Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416

A performance evaluation of an automotive magnetorheological

brake design with a sliding mode controller
Edward J. Park *, Dilian Stoikov, Luis Falcao da Luz, Afzal Suleman
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, P.O. Box 3055 STN CSC, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 3P6

Received 14 March 2006

Abstract

The aim of this work is to develop a magnetorheological brake (MRB) system that has performance advantages over the conventional
hydraulic brake system. The proposed brake system consists of rotating disks immersed in a MR fluid and enclosed in an electromagnet,
which the yield stress of the fluid varies as a function of the magnetic field applied by the electromagnet. The controllable yield stress
causes friction on the rotating disk surfaces, thus generating a retarding brake torque. The braking torque can be precisely controlled
by changing the current applied to the electromagnet. In this paper, an optimum MRB design with two rotating disks is proposed based
on a design optimization procedure using simulated annealing combined with finite element simulations involving magnetostatic, fluid
flow and heat transfer analysis. The performance of the MRB in a vehicle was studied using a quarter vehicle model. A sliding mode
controller was designed for an optimal wheel slip control, and the control simulation results show fast anti-lock braking.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Magnetorheological brake (MRB); Anti-lock brake system (ABS); Finite element analysis; Multidisciplinary design optimization; Sliding
mode control

1. Introduction main electronic control unit (ECU). A hydraulic backup

The topic of ‘‘x-by-wire’’ is a focus topic to automotive
industries due to its potential to improve vehicle perfor-
mance, safety and cost. The ‘‘x’’ in x-by-wire is a techno-
logical wildcard for automotive systems such as steering
and braking, and means replacing conventional mechanical
components by electrical ones [1]. Our work is aimed at the
development of a brake-by-wire system using an electro-
mechanical brake (EMB) that employs magnetorheological
(MR) fluid.
Brake-by-wire replaces the mechanical connection
between the brake actuator on each wheel and the brake
pedal with electrical components. According to [1], in the
first generation of brake-of-wire systems, a conventional
hydraulic brake (CHB) system can be installed for backup
and all the brake control functions are implemented in one
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 250 721 7303; fax: +1 250 721 6051.
E-mail address: ejpark@me.uvic.ca (E.J. Park).
mode is needed for safety reasons to ensure braking in
the case of an ECU or electrical failure. In the second gen-
eration brake-by-wire systems, however, with the availabil-
ity of a fault-tolerant system architecture and redundant
fail-safe power management systems (e.g., the 42 V system)
that are currently being developed by the automotive
industries for the next generation hybrid electric vehicles
(HEV), the hydraulic backup mode will no longer be nec-
essary. In addition, a sub-ECU can be installed on every
wheel, in order to provide a multi-redundant, independent
wheel-specific braking.
There are many advantages of using pure electronically
controlled brake systems. The properties and behavior of
the brake will be easy to adapt by simply changing software
parameters and electrical outputs instead of adjusting
mechanical components. This also allows easier integration
of existing and new control features such as anti-lock
braking system (ABS), vehicle stability control (VSC), elec-
tronic parking brake (EPB), etc., as well as vehicle chassis

