LWT - Food Science and Technology 155 (2022) 112991

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LWT
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Recent trends in the development of healthy and functional cheese

analogues-a review
Rahul Kamath, Somnath Basak, Jyoti Gokhale *
Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, 400 019, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Cheese Analogue (CA) is the term that can be described as a cheese-like-product produced from the partial or
Cheese analogues complete substitution of components such as milk, milk fat, or milk protein and incorporation of vegetable-based
3-D printing substances as well as additives such as emulsifying salts, hydrocolloids, preservatives, acidifying agents and
Cholesterol-free
sometimes flavoring agents (sodium chloride, cheese flavoring, etc.). Based on the matrix involved and the in­
Reduced-fat
Reduced-salt
gredients used for formulating, these cheese analogues can be grouped as dairy (casein, caseinates, milk fat, etc.),
partial dairy (casein, caseinates, soya oil, etc.), and non-dairy CAs (corn protein, soy protein, soy oil, etc.). The
recent interest in vegan products and healthy alternatives has fueled the interest in the development of CAs. This
review intends to give an up-to-date concise review of the recent trends in the development of healthy and
functional CAs.

1. Introduction cost of establishing a manufacturing plant. Additionally, the nutritional

Since ancient times, milk has been an essential part of the human diet
and nutrition. This is because milk and dairy products act as reservoirs of
energy, macronutrients as well as micronutrients in the form of a range
of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, minerals, and vitamins. One of such
dairy products is cheese. The production of cheese can be categorized
based on criteria such as coagulating agent used, ripening conditions of
cheese, amount of fat and moisture in cheese, and differences in heat
treatments used. Apart from its sensory appeal, cheese has various
health benefits such as Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory
properties, due to the presence of lactic acid bacteria (including pro­
biotic strains) (Hao et al., 2021). However, cheese is an expensive
product, and this has led to the impetus of finding casein and fat re­
placers that can act as substitutes and provide the same functional
characteristics and have the same sensorial attributes. There is a trend of
moving towards plant-based dairy options in recent times. The
plant-based dairy sector is expected to expand at a CAGR of 12.5% and
reach a global market size of 52.58 billion USD by 2028 (Grand View
Research, 2021). Since imitation cheeses involve the substitution of milk
fat and protein with vegetable-based substances such as oils and starch,
they are sold at a cheaper price as compared to conventional cheeses.
Moreover, these cheeses involve no ripening stage as the product is so
fabricated using different additives and this reduces the initial capital
quality of the cheese analogue (CA) can be enhanced by fortifying them
with vitamins and minerals and other additives as it is compositionally
flexible.
Non-dairy cheese analogues or Plant-based cheese analogues
(PBCAs) cater to the vegan public. It has been generally inferred that
these cheeses have unacceptable to satisfactory textural quality attri­
butes. They do not completely mimic the physical sensory attributes of
conventional cheese, but some researchers are working towards
achieving the ideal textural attributes using completely plant-based
substances (Mohamed & Shalaby, 2016; Oyeyinka et al., 2019; Sumar­
mono et al., 2021). The third group, namely the dairy CA, is produced on
a relatively low scale due to their higher capital costs. When it comes to
standards and regulations of these ACs, clearer legislation is required.
CAs do not comply with the standards set by the Codex Alimentarius
definitions for cheese. If a cheese analogue resembles a cheese but is
nutritionally inferior, it is classified as imitation cheese while if it is
nutritionally equivalent or comparable, it is classified as a cheese sub­
stitute (Guinee et al., 2007). The studies on the nutritional comparison
of analogues with conventional cheese are scarce. Therefore, it often
becomes difficult to comment whether a particular analogue being dis­
cussed in literature is an imitation or a substitute. More detailed com­
parison studies on the nutritional composition need to be carried out to
comment on the same. However, in recent times, there has been quite

