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motor supports and, last but not least, the tires. Typical values of the Fig. 5. Comparison of PRBS responses for a vehicle speed of about 15 km/h.
most crucial first eigenfrequency lie in the range of 5 to 50 Hz de- Blue: Measured data. Red: Simulated model with identified parameters. Dashed
lines: measured data. Solid lines: simulated model with identified parameters
pending on the drive train design. It was about 8 Hz with the test
vehicle.
For the purpose of controller design, a model of the drive train is re- to identify. However, one must be aware that the model is just a sim-
quired first. A rather simple model, which is suited to the crucial phe- plification of the real system and that the artificial model elements do
nomena, is used here. The model consists of a two-mass system with not necessarily have a one-to-one correspondence in the real system.
a spring and backlash (Fig. 3) (see [4] for comparisons). The resulting Consequently, the identified parameters may possibly vary depending
functional block diagram of this model is shown in Fig. 4. on the operating point, and the model describes the dynamic behavior
The spring C represents all the elastic elements in the drive train. The of the real system only to a certain degree. The controller must thus be
backlash with total width 6'B stands for the total gear play (transmis- robust and be able to deal with these constraints.
sion gear and cardan shaft). The inertia J1 includes the rotor of the The underpinning idea why to use this simple model is that even a
motor and parts of the gear. The inertia J2 includes everything from complex model will never exactly agree with the reality. Therefore, it is
the gear until the wheels. It does not include the mass of the vehicle better to design a good robust control for a simple model, which covers,
which acts indirectly over the load torque Tload . because of its robustness, also the actual behavior of the more complex
The motor is considered as a closed-loop control system with the real system than to optimize a controller for a complex, but nonetheless
torque as control objective. Torque control of induction motors is an fictitious model. Note that for controller validation (afterwards) a more
established and well performing technique so that the closed-loop be- complex model is used which includes several additional real world
havior between the torque reference Tref and actual air gap torque Tmot effects. This allows to assess the robustness of the controller in a fairly
of the motor can be approximated as a second order system with time realistic way.
constant
Tmot (s)
=
1
p : (1) IV. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION
Tref (s) 2 s2 + 2 s + 1
While the inertia J1 of the rotor of the motor is quite precisely
The input to the complete system is then the demanded torque Tref . known, the values of inertia J2 , backlash width 'B and the spring
The values of the various parameters are either known or are deter- constant C are rather imprecisely or even not at all known. Though the
mined experimentally (see Section IV). backlash and the spring constant may be measured at standstill, it is,
Although, the real system has a small damping, it was neglected in however, not clear that such statically measured values would fit best
the model. That simplifies the model, and, if an active damping con- for the dynamic behavior. Therefore, these parameters were subject
troller is able to cope with a completely undamped system, a small of an identification procedure. The system (a specially equipped test
additional damping will not disturb in the end. The equations for the vehicle) was stimulated by a pseudo random binary signal (PRBS) as
dynamic model of the system are thus as follows: torque demand Tref on a test track. Data of the speeds of the motor
and the wheels, !1 and !2 , respectively, and of the load torque Tload
J1 !
_ 1 = Tmot 0 Tgear were recorded. The load torque was measured by a set of particular
J2 !
_ 2 = Tload + Tgear measurement wheels, with which the test vehicle was equipped. Such
'_ 1 0 '_ 2 = !1 0 !2 a torque measurement is not available in standard vehicles.
The three parameters were identified using a function from the
Tgear = Cb('1 0 '2 ) (2) Matlab Identification Toolbox. Fig. 5 shows as a result of this iden-
tification a comparison between the measured data and a simulation
including the nonlinear backlash function b(x), as depicted in Fig. 4, of the model using the identified parameters. The comparison shows
with total backlash width 6'B . that the model represents the behavior of the real system quite well.
This simple model is deliberately chosen for controller design. Its Some minor differences remain due to the simplicity of the model. The
simplicity allows good control design and the few parameters are easy resonance frequency resulting from the identified parameters is 8 Hz.