0957-4158/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2006.03.004
406 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416
control (VCC) and adaptive cruise control (ACC). Diag-
nostic features and the elimination of the water polluting
brake fluids are additional benefits [1], as well as a small
number of components, simplified wiring and generalized
optimized layout.
In this paper, we propose a MR actuator for the brake
in each wheel. The actuator consists of a rotating disk
immersed in a MR fluid, enclosed in an electromagnet. In
principle, the brake torque can be controlled by changing
the DC current applied to the electromagnet. Magnetorhe-
ological fluid – a compound containing fine iron particles
in suspension – stiffens in the presence of a magnetic field.
Two important characteristics of MR fluids are: (i) they
exhibit linear response, i.e., the increase in stiffness is
directly proportional to the strength of the applied mag-
netic field and (ii) they provide fast response, i.e., MR fluid
changes from a fluid state to a near-solid state within mil-
liseconds of exposing a magnetic field. CHB systems exhi-
bit about 200–300 ms of delay between the time the brake
pedal is pressed by the driver and the corresponding brake
response is observed at the wheels due to pressure build-up
within the hydraulic lines. An electric brake system has the
potential to drastically reduce this time delay, consequently
bringing a reduction in braking distance. Recently, Delphi
introduced an EMB with performance similar to the exist-
ing disk brakes, with the brake pads actuated by an electri-
cal motor [2], instead of the hydraulic actuator.
While the application of MR fluid in automotive vehi-
cles has been promising for years, it is only recent that
MR fluid based electromechanical devices have started to
displace all-mechanical or hydraulic counterparts. For
instance, General Motors recently introduced the Magnetic
Ride Control [3], which is a MR fluid-based suspension
control system developed by Delphi, on the Corvette and
Cadillac Seville STS and XLR. The significance with these
new systems is that the vehicle control is quickly evolving
away from the limitations of traditional mechanical com-
ponents, such as springs, brakes, shocks and steering gear.
Instead, real-time sensors and high-speed, direct electric
actuation can now adjust all these systems depending on
driving conditions [4]. In this regard, a MR actuator is a
promising technology for the automotive industry with
high commercial values.
In the initial stage of our work, two types of controllable
fluids were considered: electrorheological (ER) and MR
fluids. ER fluid is also a linear viscous liquid whose rheo-
logical behavior changes under the influence of an applied
Table 1
ER versus MR fluids [5]
ER fluids MR fluids
Yield stress 2–5 kPa 50–100 kPa
Operating 25 C to +125 C 40 C to +150 C
environment Do not tolerate impurities Tolerate impurities
Density 1–2 g/cm3 3–4 g/cm3
Energy density 0.001 J/cm3 0.1 J/cm3
Power supply 2–5 kV, 1–10 mA 2–25 V, 1–2 A
electric field, instead of a magnetic field. Table 1 presents a
brief comparison between ER and MR fluids.
It can be seen from the above comparisons that MR flu-
ids present a greater potential for the proposed application
than ER fluids, both in terms of performance (yield stress,
energy dissipation per unit volume) and requirements (tol-
erance to impurities and compatibility with more common
power supplies). The only advantage that ER fluids have
over MR fluids is the lower density, which is not a signifi-
cant issue considering the fact that only a small amount of
these fluids would be needed inside the brake.
In Section 2, our proposed MRB design concept is
described and modelled. Sections 3 and 4 present the finite
element analysis and subsequent design optimization of the
proposed MRB. Section 5 deals with the derivation of the
real vehicle dynamic model. Then, the design of a wheel
slip controller based on the sliding mode control technique
is discussed in Section 6. Section 7 presents control simula-
tions of the MRB system, demonstrating its fast response.
Section 8 concludes the paper.
2. Proposed MR brake design
Fig. 1 is a conceptual, three-dimensional illustration of
our proposed MR brake (MRB) actuator, which consists
of a disk rotating within MR fluid enclosed in a static cas-
ing. A cut has been made to highlight the cross-section that
was modelled and analyzed via finite element method. The
legend in the figure indicates the various components of the
MRB with the exception of the MR fluid, which is located
in the narrow channel (part no. 7) surrounding the rotating
