Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447

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Mechatronics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechatronics

Design considerations for an automotive magnetorheological brake

Kerem Karakoc, Edward J. Park *, Afzal Suleman
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3055, STN CSC, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 3P6

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, design considerations for building an automotive magnetorheological (MR) brake are dis-
Received 10 October 2007 cussed. The proposed brake consists of multiple rotating disks immersed in a MR fluid and an enclosed
Accepted 22 February 2008 electromagnet. When current is applied to the electromagnet, the MR fluid solidifies as its yield stress
varies as a function of the magnetic field applied. This controllable yield stress produces shear friction
on the rotating disks, generating the braking torque. In this work, practical design criteria such as mate-
Keywords: rial selection, sealing, working surface area, viscous torque generation, applied current density, and MR
Mechatronic design
fluid selection are considered to select a basic automotive MR brake configuration. Then, a finite element
Magnetorheological fluid
Automotive brake
analysis is performed to analyze the resulting magnetic circuit and heat distribution within the MR brake
Magnetic circuit configuration. This is followed by a multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) procedure to obtain
Finite element analysis optimal design parameters that can generate the maximum braking torque in the brake. A prototype
Multidisciplinary design optimization MR brake is then built and tested and the experimental results show a good correlation with the finite
Brake-by-wire element simulation predictions. However, the braking torque generated is still far less than that of a con-
ventional hydraulic brake, which indicates that a radical change in the basic brake configuration is
required to build a feasible automotive MR brake.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The automotive industry has demonstrated a commitment to
build safer, cheaper and better performing vehicles. For example,
the recently introduced ‘‘drive by wire” technology has been
shown to improve the existing mechanical systems in automobiles.
In other words, the traditional mechanical systems are being re-
placed by improved electromechanical systems that are able to
do the same tasks faster, more reliably and more accurately.
In this paper, an electromechanical brake (EMB) prototype suit-
able for ‘‘brake-by-wire” applications is presented. The proposed
brake is a magnetorheological brake (MRB) that potentially has
some performance advantages over conventional hydraulic brake
(CHB) systems. A CHB system involves the brake pedal, hydraulic
fluid, transfer lines and brake actuators (e.g. disk or drum brakes).
When the driver presses on the brake pedal, the master cylinder
provides the pressure in the brake actuators that squeeze the brake
pads onto the rotors, generating the useful friction forces (thus the
braking torque) to stop a vehicle. However, the CHB has a number
limitations, including: (i) delayed response time (200–300 ms) due
to pressure build up in the hydraulic lines, (ii) bulky size and heavy
weight due to its auxiliary hydraulic components such as the mas-
ter cylinder, (iii) brake pad wear due to its frictional braking mech-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 250 721 7303; fax: +1 250 721 6051.
E-mail address: ejpark@me.uvic.ca (E.J. Park).
anism, and (iv) low braking performance in high speed and high
temperature situations.
The MRB is a pure electronically controlled actuator and as a re-
sult, it has the potential to further reduce braking time (thus, brak-
ing distance), as well as easier integration of existing and new
advanced control features such as anti-lock braking system (ABS),
vehicle stability control (VSC), electronic parking brake (EPB),
adaptive cruise control (ACC), as well as on-board diagnostic fea-
tures. Furthermore, reduced number of components, simplified
wiring and better layout are all additional benefits. In the automo-
tive industry, companies such as Delphi Corp. and Continental
Automotive Systems have been actively involved in the develop-
ment of commercially available EMBs as next generation brake-
by-wire technology. These are aimed at passenger vehicles with
conventional powertrains, as well as vehicles with advanced power
sources, like hybrid electric, fuel cell and advanced battery electric
propulsion (e.g. 42 V platform). For example, Delphi has recently
proposed a switched reluctance (SR) motor [1] as one possible
actuation technology for EMB applications. Another type of passen-
ger vehicle EMBs that a number research groups and companies
have been developing is eddy current brakes (ECBs), e.g. [2]. While
an ECB is a completely contactless brake that is perfectly suited for
braking at high vehicle speeds (as its braking torque is proportional
to the square of the wheel speed), however, it cannot generate en-
ough braking torque at low vehicle speeds.
A basic configuration of a MRB was proposed by Park et al. [3] for
automotive applications. As shown in Fig. 1, in this configuration,

0957-4158/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2008.02.003
 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447 435

Fig. 1. Cross-section of basic automotive MRB design [3].