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rahulkamath12345@gmail.com (R. Kamath), somnath.basak17@gmail.com (S. Basak), js.gokhale@ictmumbai.edu.in (J. Gokhale).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112991
Received 3 August 2021; Received in revised form 11 December 2021; Accepted 15 December 2021
Available online 17 December 2021
0023-6438/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Kamath et al.
some noise on the development of healthier alternatives to cheese,
which might be low in salt, fat or calories. After their initial inception,
CAs were only regarded as simple mimics of the conventional cheese at
lower production costs. However, over time CA production was
addressed mainly to obtain cheaper and healthier alternatives. Its pro­
duction was also buttressed by the fact that it adds variety on the plate
and can also be utilized for specific end-use applications. Among the
various types of cheeses, substitutes for low-moisture Mozzarella (MC),
Cheddar, and pasteurized processed Cheddar are the major CA varieties.
The key ingredients for formulating a cheese analogue consist of a
combination of water, fats/oils, and protein sources (Guinee et al.,
2007). Emulsifying salts, hydrocolloids, preservatives, flavors, and
acidifying agents are some of the other ingredients that can be included.
Production of CAs requires all the dry ingredients to be mixed
adequately in water under heat or mechanical treatment along with
fats/oils resulting in an oil-in-water emulsion that acts as a homoge­
neous cheese-like mass. The freedom in the choice of ingredients allows
versatility to CA in terms of functionalities offered (e.g., melt resistance,
flowability) or the specific health benefits it can provide (through
fortification or using specialty ingredients such as power foods). Most
ongoing investigations comprise of working out the ideal blend and the
type of components and ingredients for a customized end-use
application.
With the growing trend in adopting a plant-based diet due to ethical,
environmental, and socio-economic concerns, the production of
partially substituted and plant-based dairy analogues is on the rise. The
review intends to collate all the recent research in CAs, by discussing the
various classes of analogues, followed by the effect of various in­
gredients on the nutritional, sensory, and functional properties. A major
emphasis has been on the developments after 2015. While there has
been a tremendous amount of development in the area of cheese ana­
logues, a concise discussion on the nutritional aspects of the CAs is
missing. This review will enable the readers to get an update on recent
technological interventions being implemented in the area of CAs.
2. DAIRY-BASED cheese analogues
The major driver for the development of dairy based CAs is to ease
down the efforts, time and cost required to manufacture conventional
cheese. The dairy-based CAs are majorly divided into whey and casein-
Fig. 1. A summary of the various approaches for the development of healthy dairy-based CAs, partial dairy-based CAs, Plant-based CAs, and Low sodium variants.
2
LWT 155 (2022) 112991
based analogues.
2.1. Whey-based analogues
Whey proteins derivatives, typically whey protein concentrate
(WPC) can act as an alternative to casein for nutritional reasons, but it
greatly affects the properties of the CA. Whey protein is more beneficial
than casein, due to greater postprandial protein retention and essential
amino acids in the plasma. This can be attributed to the differential
absorption and digestion kinetics, resulting from their different amino
acid composition (Pennings et al., 2011). Casein is amphiphilic in nature
and hence acts as an effective emulsifier of free fat during processing.
However, WPC does not adhere to both water and lipid moieties as
productively as casein, thereby demanding the need to use additional
emulsifying salts (Guinee, 2009) (Fig. 2). Sumarmono et al. (2021)
investigated the effects of the addition of WPC and stabilizers like
Tween-80 and Span-80. The experimental design was based on changing
the concentration of WPC at levels 20, 25 and 30% and the emulsifier
types being Tween-80, Span-80, and a combination of both. The best
proportion of the analogue cheddar was WPC 30% and emulsifier
Tween-80 1% with yield value 63.23%, pH 5.7, total dissolved solids
31.75%, and moisture content 59.24% which resembled the conven­
tional cheddar cheese qualities based on sensory evaluation. The opti­
mized formulation had a yellowish-white aroma, with a very slight
cheesy aroma. Sánchez-Obando et al. (2020) explored the use of
microparticulate whey protein (MWP) as a fat mimetic in low-fat
petit-Suisse cheese. The replacement of up to 40% fat with MWP in
cheese exhibited similar viscoelastic properties as that of control cheese.
Interestingly, 10% reduction also showed good stability. However, 20%
reduced cheese exhibited the lowest storage and loss moduli, indicating
high protein-protein interactions, and hence reducing its stability. The
hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and springiness did not show any
significant change with increasing WMP. However, the adhesiveness,
indicator of the stickiness of cheese showed a decreasing trend with
increasing WMP in the cheese. Similar results were also obtained by