disk (no. 3) and the stator (no. 5).
2.1. MR brake modelling
MR fluids are created by adding micron-sized iron par-
ticles to an appropriate carrier fluid such as oil, water or sil-
icon. Their rheological behaviour is nearly the same as that
Fig. 1. Basic configuration of the proposed MR brake.
 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416
of the carrier fluid when no external magnetic field is pres-
ent. However, when exposed to a magnetic field, the iron
particles acquire a dipole moment aligned with the applied
magnetic field to form linear chains parallel to the field [6].
This reversibly changes the free flowing liquid to semi-sol-
ids that have a controllable yield strength, which depends
on the magnitude of the applied magnetic field.
Although MR fluids have been known for decades, they
had been experiencing stability and longevity issues for
commercial applications. Recently, however, these prob-
lems have been solved and commercial applications are
starting to appear, most notably as controllable dampers
in the afore-mentioned car suspensions [4] and in civil
engineering applications for seismic response control [6].
In the literature, it is found that the essential magnetic
field dependent fluid characteristics of MR fluids can be
described by a simple Bingham plastic model [7]. In this
model, the total shear stress s is given by
s ¼ sH þ lp c_ ð1Þ
where sH is the yield stress due to the applied magnetic field
H, lp is the constant plastic viscosity, which is considered
equal to the no-field viscosity of the fluid, and c_ is the shear
strain rate. Here, the plastic viscosity is defined as the slope
between the shear stress and shear stress rate, which is the
traditional relationship for Newtonian fluids. While other
researchers have tried more elaborate models such as the
Herschel–Bulkely model [8,9] to accommodate the shear
strain rate dependent shear thinning and shear thickening
phenomena in the fluid, the simpler Bingham model is
still very effective, especially in the initial design phase [6].
In addition, the Lord Corporation’s MRF-132AD fluid,
which was chosen for the MRB design presented in this pa-
per, has a nearly linear experimental stress shear rate curve
that is well approximated by the Bingham model. The
choice of the hydrocarbon-based MRF-132AD fluid over
other types of MR fluids, such as the Lord Corporation’s
water-based MRF-241ES, was mainly due to its higher
temperature resistance characteristics [10].
Based on Eq. (1) and the given geometrical configura-
tion shown in Fig. 1, the retarding or braking torque –
which is caused by the friction on the interfaces between
the MR fluid and the solid surfaces within the MR brake –
can be written as [11]:
Z rz Z rz
T b ¼ 2pN sr2 dr ¼ 2pN ðlp c_ þ sH Þr2 dr ð2Þ
rw rw
where N is the number of surfaces of the brake disk(s) in
contact with the MR fluid (e.g., 2 for one disk with MR
fluid covering the both sides, 4 for two disks, etc.); rz and
rw are the outer and inner radii of the brake disk, respec-
tively; and
rx
c_ ¼ and sH ¼ kH b
h
where x is the angular velocity of the rotating disk, h is the
thickness of the MR fluid gap, H is the magnetic field inten-
407
sity, and k and b are constant parameters that approximate
the relationship between the magnetic field intensity and
the yield stress for the MR fluid. Then, Eq. (2) can be
rewritten as
Z rz  
rx
T b ¼ 2pN lp þ kH b r2 dr ð3Þ
rw h
Eq. (3) is a more accurate form than that of the Lord Cor-
poration’s low torque MRB used in [12], because it can
take into account non-constant magnetic field distribu-
tions. This improvement is necessary in order to use a
greater amount of MR fluid (which causes greater varia-
tions in the magnetic field intensity) than that of [12], which
was used for AC induction motor braking. Eq. (3) provides
some insight into the dynamics of the MRB and shows pos-
sible ways to improve the braking torque, including the use
of multiple disk surfaces (increasing N) or fluids with high
yield stresses (increasing k and/or b). Improving the brak-
ing torque by amplifying the first term in the integral, i.e.,
increasing the plastic viscosity lp or decreasing the gap
thickness h, is not desired as this would lead to a greater
residual torque (increasing the drag even without the
brakes applied).
Eq. (3) indicates that, while carrying a one-disk con-
figuration (hence, N = 2) would be ideal in terms of the
simplicity of the design, manufacturing and weight of the
MRB, having multiple disks generates more braking tor-
que. Hence, in this work, two different geometry configura-
tions, consisting of one disk and two disks, were selected
for a detailed analysis, involving the Lord Corporation’s