a rotating disk (3) is enclosed by a static casing (5), and the gap (7) where sH is the yield stress due to applied magnetic field, lp is the
between the disk and casing is filled with the MR fluid. A coil wind- no-field plastic viscosity of the fluid and c_ is the shear rate. The
ing (6) is embedded on the perimeter of the casing and when elec- braking torque for the geometry shown in Fig. 1 can be defined as
trical current is applied to it, magnetic fields are generated, and the follows:
MR fluid in the gap becomes solid-like instantaneously. The shear Z Z z
friction between the rotating disk and the solidified MR fluid pro- Tb ¼ sr dA ¼ 2pN ðsH sgnð_cÞ þ lp c_ Þr2 dr ð2Þ
A j
vides the required braking torque.
The literature presents a number of MR fluid-based brake de- where A is the working surface area (the domain where the fluid is
signs, e.g. [3–8]. In [4,5], Carlson of Lord Corporation proposed activated by applied magnetic field intensity), z and j are the outer
and patented general purpose MRB actuators, which subsequently and inner radii of the disk, N is the number of disks used in the
became commercially available [6]. In [7], an MRB design was pro- enclosure and r is the radial distance from the centre of the disk.
posed for exercise equipment (e.g. as a way to provide variable Assuming the MR fluid gap in Fig. 1 to be very small (e.g. 1 mm),
resistance to exercise bikes). More recently, an MRB was designed the shear rate can be obtained by
and prototyped for a haptic application as well [8]. In this work, rw
c_ ¼ ð3Þ
using the Bingham plastic model for defining the MR fluid behav- h
ior, its braking torque generation capacity was investigated using assuming linear fluid velocity distribution across the gap and no slip
an electromagnetic finite element analysis. Our previous work [3] conditions. In Eq. (3), w is the angular velocity of the disk and h is
was a feasibility study based on a conceptual MRB design that in- the thickness of the MR fluid gap. In addition, the yield stress, sH,
cluded both electromagnetic finite element and heat transfer anal- can be approximated in terms of the magnetic field intensity ap-
ysis, followed by a simulated brake-by-wire control (wheel slip plied specifically onto the MR fluid, HMRF, and the MR fluid depen-
control) of a simplified two-disk MRB design. dent constant parameters, k and b, i.e.
Now, the current paper is a follow up study to our previous
b
work [3]. Here the MRB design that was proposed in [3] is further sH ¼ kHMRF ð4Þ
improved according to additional practical design criteria and By substituting Eqs. (3) and (4), the braking torque equation in Eq.
constraints (e.g. be able to fit into a standard 13” wheel), and more (2) can be rewritten as
in-depth electromagnetic finite element analysis. The new MRB Z z
design, which has an optimized magnetic circuit to increase its b rw 2
T b ¼ 2pN kHMRF sgnð_cÞ þ lp r dr ð5Þ
braking torque capacity, is then prototyped for experimental j h
verification.
Then, Eq. (5) can be divided into the following two parts after the
integration
2. Analytical modeling of MR brake
2p b
TH ¼ NkHMRF ðr3z  r3j Þ ð6Þ
The idealized characteristics of the MR fluid can be described 3
p
effectively by using the Bingham plastic model [9–12]. According Tl ¼ Nl ðr4  r4j Þw ð7Þ
2h p z
to this model, the total shear stress s is
where TH is the torque generated due to the applied magnetic
s ¼ sH sgnð_cÞ þ lp c_ ð1Þ field and Tl is the torque generated due to the viscosity of the fluid.
436 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447
Finally, the total braking torque is Tb = Tl + TH. From the design
point of view, the parameters that can be varied to increase the
braking torque generation capacity are: the number of disks (i.e.
N), the dimensions and configuration of the magnetic circuit (i.e.
rz, rj, and other structural design parameters shown in Fig. 3), and
HMRF that is directly related to the applied current density in the
electromagnet and materials used in the magnetic circuit.
3. Design of MR brake
In this paper, the proposed MRB was designed considering the
design parameters addressed in the previous section. In addition,
some of the key practical design considerations were also included
during the design process, e.g. sealing of the MR fluid and the vis-
cous torque generated within the MRB due to MR fluid viscosity.
Below, the main design criteria considered for the brake are listed,
which will be discussed in detail in this section. Note that Fig. 2
shows the cross-section of the MRB which was designed according
to the listed design criteria. This is the basic configuration that will
be considered for finite element analysis and design optimization
in the subsequent sections. The corresponding dimensional design
parameters are shown in Fig. 3.
(i) Magnetic circuit design
(ii) Material selection
(iii) Sealing
(iv) Working surface area
(v) Viscous torque generation
(vi) Applied current density
(vii) MR fluid selection
3.1. Magnetic circuit design
The main goal of the magnetic circuit analysis is to direct the
maximum amount of the magnetic flux generated by the electro-
Fig. 2. Chosen MRB based on the design criteria.
magnet onto the MR fluid located in the gap. This will allow the
maximum braking torque to be generated.
As shown in Fig. 4, the magnetic circuit in the MRB consists of
the coil winding in the electromagnet, which is the magnetic flux
generating ‘‘source” (i.e. by generating magnetomotive force or
mmf), and the flux carrying path. The path provides resistance over
the flux flow, and such resistance is called reluctance ðRÞ. Thus, in
Fig. 4, the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is the sum of the
reluctances of the core and the gap, which consists of the MR fluid
and the shear disk (see Fig. 2). Then, the flux generated (u) in a
member of the magnetic circuit in Fig. 4 can be defined as
ni mmf
u¼ ¼ ð8Þ
R R
where
l
R¼ ð9Þ
lA
In Eq. (8), n is the number of turns in the coil winding and i is the
current applied; in Eq. (9), l is the permeability of the member, A
is its cross-sectional area, and l is its length. Recall that in order
to increase the braking torque, the flux flow over the MR fluid needs
to be maximized. This implies that the reluctance of each member
in the flux path of the flux flow has to be minimized according to
Eq. (8), which in turn implies that l can be decreased or/and l and
A can be increased according to Eq. (9).
However, since the magnetic fluxes in the gap (ugap) and in the
core (ucore) are different, the magnetic fluxes cannot be directly
calculated as the ratio between the mmf and the total reluctance
of the magnetic circuit. Note that magnetic flux can be written in
terms of magnetic flux density B
Z Z
u¼ B  n dA ¼ lH  n dA ð10Þ
A A
where n is the normal vector to the surface area A. Eq. (10) implies
that the magnetic flux is a function of the magnetic field intensity as
well as l and A of the member. Note that H in Eq. (10) can be
 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447 437

