In order to minimize external shock when
lifters drop the barbell, a foam unit was designed to secure the accelerometer to the end of
the bar (Figure 1). The total mass of the unit plus the foam was 240.3 g, which is equivalent
to a metal barbell collar. The accelerometer unit was placed on the right side of the bar,
relative to a lifter, and the metal collar was placed on the left side of the bar during data
collection. Thus, the weight of the accelerometer should not interfere with a lifter’s ability to
sense asymmetry of weight between the left and right sides of the barbell. The foam
protection was necessary due to the nature of the sport; lifters drop the bar after completion
of a lift. It is also important to note that the orientation of the sensor had to remain in a
constant position relative to the bar throughout the lift to avoid aberrant signal from the
resultant acceleration. The unit was placed directly underneath the barbell prior to each trial
(Figure 1).
All participants reported to the training facility of USA weightlifting for data collection,
and were provided the testing procedure. The athletes performed a self-selected bout of
stretching and warm-up as they normally do before a training session. A specific warm-
up included static and dynamic stretching of the whole body, back squats, and weightlifting
movements with light weights leading up to 80% of 1RM. The testing intensity of 80%, 85%,
and 90% of each athlete’s 1RM was based on their best records in the snatch at previous
official meets. The identical procedure was used to collect these data over three different
days (seven days apart).
During the pilot test, the investigator could be up to 30 m away from the lifter and capture
the acceleration data wirelessly without loss of signal. For this study, the investigators were
positioned approximately 5 m away from the platform. The barbell acceleration data were
collected by performing a snatch lift for three repetitions at an intensity of 80%, 85%, and
90% of 1RM on three different test dates.

Table I. Descriptive data for participant characteristics (M^ SD).

Male (n ¼ 7) Female (n ¼ 5)

Age (year) 23.0 ^ 3.4 20.0 ^ 1.4

Body height (m) 1.78 ^ 0.11 1.63 ^ 0.10
Body mass (kg) 98.0 ^ 24.0 71.8 ^ 16.7
Training experience (year) 7.3 ^ 1.7 5.8 ^ 1.1
 The reliability of accelerometry 527
Downloaded by [Kimitake Sato] at 04:57 08 November 2012

Figure 1. Accelerometer attachment to the barbell.

Data were collected with DataStudioe software (Version 1.9, Pasco Scientific) which
acquires, displays, and analyzes the data. A sampling rate of the accelerometer was set at
100 Hz. Recent studies showed that 100 Hz is an appropriate sampling rate to capture
weightlifting motions (Sato et al., 2009a, 2009b). The acceleration data are displayed in
‘real-time’ for immediate feedback. This tri-axial accelerometer summed x, y, and z-axes of
acceleration for data analysis. The data automatically removed gravity of 9.8 m/s2, as the
stationary or constant velocity displays zero acceleration. A typical trend of barbell
acceleration of the snatch is shown in Figure 2. A previous pilot study showed that the
highest barbell acceleration is typically generated during the second pull phase of the snatch
among experienced weightlifters and collegiate athletes. The second pull is also a critical
phase of weightlifting where forces are exerted to lift the bar over-head for the snatch
(Garhammer & Hatfield, 1985; Stone et al., 2006a). Based on this information, our focus of
the barbell acceleration measurement has been the instantaneous point of the second pull,
where the highest barbell acceleration is achieved.
To address the first research question, each intensity level of the data was averaged using
three repetitions for each lifter (Henry, 1967). Then the values were analyzed additionally
across three testing days for intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) to obtain test –retest
reliability (Kroll, 1967; Carmines & Zeller, 1979; Hopkins, 2000). To address the second
research question, each intensity level was averaged using all lifters’ data and analyzed with a
one-way repeated measure ANOVA to compare the peak barbell acceleration on various
intensities ( p ¼ 0.05). The SPSSw Predictive Analytics SoftWare was used for the analyses
(SPSS version 17: An IBM company, New York, NY, USA).
 528 K. Sato et al.
Downloaded by [Kimitake Sato] at 04:57 08 November 2012

Figure 2. Barbell acceleration data of snatch.