MRF-132AD fluid. Given the number of disk surfaces,
additional parameters that influences the performance of
the MRB are the physical dimensions of its components.
This is addressed in the subsequent section.
The applied magnetic field H can be produced within the
MRB when current i is supplied to the electromagnet encir-
cling the MR fluid, i.e.,
H ¼ ai ð4Þ
where a is a proportional gain. Then, the two contributions
of the resulting braking torque, TH due to the yield stress
induced by the applied magnetic field and Tl due to the
friction and viscosity of the MR fluid, can be derived by
performing the integration in Eq. (3) and substituting Eq.
(1), i.e.,
2p
TH ¼ Nkaðr3z  r3w Þi ¼ T i i ð5Þ
3
p
T l ¼ N lp ðr4z  r4w Þh_ ¼ T v h_ ð6Þ
2h
where h_ is the rotational speed of the disk(s).
2.2. MR brake dimensional parameters
The dimensions of the proposed MRB shown in Fig. 1
can be optimized for performance and weight. However,
408 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416
Fig. 2. MR brake dimensional design parameters.
its overall dimensions must be restricted so that the brake
can be fitted inside a wheel rim as the typical CHB does.
For example, considering the fact that the general recom-
mended minimum clearance between the wheel rim and
the brake is 3 mm, the maximum acceptable MRB radius
for a 1600 wheel is about 20 cm [11]. In Section 4, the
various dimensional parameters represented in Fig. 2 are
optimized using a multidisciplinary design optimization
(MDO) procedure.
3. Finite element modelling
A finite element model (FEM) of the MR brake was
developed using ANSYS to accurately characterize the
brake’s behaviour. This model was a multiphysics model
that accounted for magnetostatics, MR fluid flow, heat
transfer, structural response within the MRB. ANSYS is
capable of dealing with such a multiphysics problem, and
also provides the feature of adding user-programmed rou-
tines to extend its built-in capabilities.
Our finite element analysis procedure consisted of a
magnetostatics study followed by a computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulation in ANSYS. The former gives
the magnetic field distribution throughout the MR brake,
which allows the determination of the yield stress sH. The
magnetic field distribution is then supplied to the CFD
model, which computes the wall shear stresses – the friction
exerted on the walls and disk surfaces – and the tempera-
ture distribution within the MRB.
The first step in the finite element modelling was to
define the brake geometry. Since our problem is axisym-
metric, meaning that the geometry, material properties
and loads are all consistent along the tangential direction,
only the cross-section was modelled. This way, the solution
becomes that of a two-dimensional problem, allowing the
use of ANSYS’ plane elements (i.e., the PLANE13 ele-
ments for the magnetostatics modelling and the FLUID141
elements for the CFD modelling) with axisymmetric for-
mulation, and thus greatly reducing the computational cost
of each simulation.
For the magnetostatics simulation, the B–H (magnetic
flux density versus applied magnetic field) curve for the
MR fluid was obtained from the manufacturer’s specifica-
tions and the B–H curve for the steel element (SAE 1010
steel) that makes up the casing and disk(s) were obtained
from the ANSYS material library. The current in the coil
was applied as an area load. For heat transfer analysis of
the CFD model, the velocity of the moving disks was spec-
ified, as well as the heat generated by the current flow in the
coil (so-called the Joule effect). The heat generated by the
friction between the fluid and solid surfaces was computed
by the CFD solver. Since the brake is cooled by the flow of
outside air around the casing, the convection coefficient
was also determined, from empirical relations based on
the Nusselt number.
Figs. 3 and 4 present the preliminary results of these
simulations. Fig. 3 shows the magnetic flux density (B) dis-
tribution in the one-disk configuration, where the arrows
that represent the direction of the magnetic flux density fol-
low the intended path around the coil and passing along
the casing. Fig. 4(a) presents the distribution of the mag-
netic field intensity. Fig. 4(b) illustrates the linear relation-
ship between the applied magnetic field (H) and the
resulting yield stress (sH) for H up to about 130 kAmp/
m, where the saturation effect starts to take place. Hence,
it would be important for the MRB to operate within this
linear operating range.
Fig. 3. Magnetic flux density distribution in one-disk configuration.
 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416 409

