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Ecosystem
INTRODUCTION

ECOSYSTEM
-Self sustainable Unit
-Functional unit of nature
-Interaction of living organisms & surroundings

↶ TYPES ↷
Terrestrial Aquatic
Eg : Forest , grassland Eg : Pond , Lake , River
Desert wetland , Estuary

ECOSYSTEM - Structure & Functions

↶ Components of Environment ↷
Biotic Abiotic
-Living Beings -Non-living things
of ecosystem
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STRATIFICATION
-Vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels
-Trees : Top vertical strata
Shrubs : second layer
Herbs : Bottom layer

Functional Components Of Ecosystem -

•Productivity
•Decomposition
•Energy flow
•Nutrient recycling

Example of functional components of ecosystem is a Pond

Ecosystem :
-Abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved
inorganic & organic substances and the rich soil deposit at
the bottom of the pond
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-The solar input , the cycle of temperature , day-length &

other climatic conditions regulate the rate of function of
the entire pond

-Autotrophic Components - include the phytoplankton ,

some algae & the floating , submerged & marginal plants
found at the edges

-Consumers - represented by the zooplankton , the free

swimming & bottom dwelling forms

-Decomposers - are the fungi , bacteria & flagellates

especially abundant in the bottom of the pond

#Biosphere - is regarded as a global ecosystem

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↶ Structural Features ↷
Species Composition Stratification

PRODUCTIVITY

~Amount of biomass / Organic Matter produced perunit

area over a time period
~Rate of Biomass production

Productivity Is of Two Types -

(1) Primary Productivity
(2) Secondary Productivity

-Primary Productivity : Amount of biomass or organic

matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants
during photosynthesis

-Primary productivity is expressed in terms of weight

(g–2) or energy (kcal m–2 )
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Factors Affecting Primary Productivity :

(1) Environmental factor
(2) Availability of nutrients
(3) Photosynthetic capacity of plants

↶ PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY ↷
Gross primary Net primary
productivity (GPP) productivity (NPP)
-Rate of production -Biomass available for
of organic matter net composition to
during Photosynthesis heterotrophs
-GPP - respiration -NPP = GPP -
losses (R) , is the net respiratory loss
primary productivity (NPP)
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-GPP – R = NPP

Species Composition - Given by identification &

enumeration of plants & animals species

Secondary Productivity - Rate of formation of new

organic matter by consumers
Annual - Net primary productivity of whole Biosphere =
170 Billion Tones
Ocean = 55 Billion Tones
Terrestrial = 115 Billion Tones

DECOMPOSITION
~Breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic
substances like CO2 , H2O & nutrients

DETRITUS
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-Consists of dead plants remains such as leaves ,

flowers , fruits
-Substrate for Decomposition

-Detritivores are the organisms break down detritus into

smaller particles
-Example : millipedes , dung flies , woodlice , burying
beetles

STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION
(1) Fragmentation
(2) Leaching
(3) Catabolism
(4) Humification
(5) Mineralisation

Fragmentation : Breaking down of detritus into smaller

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particles

Leaching : Process by which watersoluble inorganic

nutrients go down into the soil horizon & get precipitated
as unavailable salts

Catabolism : Process by which bacterial & fungal enzymes

degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances

Humification : Accumulation of a dark coloured

amorphous substance called Humus
↓
Further degraded by some microbes & release of inorganic
nutrients occur by Mineralisation

Factors Affecting Rate of Decomposition :

-Large amount of oxygen is required for decomposition as
it is an energy requiring process
-Chitin & lignin present in detritus slower the rate of
decomposition
-Nitrogen & water-soluble substances like sugars in
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detritus increases the rate of decomposition

Climatic Conditions
-Warm & Moist environments → Favour
decomposition
-low temperature , dryness & anaerobiosis inhibit
decomposition
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Figure-14.1

ENERGY FLOW

~Sun only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth

except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem

~Less than 50% incident solar radiation is

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)

~Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR

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~All organisms are dependent for their food on producers

~Flow of energy in the ecosystem is unidirectional

~Green Plants in Ecosystem - Producers

-Example : In a terrestrial ecosystem , major producers
are herbaceous & woody plants and in aquatic ecosystem
phytoplankton , algae & higher plants are producers

~All animals depend on plants for their food needs are

called Consumers

~Consumers which feed on the producers , they are

called primary consumers or herbivores
Example - grass
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~Animals eat herbivores , they are called secondary

consumers or primary carnivores
Example - goat

~The animals which eat the primary carnivores are called

Tertiary consumers or secondary carnivores
Example - man

TROPHIC LEVELS

~Organisms occupy specific place in the food chain , based

on source of their nutrition , food

1st Level - Producers

2nd Level - Herbivores (Primary Consumers)
3rd Level - Carnivores (Secondary Consumers)
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FOOD CHAIN
-Flow of energy from one trophic level to another trophic
level by eating & being eaten

↶ Two Types of Food Chain ↷

Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain

Grazing Food Chain

-Starts from producers & ends on carnivores through
herbivores
Grass --> goat --> man
(Producer) (Primary (Secondary
producer) producer)

Detritus Food Chain

-Starts from dead organic matter & passes through
detrivores to organisms feeding on detrivores