Fig. 3. Dimensional parameters related to magnetic circuit design.

Hence, in order to maximize the magnetic flux and field inten-

sity through the MR fluid, the magnetic circuit should be optimized
by properly selecting the materials (i.e. l) for the circuit members
and their geometry (l and A).

3.2. Material selection

The material selection is another critical part of the MRB design

process. Materials used in the MRB have crucial influence on the
magnetic circuit (i.e. via l) as well as the structural and thermal
characteristics. Here, the material selection issue is discussed in
terms of the (i) magnetic properties and (ii) structural and thermal
properties.

3.2.1. Magnetic properties

The property that defines a material’s magnetic characteristic is
the permeability (l). However, permeability of ferromagnetic
materials is highly non-linear. It varies with temperature and ap-
plied magnetic field (e.g. saturation and hysteresis). In Table 1,
Fig. 4. Magnetic circuit representation of the MRB.
some candidate examples of ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic
materials are listed. As ferromagnetic material, there is a wide
range of alloy options [13] that are undesirably costly for the auto-
obtained by writing the steady-state Maxwell–Ampere’s Law (see motive brake application. Therefore, a more cost-effective material
Eq. (13)) in an integral form, i.e. with required permeability should be selected. In addition, since it
I
j H j dl ¼ ni ð11Þ

which implies that H depends on the mmf (or ni) and l of the mem- Table 1
Examples of ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials
ber. Since maximizing the flux through the MR fluid gap is our goal,
Eq. (11) can be rewritten as Ferromagnetic materials (lr > 1.1) Non-ferromagnetic materials (lr < 1.1)
I I I Alloy 225/405/426 Aluminum
j HMRF j dlMRF ¼ ni  j Hcore j dlcore  j Hdisk j dldisk ð12Þ Iron Copper
Low carbon steel Molybdenum
Nickel Platinum
where jHcorej, jHdiskj and jHMRFj are the magnitudes of field intensity 42% nickel Rhodium
generated in the magnet core, shear disk and MR fluid respectively 52% nickel 302–304 stainless steel
and lcore, ldisk, and lMRF are the length/thickness of the corresponding 430 stainless steel Tantalum
members. In Eq. (12), the negligible losses due to the surrounding Titanium

air and non-magnetic parts are omitted. lr is the relative permeability.