Fig. 4. Magnetic field intensity in one-disk configuration. (a) Magnetic field intensity and (b) magnetic field intensity versus yield stress.

4. Design optimization Table 2

Design space for each variable
Following the development of the finite element models Design variables, x Allowed values, xmin  xmax (cm)
describing the behaviour of the MRB, an optimization rou- th_disk 1.0–5.0 (one disk)
tine was written to obtain the best possible design. For suc- 0.5–2.5 (two disks)
cessful employment of the MRB into passenger vehicles, a rad_disk 13.0–18.5
rad_th_coil 0.25–2.5
factor requiring the most improvement is its weight, given rad_th_casing 1–5 (one disk)
that the steel components of the MRB are heavy and may 0.5–2.5 (two disks)
add excessive weight to the vehicle. The braking torque is ax_th_casing 0.25–2.5
also an important parameter but, as long as a minimum length_disk 3.0–8.0
torque requirement is met, it was considered of less impor- fl_gap 0.1
tant than the weight. Hence, the objective function for the
optimization was defined so that a much greater impor-
tance is given to the weight than to the braking torque, Wref = 30 kg were chosen as the reference values for the
by assigning a greater scalar weighting factor (0.9–0.1). torque and weight, respectively, and xmin and xmax repre-
The minimum acceptable value for the braking torque sent the chosen minimum and maximum values for each
and the maximum acceptable value for the brake weight design variable. Table 2 shows the allowed ranges of these
were chosen as 1010 N m and 65 kg, respectively. These values.
numbers are the constraints of the optimization problem. A custom-programmed optimization procedure was
In this initial MRB design phase, while the minimum brak- applied to the above problem using simulated annealing
ing torque value corresponds to that of typical CHBs, the [13]. This is a random-search method that can find a global
value for the maximum weight was greatly relaxed such minimum for the objective function f(x) in Eq. (7). See [13]
that it would allow the optimization procedure’s search for the theory behind simulated annealing. Fig. 5 outlines
for a wider design space. In addition, each MRB can poten- the implemented simulated annealing procedure in our
tially have more weight than a comparable on-wheel CHB work. The details of this procedure and the results, includ-
as it would no longer have the extra weight carried by the ing the actual values of f(x) and the optimization conver-
CHB’s hydraulic components: the master cylinder, brake gence plots, can be found in [10,11].
fluid lines, and pump. The optimization problem is
expressed by 4.1. Optimal MRB design
Tb W
Minimize f ðxÞ ¼ 100  0:1 þ 0:9
T ref W ref The resulting optimal MRB design and its parameters,
ð7Þ employing the Lord Corporation’s hydrocarbon-based
subject to T b P 1010 N m and W 6 65 kg
MRF-132AD fluid, are given in Table 3. The computation
with xmin 6 x 6 xmax
time taken to obtain the solution was around 100 h. As
The above is the objective function for the optimization, shown in Fig. 6, the two-disk configuration (i.e., N = 4),
subject to the two constraints, with x containing the design with a stator between the disks, was the optimal brake
variables which are the dimensional design parameters design that minimized the objective function. This design
expressed in Fig. 2 and Table 2. Tref = 1200 N m and yielded a maximum braking torque of 1013 N and a brake
410 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416

Fig. 5. Implemented simulated annealing procedure.

Table 3
Optimal MRB design parameters
Design variables Optimal values
Number of disks 2
Maximum current 12 A
Number of wire turns Approx. 80
th_disk 1.2 cm
rad_disk 16.8 cm
rad_th_coil 1.4 cm
Rad_th_casing 0.5 cm
ax_th_casing 1.6 cm
length_disk 5.5 cm
Fl_gap (h) 0.1 cm

weight of 27.9 kg, which by itself (without considering

the overall brake system) is twice as heavy as that of a com-
parable performance CHB. Table 4 lists the remaining
design parameters that was used or obtained by the simu-
lation. Fig. 7 shows the steady-state temperature distribu-
tion in the two-disk MRB to verify that the maximum
heat build-up exhibited in the brake is within the operating
Fig. 6. Optimal two-disk MRB configuration.
temperature range of the chosen MR fluid, 40 C to
+130 C. Note that in [10,11], a transient finite element
analysis was also performed to verify the effects of the
 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416 411

Table 4
Other MRB design parameters FL
Number of contact surfaces, N 4 x Tb
Rw
Outer radius of brake disk, rz 0.168 m
Inner radius of brake disk, rw 0.118 m
mt g
MR fluid viscosity, lp 0.09 Pa s Iθ
MR fluid thickness, h 1 · 103 m
Electric constant, k 0.269 Pa m/A
Proportional gain, a 12.5 · 103 m1
Total inertia of brake disks, Iy 2.5 · 102 kg m2 Fr Fn Ff
Brake mass, mb 27.9 kg
Fig. 8. Forces acting on the driving wheel.