Detrivores
-Decomposers
-Meet their energy & nutrient requirements by degrading
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dead organic matter or detritus

-Also known as Saprotrophs

-Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that

breakdown dead & waste materials into simple , inorganic
materials

Food Web
-Interconnected matrix of food chain
-For example - specific herbivores of one food chain may
serve as food of carnivores in another food chain

Standing Crop
-Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material
at a particular time
-Measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or
the number in a unit area
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Figure-14.2

10% Law
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-By Lindemann
-Only 1% of energy is transferred to each trophic level
-That's why number of tropic levels in GFC are
restricted

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

~Graphical representation of various trophic levels of

food chain designed to show their number , biomass &
energy

~Base of a pyramid is broad & it narrows down at the apex

~Base of each pyramid represents the producers or the

first trophic level
~Apex represents tertiary or top level consumer
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Three Ecological Pyramids

(1) Pyramid of Number
(2) Pyramid of Biomass
(3) Pyramid of Energy

Pyramid Of Number
-A given species may occupy more than one trophic level
in the same ecosystem at the same time
-Example : A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats
seeds , fruits , peas , a secondary consumer when it eats
insects & worms

-Producers are more in number & biomass than the

herbivores
-Herbivores are more in number and biomass than the
carnivores
-So all the pyramids , of number , of energy & biomass are
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upright

Pyramid Of Biomass
-Pyramid of biomass in sea is also generally inverted
because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of
phytoplankton

Pyramid Of Energy
-Always upright because when energy flows from a
particular trophic level to next trophic level , some energy
is always lost as heat at each step

Limitations Of Ecological Pyramids

-It does not take into account the same species belonging
to two or more trophic levels
-It assumes a simple food chain , something that almost
never exists in nature
-It does not accommodate a food web
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-Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological

pyramids

Figure-14.4 (a) , (b) , (c)

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Figure-14.4 (d)

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Climax Community : Community that is near in the

equilibrium with the environment

Sere : Entire sequence of community their successively

changes in a given succession
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↶ TYPES ↷
Primary Succession Secondary Succession
-Succession at area -Succession at an area
where no living organism which lost all organisms
never existed that existed there
-Bare Rock -Example : Abandoned
-Newely cooled lava farm lands
-Newely created pond -Burned or cut forest
or reservoir -lands that have been
flooded

Secondary succession is faster than primary succession

because some soil or sediment is present

SUCCESSION OF PLANTS

Hydrach Succession Xerarch Succession

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-Takes place in wetlands -Dry Areas

-Hydric → Mesic -Xeric → Mesic
Eg : Water

PIONEER SPECIES
-Species that invade a bare area

~In primary succession on rocks , the pioneer species is

lichens are able to secrete acids to dissolve rock , helping
in weathering and soil formation and the little soil leads to
the growth of bryophytes

~With time , the bryophytes are succeeded by bigger

plants , & after several more stages , ultimately a stable
climax forest community is formed & ultimately the
xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one

HYDRACH SUCCESSION
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-The pioneers are the small phytoplanktons which are

replaced with time by free-floating angiosperms

-The free-floating angiosperms are replaced by rooted

hydrophytes , sedges , grasses & finally the trees

-The climax again would be a forest & with time the water
body is converted into land

-All succession whether taking place in water or on land ,

proceeds to mesic community
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Figure-14.5

LICHENS
-Secrete rock dissociation enzymes , Holds soil
-Bryophtes , Higher Plants
-Soil Formation

During Ecological Succession

-Species Diversity Increase
-Number of Species Increase
-Number of Organisms Increase
-Total Biomass Increase
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NUTRIENT CYCLING

Standing State
-Amount of nutrients present in the soil at any given time
-Also called Biochemical Cycle

↶ NUTRIENT CYCLE ↷
Gaseous Sedimentary
-Reservoir is atmosphere -Reservoir is Earth's
Eg : Nitrogen , Carbon Crust
Eg : Sulphur ,
Phosphorus
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Figure-14.6

CARBON CYCLE
-49% of dry weight of organisms
-4x1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere by
photosynthesis
-71% of C is dissolved in oceans
-Reservoir : Fossil fuel
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-Biosphere through photosynthesis

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
-Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological
membranes , nucleic acids & cellular energy transfer
systems

-Many animals also need large quantities of this element

to make shells , bones & teeth

-The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock , which

contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates

-When rocks are weathered , minute amounts of these

phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by
the roots of the plants
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-Herbivores and other animals obtain phosphorous from

plants

-The waste products and the dead organisms are

decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing
phosphorus

Difference between carbon & phosphorous cycle -

-There is no respiratory release of phosphorus into

atmosphere like carbon
-Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are
much smaller than carbon inputs
-Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism &
environment are negligible

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
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~The products of ecosystem processes are named as

ecosystem services

~For example , healthy forest ecosystems

-Purify air and water

-Mitigate droughts & floods
-Cycle nutrients
-Generate fertile soils
-Provide wildlife habitat
-Maintain biodiversity
-Pollinate crops
-Provide storage site for carbon & also provide aesthetic
-Cultural & spiritual values
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Figure-14.7