438 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447
is difficult to accurately measure the permeability of materials, in
this work, only materials with known properties were considered
as possible candidates.
Considering the cost, permeability and availability, low carbon
steel, AISI 1018 was selected as the magnetic material in the mag-
netic circuit (i.e. the core and disks). Corresponding B–H curve of
steel 1018 with the saturation effect is shown in Fig. 5.
3.2.2. Structural and thermal properties
In terms of structural considerations, there are two critical
parts: the shaft and the shear disk. The shaft should be non-ferro-
magnetic in order to keep the flux far away from the seals that en-
close the MR fluid (to avoid from MR fluid being solidified, see
Section 3.3). In Table 1, 304 stainless steel is a suitable material
for the shaft due to its high yield stress and availability. For the
shear disk material, already chosen AISI 1018 has a high yield
stress. The remaining parts are not under any considerable struc-
tural loading.
Thermal properties of the materials are another important fac-
tor. Due to the temperature dependent permeability values of the
ferromagnetic materials and the MR fluid viscosity, heat generated
in the brake should be removed as quickly as possible. In terms of
material properties, in order to increase the heat flow from the
brake, a material with high conductivity and high convection coef-
ficient has to be selected as materials for the non-magnetic brake
components. Aluminum is a good candidate material for the ther-
mal considerations.
3.3. Sealing
Sealing of the MRB is another important design criterion. Since
MR fluid is highly contaminated due to the iron particles in it, the
risk of sealing failure is increased. In addition, in the case of dy-
namic seals employed between the static casing and the rotating
shaft (see Fig. 6), MR fluid leakage would occur if the fluid was
repetitively solidified (due to the repetitive braking) around the
vicinity of the seals.
Fig. 5. B–H curve of steel 1018 for initial magnetic loading.
In this work, the dynamic seals were kept away from the mag-
netic circuit by introducing a non-ferromagnetic shaft and shear
disk support outside the circuit which holds the magnetic shear
disks (see Fig. 2). Also the surface finishes were improved and
the tolerances were kept tight for better interface between the
seals and the counterpart surfaces. In Fig. 6, the sealing types used
in the MRB and their locations are shown. In our MRB, Viton O-
rings were used for both static and dynamic applications. In addi-
tion, a sealant, Loctite 5900Ò Flange Sealant, was also used.
3.4. Working surface area
A working surface is the surface on the shear disks where the
MR fluid is activated by applied magnetic field intensity. It is where
the magnetic shear, sH, is generated. According to Eq. (6), the brak-
ing torque is increased when the working surface area is increased
by modifying the dimensional parameters shown in Fig. 3 (which
affects ðr3z  r3j Þ as well as HMRF), and by introducing additional
shear disks (i.e. increasing N). Hence, the proposed MRB has two
shear disks (N = 2) attached to the shaft, as well as optimized
dimensional parameters for higher braking torque generation.
3.5. Viscous torque generation
According to Eq. (7), viscous torque is generated due to the vis-
cosity of the fluid l, the angular velocity w of the shear disk(s), and
the MR fluid gap thickness h. In order to decrease the amount of
viscous torque that impedes with the free shaft rotation, an MR
fluid with low viscosity was selected, and the fluid gap thickness
was optimized along with the other dimensional parameters for
better brake performance.
3.6. Applied current density
Coil is another important design criterion, as it is the source (i.e.
mmf) in the magnetic circuit. The current density that can be ap-
plied to the electromagnet coil is limited, which depends on the
 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447 439

Fig. 6. Different seals on proposed MRB design.

cross-sectional area of the coil, its material, and the saturation flux Table 2
densities of the magnetic materials used in the MRB. When the sat- Properties of MRF-132DGÒ