1
mt ¼ mv þ mw ð8Þ
4
where mv is the mass of the vehicle, and mw is the mass of
the wheel. The effective mass moment of inertia I is given
by
1
I ¼ I y þ I w þ u2 I e ¼ I y þ I t ð9Þ
2
where Iy is the total inertia of the brake disks (given in
Table 4), Iw is the inertia of the wheel, u is the gear ratio,
Ie is the moment of inertia of the engine. The factor 1/2 in
Eq. (9) accounts for the distribution of the inertia of the
engine to each of the two driving wheels.
The rolling resistance Fr is a function of the vehicle’s
linear velocity x_ [14]:
2:5
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution in two-disk configuration (in K). F r ¼ f0 þ 3:24f s ðK v x_ Þ ð10Þ
where the constant Kv is a conversion factor from m/s to
miles per hour (mph), f0 and fs are the curve fit parameters.
repeated cycles of pressing and releasing the brake pedal on The friction force Ff is written as
the heat build-up. In addition, [11] showed that the use of
the afore-mentioned water-based MRF-241ES fluid yielded F f ¼ lF n ð11Þ
much better results in terms of the brake weight (18 kg), with the normal load of the quarter of the vehicle given by
but this MR fluid had an unsuitable operating temperature
mv hCE
range for the automotive brake application, 10 C to F n ¼ mt g  €x ¼ mt g  F L ð12Þ
+70 C. l
where l is the wheel base and hCE is the center of gravity
5. Dynamic model of the vehicle height. The braking force coefficient l in Eq. (11) is a func-
tion of the slip ratio, sr, defined as
This section outlines the development of a dynamic
x_  Rw h_
model for a quarter vehicle used to simulate and evaluate sr ¼ ð13Þ
the MRB’s performance. This model is comprised of the x_
MRB dynamics, which was obtained in Section 2.1 and where h_ is the angular velocity of the wheel. The functional
the dynamics of a driving wheel, which supports a quarter dependence between l and sr for different road conditions
of the vehicle’s mass, as shown in Fig. 8. Naturally, this is given in Fig. 9. From Newton’s law, the equations of
model is referred to as a quarter vehicle model. motion for the quarter vehicle are given by
During braking, a braking torque Tb in Eq. (3) is mv hCE
applied to the wheel by the brake that decreases the wheel mt€x ¼ F f ¼ lmt g þ l €x ð14Þ
l
speed. With reference to Fig. 8, € h is the angular accelera-
I €h ¼ T b þ Rw F f  Rw F r ¼ T b þ lRw F n  Rw F r ð15Þ
tion of the wheel with radius Rw, x is the distance traveled
by the vehicle, Fr is the rolling resistance force, Ff is the To verify the performance of the proposed MRB, parame-
friction force, Fn is the normal force and FL is the transfer ter values for the quarter vehicle model were taken from
of weight when braking. The total mass of the quarter vehi- [15] and listed in Table 5. These values are used to carry
cle, mt is the control simulations presented in Section 6.
412 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416

In this section, an approach similar to [16] is taken to

develop a sliding mode controller that regulates the slip
ratio around 0.2, and consequently achieving a minimum
braking distance. Using the relations in Eqs. (5) and (6),
Eqs. (14) and (15) can be rewritten as
lmt g lg
€x ¼ ¼ ð16Þ
mt þ lmv hCE =l 1 þ lml
h€ ¼ si u  sv h_ þ lsn  sr ð17Þ
where si = Ti/I, sv = Tv/I, sn = RwFn/I, sr = RwFr/I and
u = i. Then, using the above equations, the time derivative
of the slip ratio defined in Eq. (13) is given by
 