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IEEE/ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 9, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2004 699
V. CONTROL DESIGN
The controller design has to take care of several objectives and
constraints:
1) oscillations should be damped;
2) control must not change the stationary torque;
3) control should behave unnoticeably for the driver and should not
conspicuously change the driving behavior;
4) it must be robust enough to allow for considerable parameter Fig. 7. Measurement data of a vehicle test at moderate speed without
oscillation control.
variation and model uncertainty;
5) only existing measurement signals can be used due to cost
reasons:
a) the motor speed !1 , which is available from the motor
control;
b) the motor torque Tmot , which is provided by the motor
control, although only as an estimate, not a measurement;
c) the wheel speeds !2 are provided by the antiblocking sys-
tems (ABS) over CAN bus, but their resolution is low and the
data are available only above a minimum speed and with some
time delay.
Linear control laws like proposed in [1]–[3], [6] have difficulties to
cope with the nonlinear backlash in the system. That is why the control
structure from Fig. 6 was developed.
The control system consists of two parts: one block has the task to
estimate the gear torque Tgear because knowing this quantity will en-
able a rather effective damping control. This torque estimator is built
as an optimal Kalman filter that includes a nonlinear state space model
for the dynamics between Tmot and !2 according to Fig. 4. The non-
linear backlash can be considered in this observer without problems.
Also, the time delay of the wheel speed signal !2 , which is caused by Fig. 8. Measurement data of a vehicle test at moderate speed with oscillation
the CAN bus data transfer, can easily be taken into account in the ob- control turned on.
server. The observer is of third order and consists of the following set
of discrete-time equations (compare the continuous-time equations of Because the wheel speed !2 is not available below a minimum speed,
Section III): the estimator can operate in both modes: with and without the wheel
The controller functionality was validated with a model of the ve- [4] G. Brandenburg, “Einfluß und Kompensation von Lose und Coulomb-
hicle dynamics, similar to [5], using a Simulink environment before scher Reibung bei einem drehzahl- und lagegeregelten, elastischen
tests in the real vehicle were tried (see Section VI). The test of the con- Zweimassensystem,” Automatisierungstechnik at (37), H. 1 and H. 3,
pp. 23–31, 1989.
troller software was done in a two-step procedure. For a first test of the [5] H.-P. Willumeit, Modelle und Modellierungsverfahren in der Fahrzeug-
implemented C code modules, they were substituted for the original dynamik Teubner, Stuttgart, Leipzig, Germany, 1998.
Simulink modules in the simulation environment so that their output [6] H.-P. Beck, “Aktive Schwingungsdämpfung in Triebachsen mittels Zu-
could be directly compared with that of the original simulation mod- standsregelung,” Elektrische Bahnen, pp. 393–401, Dec. 2000.
ules. As a second test, the C code modules were run in their final em-
[7] F. Schütte, “Automatisierte Reglerinbetriebnahme für Elektrische
Antriebe mit schwingungsf higer mechanik,” Ph.D. dissertation, Univ.
bedded environment together with vehicle and motor control on the Paderborn, Paderborn, Germany, 2002.
target MCU hardware in an off-line mode: The responses of the con- [8] S. Richard, P. Chevrel, and B. Maillard, “Active control of future vehi-
troller to artificially excited inputs were recorded and were again com- cles drivelines,” in Proc. 38th IEEE Conf. Decision and Control, vol. 4,
pared with the simulation results. Phoenix, AZ, 1999, pp. 3752–3757.
[9] S. N. Vukosavić and M. R. Stojić, “Suppression of Torsional oscillations
After that preparation, the commissioning of the controller in the in a high-performance speed servo drive,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
vehicle was performed without problems in a very short time because vol. 45, pp. 108–117, Feb. 1998.
functional faults and coding bugs were already eliminated. [10] K. Sugiura and Y. Hori, “Vibration suppression in 2- and 3-mass system
based on the feedback of imperfect derivative of the estimated Torsional
torque,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 43, pp. 56–64, Feb. 1996.