uration flux value of a magnetic material has been reached, it will Property Value/limits
behave as non-magnetic material (i.e. lr becomes 1), affecting the Base fluid Hydrocarbon
corresponding reluctance in the magnetic circuit. Thus, it is bene- Operating temperature 40 to 130 (°C)
ficial to keep the flux in the unsaturated region for that material. Density 3090 (kg/m3)
Color Dark gray
In order to maximize the amount of applied current density, the
Weight percent solid 81.64 (%)
dimensional space of where the coil is located is also optimized Coefficient of thermal expansion (calculated values) Unit volume per °C
along with the other dimensional parameters. In addition, a wire 0–50 (°C) 5.5e4
size that can generate the highest current density was selected: 50–100 (°C) 6.6e4
100–150 (°C) 6.7e4
AWG 21 (£ 0.77 mm).
Specific heat at 25 (°C) 800 (J/kg K)
Thermal conductivity at 25 (°C) 0.25–1.06 (W/m K)
3.7. MR fluid selection Flash point 150 (°C)
Viscosity (slope between 800 and 500 Hz at 40 °C) 0.09(±0.02) Pa s
There is a number of commercial MR fluids available from Lord k 0.269 (Pa m/A)
b 1
Corporation. No-field viscosity of the MR fluid, operating tempera-
ture range and shear stress gradient are some of the key properties
that have to be considered when making a selection. According to
our previous work [3], MRF-132DGÒ is the best candidate for the over a defined domain with proper boundary conditions, the mag-
automotive braking application due to its broad operating temper- netic field intensity distribution (H) generated by the modeled
ature range. In Table 2, the properties of MRF-132DGÒ are shown MRB can be calculated. Subsequently, the braking torque in Eq.
and its relationship between the magnetic field intensity and the (6) can be calculated.
generated shear stress is shown in Fig. 7. In order to solve the above magnetostatic equations, a 2-D MRB
finite element model (FEM) was created. The FEM is a quasi-static
4. Finite element modeling of the MR Brake magnetic model, which simulates the in-plane induction currents
and vector potentials, needed to obtain the magnetic field intensity
To solve Eq. (5), the magnetic field intensity distribution in the distribution (H) over the defined MRB geometry. First, the geome-
MRB has to be calculated. For this purpose, a finite element analy- try of the proposed MRB was generated using the sketch function
sis (FEA) was carried out using a commercial package, COMSOL in COMSOL and the non-linear material properties of the MR fluid
MultiphysicsÒ. The following governing magnetostatic equations and AISI 1018 were defined as functions of the magnetic flux den-
[14] are used by the COMSOL electromagnet module sity B. Then, a magnetically isolated boundary that includes the
MRB geometry was selected. After the mesh was generated, the
rH¼J ð13Þ FEM was solved using a parametric non-linear solver and the mag-
rB¼0 ð14Þ netic field distribution onto the MR fluid (i.e. HMRF) was obtained
which is equal to the magnitude of the magnetic field distribution,
where H is the magnetic field intensity, B is the magnetic flux den- jHj. Finally, the braking torque in Eq. (6) was calculated using a
sity and J is the electric current density. By solving these equations boundary integration post processing function in COMSOL that
440 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447

Fig. 7. Shear stress versus magnetic field intensity for MRF-132DGÒ.

Fig. 8. Magnetic field intensity distribution.

integrates the shear calculated by the magnetic field intensity dis-
tribution, over the shear disk surfaces. Fig. 8 shows the resulting
magnetic field intensity distribution and magnetic flux density dis-
tribution in the MRB is shown in Fig. 9.
Next, a simplified heat transfer model for the above configura-
tion was generated to provide a quick monitoring of the tempera-
ture distribution inside the MRB. Note that there are two main heat
sources within the MRB: (i) the Joule heating of the coil due to the
electrical current flow and (ii) the frictional heating generated be-
tween the MR fluid and stator/rotor surfaces. Our study [15]
showed that the latter is a much more significant heat source,
and thus the Joule heating was not considered here. The following
two cases were considered for the frictional heating: (i) heat gen-
erated when there is no applied magnetic field and (ii) heat gener-
ated when magnetic field is present (thus changing the rheology of
the MR fluid). To simplify our heat transfer analysis, we assumed
that the flow of the MR fluid within the gap between the stator
and the rotor is laminar. We also assumed that the MR fluid parti-
cles are under pure shear stress (i.e. no axial stress), dissipating the
following amount of heat [16]
U ¼ lp ½c2xy þ c2yz þ c2xz  ð15Þ
where lp is replaced by l0p ¼ lp þ sH =cxz when the magnetic field is
present and cxy, cyz and cxz are the shear strains in the x  y, y  z
and x  z coordinate planes, respectively. In order to carry out the
heat transfer analysis, the magnetic field intensity distribution sim-
ulated by the electromagnetic FEA was used calculate the above
shear strains and changing MR fluid viscosity l0p due to the presence
of the magnetic field. As for the boundary conditions of the heat
transfer analysis, convective boundaries were defined between
the fluid and its surrounding material (forced convection), and be-
tween the casing and the ambient air (free convection).
 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447 441

Fig. 9. Magnetic flux density distribution.