Rw lg _ _
s_ r ¼ 2  h þ x_ ðsv h  lsn þ sr Þ þ x_ si u ð18Þ
x_ 1 þ lml
While it is desired to design a controller which is robust to
different road conditions, the exact dynamics of l cannot
Fig. 9. Braking force coefficient as a function of the slip ratio for various
be exactly known. However, we can estimate it using l ^,
road conditions. with the estimation error assumed to be bound by a known
value l*, i.e.,
^ j 6 l
jl  l ð19Þ
Table 5
Parameters for the quarter vehicle model The sliding surface, S(t), which will allow the slip ratio sr to
Wheel radius, Rw 0.326 m
track the desired slip ratio srd, can be defined by the scalar
Wheel base, l 2.5 m equation s(sr, t) = 0, where
Center of gravity height, hcg 0.5 m  n1
Wheel mass, mw 40 kg d
sðsr ; tÞ ¼ þk ~sr ð20Þ
1/4 of vehicle’s mass, 1/4 mv 415 kg dt
Total moment of inertia of wheel and engine, It 1.75 kg m2
Basic coefficient, f0 1 · 102 with ~sr ¼ srd  sr and k a strictly positive constant [17].
Speed effect coefficient, fs 5 · 103 Since Eq. (17) has an order of one, n = 1, Eq. (20) becomes
Scaling constant, Kv 2.237
s ¼ srd  sr ð21Þ
The sliding condition which keeps the scalar s at zero is
6. Design of a sliding mode controller defined by [15]:
s  s_ 6 gjsj ð22Þ
A MRB is naturally a pure electronically controlled
brake system (without the hydraulics) that can perform where g is a strictly positive number. Now Eq. (21) needs to
existing and new braking control features such as an be differentiated once in order for the control input u to ap-
anti-lock braking system (ABS). An ABS is designed to pear [17]. The derivative of the sliding surface is given by
" #
prevent the wheel lockup, to minimize the vehicle’s stop- Rw lgh_
ping distance, and to enhance stability. One of the objec- s_ ¼ _sr ¼ 2  x_ ðsv h_  lsn þ sr Þ  x_ si u ð23Þ
x_ 1 þ lml
tives of the ABS is to regulate a desired slip ratio so that
the maximum braking force coefficient (or road friction and the dynamics while in sliding mode can be written as
coefficient) is maintained during the braking process. This
s_ ¼ 0 ð24Þ
in turn leads to minimization of the braking distance. How-
ever, the slip ratio is dependent on the road surface condi- Solving the above equation for the control input, the best
tion (e.g., dry versus wet). Fig. 9 suggests that this slip ratio approximation for u is given by
corresponds to approximately 0.2, regardless of the road ^gh_
l 1
conditions. Hence, it is also necessary to develop a robust ^u ¼  ðsv h_  l
^ sn þ sr Þ ð25Þ
ð1 þ l
^ml Þ_xsi si
controller that provides an optimal braking torque by
maintaining the desired slip ratio in different road condi- where ^u can be interpreted as the best estimate of the con-
tions. To achieve this, the sliding mode control technique, trol input that would maintain s_ ¼ 0 if the dynamics of l
which is a nonlinear control method, was employed in our were exactly known. In order to satisfy the sliding condi-
work. The performance of the proposed MRB is investi- tion in Eq. (22), despite the uncertainties on the dynamics
gated through simulations carried out with the dynamic of l, a term u, which is discontinuous across the surface
model of a quarter vehicle developed in the previous s = 0, must be added to ^u. Inserting Eq. (23) into Eq.
section. (22) yields:
 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416 413
" #
Rw lgh_ _
The control input u obtained in Eq. (31) can produce a
s  s_ ¼ s  2  x_ ðsv h  lsn þ sr Þ  x_ si u ð26Þ steady-state error caused by the parametric uncertainties.
x_ 1 þ lml
The steady-state error can be reduced by including an inte-
Now, let gral term in the sliding surface definition [9]:
gþb  Z t
u¼
 sgnðsÞ ð27Þ d
si sðsr ; tÞ ¼ þk ~sr dr ðk P 0Þ ð32Þ
dt 0
where the term b is defined below. Since u ¼ ^u þ u,
Then the resulting control law is derived following a similar
Eq. (26) can be rewritten as follows:
" procedure as the above
Rw ðl  l^Þgh_
s  s_ ¼ s  2 þ ðl  l
^Þ_xsn ^gh_
l 1 _
_ þ kh þ x_ k ðsrd  1Þ
x_ ð1 þ lml Þð1 þ l^ ml Þ u¼ þ ð^
lsn  sr  sv hÞ
# ð1 þ l^ml Þ_xsi si si R w si
  
1 l _
 x_ ðg þ bÞ sgnðsÞ ð28Þ þ g þ ðgh þ x_ sn Þ sgnðsÞ ð33Þ
si x_
If s P 0, Eq. (28) can be written as The control law in Eq. (33) satisfies the sliding condition
"
in Eq. (22) and leads to perfect tracking in the presence of
Rw ðl  l^Þgh_
s  s_ ¼ s  2 the model uncertainties. However, the generated control
x_ ð1 þ lml Þð1 þ l^ml Þ
# signal is discontinuous across the surface S(t) [17] and
thus can causes control chattering. To eliminate chatter-
þ ðl  l
^Þ_xsn  x_ b  g_x
ing, a thin boundary layer of thickness w neighbouring
Rw the switching surface can be introduced [18]. Then the
6s ^Þðgh_ þ x_ sn Þ  x_ b  g_x
½ðl  l ð29Þ hard switching function sgn(s) can be replaced by the
x_ 2
sat(s/w) function.
To satisfy the sliding condition of Eq. (22), b can be deter-
mined from Eq. (29) as
7. Simulation results
l
b ¼ ðgh_ þ x_ sn Þ ð30Þ
x_ Fig. 10 shows the Matlab Simulink model used to
Eq. (30) also satisfies the sliding condition of Eq. (23) for investigate the performance of the proposed MRB using
s 6 0. Therefore by inserting Eq. (30) into Eq. (27), u is the sliding mode control. The vehicle velocity x_ and the
obtained as follows: wheel angular velocity h_ are obtained by integrating Eqs.
u ¼ ^u þ 
u (16) and (17) respectively. Then the slip ratio error, ~sr , is
^gh_
l 1 calculated by subtracting the current slip ratio from the
¼ þ ð^ _
lsn  sr  sv hÞ desired slip ratio. The simulations are for the dry and ice
ð1 þ l^ml Þ_xsi si
   road conditions and the braking force coefficient is
1 l  _ obtained from a look-up table containing information on
þ gþ gh þ x_ sn sgnðsÞ ð31Þ
si x_ the slip ratio versus braking force coefficient only profile.