VI. VEHICLE TEST RESULTS
Fig. 7 shows measurements without the oscillation control. The mea-
surements are taken on a test track with moderate speed. The driver
accelerates unevenly which excites the drive train oscillations as it can
particularly be seen from the motor speed !1 and the wheel torque
Parameter Identification and Vibration Control in
Tload . The oscillations are poorly damped. After each excitation it takes
a few seconds for fading away. It is evident that these oscillations cause
Modular Manipulators
high mechanical stress and are felt as shuddering by the driver. The Yangmin Li, Yugang Liu, Xiaoping Liu, and Zhaoyang Peng
large difference between wheel torque Tload and motor torque Tmot in
the last few seconds of the plot is due to the mechanical braking.
Now, Fig. 8 shows a situation with the oscillation control turned Abstract—The joint parameters of modular manipulators are prerequi-
on. Because the accelerator pedal was manually operated by the site data for effective dynamic control. A method for identifying these pa-
driver, the situation is not exactly the same as in Fig. 7, but fairly rameters using fuzzy logic was devised to study modular redundant robots.
Experimental modal analysis and finite element modeling were exploited
similar. The oscillations are just about gone. The torque and the to model the dynamics. The joint parameters of a nine degrees-of-freedom
motor speed are very smooth. Only when the torque demand crosses (9-DOF) modular robot have been identified. In addition, active vibration
zero so that the gear backlash is traversed, a small flicker can be control based on a neural network and a genetic algorithm were investi-
seen in the motor speed. The figures show very impressively the gated. Ideal control simulation results for a reduced dynamic model of the
9-DOF modular robot were then derived.
effectiveness of the proposed control. Obviously, the control can
also cope well with the backlash nonlinearity, which is an advantage Index Terms—Genetic algorithm, modular robot, neural network,
compared with other linear controllers. parameter identification, vibration control.
The proposed active damping control scheme can very effectively re- The development of a robot requires that it be able to adopt
duce the drive train oscillations. In comparison with other linear control as many configurations as possible using limited links, so as to
structures, the controller copes with nonlinear backlash effects that are allow the construction of new types of robot without redesign and
remanufacturing. The modular robot concept can be traced back to the
included in the torque observer. Mechanical stress is diminished and
1970s [1]. Along with the development of modular robots, the current
riding comfort is increased. The control algorithm is implemented in
trend is toward the design of self-organizing, self-reconfigurable,
the existing motor control unit without any additional hardware cost.
self-assembling, and self-repairable modular robots [2], [3]. A snake-
The algorithmic effort is moderate.
like Polybot was developed several years ago, which has had wide
Damping of a mechanical system by control electronics is a good
application in pipe exploration and biomedical engineering [4]. A
example of mechatronic design, where a well designed system turns
hormone-inspired control strategy was proposed to control the CONRO
out a better performance than it was initially intended by the design of
self-reconfigurable robots that form different types of robots to suit
the components.
various tasks [5]. Dynamics and control are becoming the next
key issues after design. A robot’s joint parameters (stiffness and
REFERENCES
[1] A. Lohner, “Aktive Dämpfung von niederfrequenten Torsions- Manuscript received October 2, 2002; revised July 14, 2003. This work was
schwingungen in momentengeregelten Antrieben,” VDI Berichte Nr. supported by the Research Committee of the University of Macau, Macau,
1533, pp. 307–322, 2000. P.R.C., under Grants RG025/00-01S/LYM/FST and RG037/01-Macao S.A.R.
[2] M. Menne, “Drehschwingungen im Antriebsstrang von Elektrostraßen- 02S/LYM/FST.
fahrzeugen,” Ph.D. dissertation, Aachen University of Technology, Wis- Y. Li and Y. Liu are with the Faculty of Science and Technology, University
senschaftsverlag, Mainz, Germany, 2001. of Macau, Macao S.A.R. (e-mail: ymli@umac.mo).
[3] M. Menne and O. Bitsche, “Comparison of drivetrain-oscillation X. Liu and Z. Peng are with the Automation School, Beijing University of
damping-algorithms for electrical vehicles,” EVS 18, Berlin, Germany, Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China.
2001. Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TMECH.2004.839035