5. Design optimization

As a next step, the chosen design configuration shown in Fig. 2

was optimized for higher braking torque and lower weight. In set-
ting up such an optimization problem for the MRB, a cost function
was defined by including the braking torque and weight as func-
tions of the dimensional parameters of the magnetic circuit (see
Fig. 3). The objective function of the MRB optimization problem
is defined as
W T
Minimize : f ðdÞ ¼ kW  kT ð16Þ
W ref T ref
where kW þ kT ¼ 1 ð17Þ
subject to : W < 180 N and dbrake < 240 mm ð18Þ

where W (N) is the weight of the actuator, T (Nm) is the braking

torque (equal to TH in Eq. (6)) generated due to applied magnetic
field, d = [d1, d2, . . . , d12]T is the design variable vector that consists
of the dimensional parameters shown in Fig. 3, and kW and kT are
the weighting coefficients. The FEM was used to obtain W and T
in the cost function for various brake designs. The block diagram in
Fig. 10 shows the process of calculating W and T via COMSOL
in the cost function for an arbitrary design.
In order to solve the objective function, kW and kT were set to be
0.1 and 0.9, respectively, as the maximum torque generation is of
our primary concern. In addition, the reference weight value was
obtained considering the overall system weight of the CHB that
consists of the on wheel components as well as the extra weight
contributed by the hydraulic components: the master cylinder,
brake fluid lines, and pump. Since an MRB would not have these
extra components, each MRB can potentially have heavier Fig. 10. Process of computing the cost function for a random design.

on-wheel weight than that of a CHB. Moreover, since the braking

torque generated by the proposed configuration of the MRB is com-
parably less than that of the CHB, Tref was selected to be 20 Nm.
This reference torque value was selected by checking a number
of random designs which satisfied the constraints.
As the constraints for the optimization problem, the weight of
the actuator was set to be smaller than the weight of the CHB,
i.e. W < 180 N. Since the brake should fit into a standard automo-
bile wheel, the diameter of the MRB is set to be smaller than the
inner diameter of the wheel: for example, 13” wheel, the inner
diameter is 240 mm, thus dbrake < 240 mm.
The objective function was then solved using a random
search algorithm called simulated annealing (SA). SA statistically
442 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447

Fig. 11. MRB optimization process.

guarantees to converge to a global optimum after adequate num- (lower and upper boundaries of this space were defined and shown
ber of iterations [17,18]. Since SA is a random search algorithm, in Table 3). Then, the solution of SA entered into the SQP algorithm
it cannot give the exact global optimum; instead it gives a design to update the solution until an optimum design was found.
which is close to the global optimum. Therefore, a gradient based The optimum dimensional parameters for the magnetic circuit
optimization algorithm called sequential quadratic programming are given in Table 3, with the corresponding illustration already
(SQP) was also used on the dimensional parameters optimized by shown in Fig. 3.
SA. The SQP algorithm searches for the optimum using the gradient
data of the objective function, thus it guarantees to find an opti- 6. Overview of experimental setup
mum design.
The block diagram for the MRB optimization process is shown After the optimum design was found for the proposed MRB, a 3-
in Fig. 11. In order to solve the MRB optimization problem using D CAD model was generated using Pro/E (see Fig. 12(L)). Fig. 12(R)
SA, a design space was specified as the possible solution space shows the subsequent prototype that was manufactured. The main
specifications of the MRB prototype are given in Table 4.
Table 3 The MRB prototype was installed into the experimental setup
Optimum design parameters shown in Fig. 13. A servo motor from CMC Inc. with a continuous
Parameter Optimum value (mm) LB–UB (mm) torque of 5.13 Nm and with rotational speed of 5445 rpm was used
d1 17.11 20–80 to generate the shaft rotation. Since the torque generation capacity
d2 18.05 5–15 of the servo motor is relatively low, an ALPHA 0755-MC1-7 gear re-
d3 1.03 2–4 ducer (7:1) was used. The servo motor was connected to a Futek
d4 47.34 10–80
torque sensor (TRS605) which is a shaft-to-shaft rotary torque sen-
d5 5.08 5–10
d6 14.57 4–15
sor with a torque measuring capacity up to 1000 Nm. The other
d7 2.07 2–20 end of the torque sensor was connected to the MRB prototype.
d8 10.00 10–30 An inertia dynamics magnetic clutch was installed between the
d9 10.34 5–20 torque sensor and the servo motor in order to release the load on
d10 3.08 3–10
the servo motor generated by the brake. In order to connect the
d11 0.91 0.91–3.79
d12 2.04 1–4 various components, flexible couplings were used. A K-type ther-
mocouple was also installed into the prototype in order to measure
LB: lower boundary and UB: upper boundary.
temperature changes during experiments.
 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447 443

Fig. 12. CAD model (L) and prototype (R) of the proposed MRB.