Fig. 10. MRB Simulink model.

414 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416

It should be noted that the look-up table is used only to
simulate the road conditions. Instead, it is Eq. (19) that
deals with the model uncertainties due to the changing road
_ ~sr , the controller
conditions. Based on the values of x_ , h,
generates the input signal for the MRB, which in turn pro-
duces the braking torque required to maintain the desired
slip ratio.
Fig. 11 shows the braking simulation results on a dry
road for the MRB with design parameters given in Tables
3–5. The vehicle is braked from an initial velocity of
70 km/h and comes to a complete stop in approximately
2.3 s (Fig. 11(a)). It can be observed from Fig. 11(b) and
(d) that the braking torque is proportional to the current
supplied to the electromagnet. This is an expected result
as the braking torque is formed mainly by the TH contribu-
tion in Eq. (5). Note that TMRE is a function of the applied
current i. As seen in Fig. 11(c), the slip ratio is regulated
around the desired optimal value of 0.2. This allows for
the wheel speed to closely follow the vehicle speed without
locking up (Fig. 11(a)), which suggests that the sliding

Fig. 11. Anti-lock braking simulation results: dry road.

Fig. 12. Anti-lock braking simulation results: ice road.

 E.J. Park et al. / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 405–416
Fig. 13. Simulated performance of a hydraulic brake: dry road.
mode controller succeeds in providing an optimal wheel
slip control of the MRB. Fig. 12 shows the corresponding
braking simulation results on an ice road.
Next, the performance of the proposed MRB was com-
pared to the simulated performance of a CHB system. The
simulations are carried out with the same quarter vehicle
dynamic model and parameters described in Section 5
and a bang–bang controller implemented in the ABS con-
trol example of Simulink [19]. The simulation results
shown in Fig. 13 reveal fluctuations in the slip ratio which
are due to the delay in the response of the hydraulic actu-
ator. This fluctuation leads to a braking response (3 s)
which is slower that that of the MRB, even without the
consideration of the additional 200–300 ms of delay com-
ing from the initial pressure build-up in the hydraulic line.
8. Conclusions
Based on a commercially available magnetorheological
fluid, a new automotive brake system was proposed. The
mathematical model of the proposed MRB was presented,
and a finite element model was created to analyze the mag-
netic, fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena within the
system. Using a design optimization procedure centered
around the finite element analysis, an optimum MRB
design with two rotating disk was proposed.
The proposed MRB is naturally a pure electronically
controlled brake system that uses the use of ‘‘bytes and
amperes instead of bars and compressed brake fluid.’’ This
allows easy implementation of advanced braking control
features with a smaller number of components, simplified
wiring, improved braking response and generally optimized
layout. The control performance of the MRB in a vehicle
was studied using a quarter vehicle model. A sliding mode
controller was designed for an optimal wheel slip control,
which is a feature of an ABS. The controller maintains
the slip ratio at the desired value which assures a maximum
braking force coefficient and provides a minimum stopping
distance. The simulation results show the potential of the
proposed MRB system to provide fast anti-lock braking.
Future work must focus on life-cycle tests to assess the reli-
ability and longevity of the system and to ensure that it can
effectively replace the existing hydraulic brake technology.
415
In addition, the proposed MRB can further improved in
terms of braking torque, structural weight, and heat dissi-
pation by introducing slots/holes in the rotating disks.
For instance, as discussed in Section 4.1, the brake weight
can be significantly reduced by employing a water-based
MR fluid (e.g., Lord Corporation’s MRF-241ES), but then
the structural design has to be changed to improve heat dis-
sipation capabilities, unless a MR fluid with better temper-
ature properties becomes available.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada.
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