Results
Test – retest ICC of the peak barbell acceleration results over the multiple training sessions
was r ¼ 0.88, with 95% confidence interval of 0.81 –0.93. Similar data outcome between the
different training sessions was shown with high ICCs of r ¼ 0.95 between training day 1 and
2, r ¼ 0.86 between training day 1 and 3, and 0.85 between training day 2 and 3.
A one-way repeated measure ANOVA was calculated by comparing the intensity levels of
80%, 85%, and 90% of the 1RM. Statistical significance was found (F2,10 ¼ 25.34,
p , 0.01) with an effect size of 0.84 from h 2 calculation. Peak barbell acceleration was
19.96 ^ 2.69 m/s2 at 80%, 15.98 ^ 2.73 m/s2 at 85%, and 13.73 ^ 3.15 m/s2 at 90% of
1RM with coefficient of variance in 13.5%, 17.1%, and 23.0%, respectively. Follow-
up paired sample t-tests revealed that the peak barbell acceleration decreased significantly
from 80% to 85% ( p , 0.01), from 80% to 90% ( p , 0.01), and from 85% to 90%
( p , 0.01).

Discussion
The primary purpose of the study was to track peak barbell acceleration from three different
intensities over three training sessions to obtain ICCs for test –retest reliability. A previous
study (Sato et al., 2009b) noted that the acceleration device was valid based on high
correlations of barbell acceleration data with a high-speed camera at the same sampling rate
(100 Hz), but it was not tested for test – retest reliability over several different days of data
collection. The results of this study addressed the concern by showing relatively high ICCs
(95% confidence interval of 0.81 –0.93), which indicated that each lifter’s peak barbell
acceleration at three intensities was consistent on multiple training sessions. Within the
15-day period (day 1, day 8, and day 15 of data collection), it is possible that lifters can get
 The reliability of accelerometry 529

stronger from the daily training over 15 days. Based on this study, peak barbell acceleration
appeared to remain stable with the same load during the 15-day window. And it is assumed
that strength gain over the 15 days was minimal and therefore did not affect the peak barbell
acceleration. However, it is important to note that the small deviation of variability within a
lifter over multiple trials may exist due to lifting mechanics variation. Overall, the high ICC
values in this study support the notion that the device is reliable over multiple days of data
collection. This device may be useful for barbell acceleration tracking purposes over short or
long periods of training. The potential findings may become extremely important for
monitoring athletes over a long period.
The secondary purpose was to compare different training intensities to examine how they
influence peak barbell acceleration. The results of the study supported the hypothesis that
barbell acceleration decreased as the mass of the bar increased from 80% to 85% and from
85% to 90% of 1RM. It is logical to conclude that peak barbell acceleration decreased due to
increasing load.
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An interesting observation captured during the pilot study noted peak barbell acceleration
stayed relatively constant from 50% to 80% of 1RM during our initial pilot study. This is one
reason to collect the present data from 80% of 1RM. This consistency indicates that the
changes in barbell mass from 50% to 80% of 1RM did not affect the peak barbell acceleration,
but increasing mass did change the pattern of acceleration when intensity exceeded 80% of
1RM. It appears that approximately 80 –85% of 1RM could be the threshold for decreasing
acceleration of the barbell for these lifters. Furthermore, the acceleration decline could also
be interpreted that the lifter’s force production applied to the barbell reaches near maximal. In
this study, the peak force data were not reported. The peak force values among lifters varied
due to extreme difference in amount of weights they tested. This was caused by the weight
class difference (i.e. 53 kg female vs. 105þ kg male lifter), then the peak force at each intensity
greatly varied. For this reason, future studies need to identify appropriate statistical
procedures to address this issue. Moreover, future studies need to test participants who are
relatively in the same weight class to minimize variation in the peak force. Further
investigation is essential to understand how strength increase influences the peak acceleration
over long-term monitoring on athletes. Expectation would be an increase in peak acceleration
with strength gain. Increased force production may lead to maintained peak acceleration at
higher loads, or the peak acceleration may be higher.
Previous studies explained the importance of measuring peak power (Garhammer &
Hatfield, 1985; Casatelli et al., 2010; Kraemer, 2010). Like other portable devices, this unit
does not measure power output; however, acceleration is perhaps the single unique variable
that, if measured easily, could serve as a vital feedback tool in sport tasks. The investigators
were interested at the instantaneous point of peak barbell acceleration during the bar path at
the second pull phase of the snatch. Reporting averaged acceleration value was another
option but it may omit important information about a key period of acceleration. Although
there is no literature supporting that the second pull is more important than the other phases
of the lift, the instantaneous point of the second pull appears more important when assessing
the explosiveness to lift the bar for catch.
Previous studies displayed a graph of only vertical acceleration in the snatch (Garhammer
& Hatfield, 1985; Gourgoulis et al., 2000). This study collected and resolved data as the
resultant acceleration (x, y, and z). Investigators in this study believe that it is important to
capture resultant acceleration because a typical bar movement approximates an S-shaped
curve in the sagittal plane (Isaka et al., 1996; Gourgoulis et al., 2000; Haff et al., 2003;
Gourgoulis et al., 2004). Especially, during the second pull, it is less likely to capture bar
trajectory as purely vertical. Therefore, resultant acceleration may be more accurate measure
 530 K. Sato et al.