Table 4 Technologies high current power supply (N5766A). Whenever the

MRB prototype specifications
brake was actuated, since the system was at steady-state,
Weight 11.8 (kg) the relative torque measured between the shafts on each side of
Diameter 239.9 (mm) the torque sensor was recorded as the braking torque generated
Number of disks 2 by the brake prototype. After the braking torque data was ob-
Amount of MR fluid used 205 (cm3)
tained, the magnetic clutch was turned on in order to release the
Coil wire size AWG 21 (£ 0.77 mm)
Number of turns 236 ± 2 (turns) load on the servo motor.
Maximum current applied 1.8 (A)
Maximum current density applied 2.54  106 (A/m2)
7. Experimental results
Seals used Static and synamic O-rings
Magnetic materials used Steel 1018
Non-magnetic materials used Al T-6061 and SS 304 Initially, we measured the no-field torque generated by the vis-
Maximum braking torque 23 Nm at 1.8 A cosity of the MR fluid (plus the mechanical friction torque). In
Fig. 14, the torque generated due to viscosity of the fluid at various
rotational speeds is shown. As one can see, the relationship be-
The servo motor was controlled with a PID controller and the tween the viscous torque and rotational speed is linear, as de-
rotational speed of the brake was verified using an optical encoder scribed by Eq. (7).
embedded in the torque sensor. All input and output signals were After the viscous torque was calculated, current was applied to
connected to a dSPACE hardware-in-the-loop control board the electromagnet coil and corresponding changes in the torque
(DS1104). The control signal from the dSPACE board to the servo readings were recorded. The total braking torques (Tb) generated
motor was amplified using an Advanced Motion Control Brushless with respect to the increasing speeds are shown in Fig. 15. The dif-
PWM servo amplifier. In addition, a low-pass filter circuit was ference between the three torque curves is directly due to the vary-
implemented into the setup in order to reduce any high frequency ing viscous torques (Fig. 14) at different speeds.
noise in the torque sensor readings. The plots shown in Fig. 15 contain the viscous effects and the
During experiments, the rotational speed was kept constant at frictional effects. In order to compare the experimental results with
various values and current was applied to the coil using an Agilent the simulation results, the viscous and the friction effects have to

Fig. 13. Picture of experimental setup.

444 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447
Fig. 14. Viscous torque versus velocity.
Fig. 15. Torque (Tb) versus current applied.
be subtracted from the experimental data. The resulting plot be-
tween the torque (TH) generated due to the applied magnetic field
and the current applied is shown in Fig. 16. Three plots are almost
identical, which shows that this quantity is not speed dependent,
as described by Eq. (6).
Finally, the simulation and the experimental results are com-
pared in Fig. 17. While the initial (at 0 A) and final (at 1.8 A) values
Fig. 16. Torque (TH) generated due to magnetic field (without viscous and friction
torques).
Fig. 17. Comparison between experimental and simulation results at 200 rpm.
match, there is deviation in the middle values (104% difference at
0.2 A and 12% difference at 1.6 A). The main reason behind this
deviation is probably due to the lack of accurate information on
the material properties that were used in the simulations. Another
minor factor is the varying temperature. Since the temperature
variation has an effect on both the viscosity and magnetic proper-
ties of the MR fluid, the heat build-up is a major concern in the ac-
tual implementation of such a brake. Due to the lack of detailed
information, however, our FEM does not account for temperature
effects on material properties.
In Figs. 18 and 19, the temperature distribution within the MRB
is shown for the two cases described in Section 4. In the first case
(see Fig. 18), the disks were freely rotated at 400 rpm for 20 s with-
out applying a magnetic field. In the second case (see Fig. 19), 1.8 A
was applied to the coil, generating a magnetic field across the
brake that was rotating at 200 rpm. Fig. 20 shows the heat build-
up for the above two cases. The solid lines represent the actual
temperature variation at the location of the thermocouple (see
Fig. 12(R)), while the dotted lines represent the corresponding sim-
ulation results. It can be seen that the experimental and simulation
results are reasonably in good agreement for the 20 s cruising or
braking period that we considered.
7.1. Discussions
Note that in order to stop a 1000 kg passenger vehicle with a
deceleration of 6 m/s2, which is the typical requirement for mea-
suring braking performance of a fully loaded passenger vehicle
with burnished brakes, each brake has to generate around
500 Nm. The prototyped MRB can generate only 5% of this torque
value. This indicates that a radical change in the basic brake config-
uration is required in order to build a feasible automotive MRB. For
example, the following design improvements can be made in the
basic configuration to further increase the braking torque capacity:
(i) In Fig. 21, the simulated improvement in the braking torque
with additional disks is shown for the same design configu-
ration proposed in this work. Note that 20% (i.e. 100 Nm) of
the required torque can be generated with an MRB with 7
disks.
(ii) The braking torque capacity can also be increased signifi-
cantly by relaxing the size and the weight constraints
defined in Eq. (18). Note from Table 4 that the weight of
the prototyped MRB is still relatively light (especially con-
sidering that of the overall CHB system), 11.8 kg; hence
there is still some room to allow increases in the overall
size/weight of the MRB. For example, in our previous paper
[3], the size and weight constraints were greatly relaxed,
 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447 445

Fig. 18. Temperature distribution within MRB: no magnetic field applied.

Fig. 19. Temperature distribution within MRB: magnetic field applied.

which resulted in a 27.8 kg two-disk MRB design that can
generate up to 1000 Nm of braking torque in numerical sim-
ulations. While the current work shows that this level of tor-
que cannot be generated in practice when the limitations in
space/weight and current density, as well as sealing and
magnetic saturation considerations (Section 3) are taken
into account, some relaxation of the constraints is still pos-
sible. For example, Fig. 22(L) shows such an MRB design with
a thicker single disk that can generate about 55 Nm at 1.8 A
(see Fig. 22(R)).
Once an improved MRB configuration is suggested, one can re-
peat the design process presented in this paper to maximize the
braking torque capacity. Another critical design criteria that one
must further consider is the long term temperature effects (due
to heat build-up) on the degradation of the MR fluid properties.
Note that in the case of Fig. 19, the temperature rises by almost
25 °C in just 20 s of continuous braking. In addition, in [15], a dy-
namic finite element analysis was also performed to study the
effects of applying repeated cycles of pressing and releasing
the brake on the heat build-up, and showed that the operating
446 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447

Fig. 20. Temperature change at measurement location: (L) no magnetic field applied and (R) magnetic field applied.

8. Conclusion

In this paper, a magnetorheological brake (MRB) design has

Fig. 21. Simulation plot of braking torque (TH) generated with respect to the nu-
mber of disks (at 1.8 A).
temperature can intermittently reach outside the recommended
temperature range of the MR fluid. These results show a need for
the design of an effective passive or active cooling mechanism, as
the MR fluid degradation would be the ultimate limiting factor
on the performance and life cycle of the MRB.
However, if the above problems cannot be overcome, a hybrid
electromechanical brake (HEMB) system [19] that combines with
a CHB system may be an alternate solution.
been introduced as a viable alternative to the current conventional
hydraulic brake (CHB) device. Since the MRB is an electromechan-
ical device, it has several advantages over the CHB, such as reduced
actuation delay, ease of software control implementation and
lower system weight.
The design process was started with an analytical model of the
MRB. Then, the MRB device was designed with a focus on magnetic
circuit optimization and material selection. A two-dimensional fi-
nite element model of the MRB was created to simulate the stea-
dy-state magnetic flux flow within the MRB domain using
COMSOL Electromagnetic Module and solve for the magnetic field
intensity distribution. In addition to the detailed electromagnetic
analysis, a simple heat transfer analysis was carried out to monitor
the heat build-up within the brake. The FEM was then used to opti-
mize the magnetic circuit design in order to maximize the braking
torque and minimize the weight of the MRB. The optimization
problem was solved using a hybrid optimization procedure that in-
cluded simulated annealing and sequential quadratic program-
ming algorithm. A 3-D CAD model of the optimum MRB design
was generated and a MRB prototype of the optimum design was
manufactured.
The MRB braking performance was tested using an experimen-
tal apparatus that consisted of a torque sensor and a servo motor.

Fig. 22. An MRB with different magnetic circuit configuration (L) and corresponding simulation plot of braking torque (TH) versus applied currents (R).
 K. Karakoc et al. / Mechatronics 18 (2008) 434–447
The experimental results showed that the braking torque increases
with applied current, reaching more than 20 Nm at 1.8 A, thus con-
firming the theoretical predictions. There were discrepancies with
respect to the simulation results due to estimated material proper-
ties used in the simulations. However, the proposed MRB configu-
ration was not able to generate sufficient braking torque to stop a
vehicle. Therefore, an improved MRB design should be suggested
(e.g. by increasing the number of disks or completely redesigning
the magnetic circuit configuration) in future designs, taking into
account the temperature effects and more accurate description of
the material properties as well.
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