than just vertical acceleration. However, a limitation needs to be mentioned about a lack of
knowledge in difference between single-axis versus tri-axes acceleration measures.
The present data were taken from nationally high-ranked weightlifters. The Olympic
training center is one of few locations to collect such data for research purpose. As the
accelerometer is valid and reliable, taking the device to elsewhere to collect data from larger
samples in future.
Olympic weightlifting movements and variations (power snatch/power clean) are well
utilized in the strength and conditioning field. The benefits of accelerometry for coaches
evaluating lifts are many. Previous study showed the importance of immediate visual and
verbal feedback to improve power snatch technique (Winchester et al., 2009). Accelerometer
data could be used in a similar way. Additionally, attempting lifts of maximal weight are one
way to measure how athletes improve their strength over long term, but measuring the peak
barbell acceleration can be another useful assessment to observe progression of an athlete’s
force production capability.
Downloaded by [Kimitake Sato] at 04:57 08 November 2012

Another benefit is that when tracking the peak barbell acceleration throughout a single
training session, significant decreases in acceleration for later stages of a training session
could be an indicator of fatigue (i.e. less force is being applied to accelerate the barbell).
In weightlifting training, and arguably in any sport, over-reaching or fatigue is a critical
measure of adaptation. However, there is no scientific evidence on a practical, non-invasive
way to measure it. Force is another way to measure performance and it is proportional to
acceleration, the accelerometer may allow us the ability to indirectly measure fatigue in a
practical way in the training environment. If the athlete continues to lift after becoming
substantially fatigued, this may lead to poor training adaptation and over-training/overuse
injuries. Describing and identifying fatigue are difficult, but barbell acceleration may be a
suitable assessment for detecting fatigue via declining acceleration values. This idea is
consistent with one study, reporting that barbell velocity of the clean decreased without an
adequate amount of rest (Haff et al., 2003). Therefore, an appropriate period of rest between
repetitions and sets is a key to delay fatigue and perhaps enhance performance.

Conclusion
The accelerometer was reliable in tracking peak barbell acceleration over multiple sessions.
With the validation of the previous study, the unit accurately measured a critical component
of weightlifting, and it is possibly useful for performance assessment. Future research may
attempt to obtain normative data on barbell acceleration such that lifters can assess
themselves against a ‘gold standard.’ If this concept holds true, it would be appropriate to
compare the data and gauge progress among lifters of all abilities. Although further
investigations are merited, this study provides some insight into the benefits that barbell
accelerometry measurement may have for weightlifting performance.

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