Sołowiej et al. (2020), when polymerized whey protein isolates were
added as an alternative to emulsifying salts in acid casein-based pro­
cessed cheeses. Polymerized WPI had a positive effect on the rheology,
meltability, and spreadability of the processed cheese. The hardness and
adhesiveness showed a decreasing trend with increasing WPI
R. Kamath et al.
Fig. 2. The approach for the design of dairy-based and plant-based analogues. (A): The formation of emulsion in the presence of casein and emulsifying salts; (B): The
formation of emulsion in the presence of whey in the presence of emulsifying salts. Higher quantities of emulsifying salts are required for whey-stabilised emulsions;
(C): The stabilization of the emulsion in the presence of casein and polymerized whey protein for reduced salt formulations; (D): The incorporation of polysaccharides
for the development of PBCAs; (E): The incorporation of plant-based milks and pastes for the development of PBCAs.
concentration. The addition of whey can be a prospective method of
production of low-fat CAs. It is also important to note that
protein-protein interactions can have a significant effect on the rheo­
logical and sensory profile of the analogues.
2.2. Casein-based analogues
The major source of protein in partial dairy-based cheese analogue is
acid casein, rennet casein, blend of acid casein and rennet casein (ARC),
Ca/Na-caseinate or blend of Ca/Na-caseinates. They are majorly used
alone or in a combination with carbohydrates to develop low-fat vari­
ants. In a study conducted by Dharaiya et al. (2019), Mozzarella Cheese
Analogue (MCA) was prepared using acid casein (ACMCA), rennet
casein (RCMCA), and their admixture (ARCMCA). Their functional
properties were compared with Natural Mozzarella Cheese (NMC) dur­
ing refrigerated storage. The functional properties of shreddability,
meltability, stretch value, and fat leakage were superior in long-term
storage (<28 days) for the CA as compared to NMC. Lukman et al.
(2016) tried to improve the physicochemical properties of microwave­
able Mozzarella CA using modified casein and inulin by varying the
concentration of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and pH. The results showed
that the combination of CaCl2 0.025% (v/v) and pH 4.6 gave the desired
rheological properties. Increasing inulin in modified casein: inulin ratio
decreased the sensory properties and cavities in the microstructure of
the analogue. Higher power decreased the moisture content, thereby
increasing crispiness and decreasing color scores and volumetric
expansion. The replacement of fat by acid casein in processed cheese
analogues (PCAs)decreased the hardness, adhesiveness, and viscosity,
but increased the meltability and cohesiveness. The ratio of the acid
casein and anhydrous milk fat had a significant contribution to the
viscosity and flowability of cheese. Increasing the ratio of casein and fat
had a positive effect on the elasticity of cheese (Solowiej, 2012).
3. Partial dairy and NON-DAIRY based cheese analogues
Non-dairy cheese analogues or plant-based cheese alternatives
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(PBCAs) are based on the concept of replacement of the protein and fat
component of dairy with plant-based alternatives. In this section, the
various approaches have been critically discussed and explained.
3.1. Vegetable oil/fat as a dairy fat replacer
CAs typically contain about 23%–28% fat content which plays a
significant role in the flavor and texture development of the final
product (Mulsow et al., 2007). In dairy-based CA, anhydrous milk fat,
cream, or butter, which are components of dairy origin, act as sources of
fat. Conversely, in partial dairy CA, the oil/fat source may be milk fat
along with the addition of vegetable oil/fat which acts as fat mimetic.
Soy oil, rapeseed oil, palm oil, or their hydrogenated corresponding fat
are some typical sources of vegetable oils and fats. Edam-type cheese
analogue was prepared by substituting milk fat with palm oil by Myhan
et al. (2020). The rheological properties of Edam cheese control and its
substitute were analyzed during a 16-week ripening period, based on the
results of a stress-relaxation test. The replacement of milk fat with palm
oil did not influence the rheological properties of Edam-type cheese and
the cheese-like product. In subsequent stages of ripening, no significant
differences were found in the rheological properties of both products.
In the research conducted by Shabani et al. (2016), a cheese
analogue was produced based on ultra-filtered (UF) white-brined cheese
by replacing the dairy fat with sunflower oil and cooking at different
temperatures and times. Hardness, adhesiveness, meltability, and
oiling-off were used to evaluate the suitability of the final product. It was
found that partial replacement of dairy cream with sunflower oil led to
an increase in the adhesiveness, oiling-off, and spreadability while
decreasing the hardness of the cheese. The CA however, had a lower
cholesterol level Abdel-Ghany et al. (2020) tried to replace milk fat with
edible oils such as butter oil, rice bran oil, and palm oil in PCA and
compared the oxidative stabilities. The sample with rice bran oil
exhibited the maximum radical-scavenging effect, amongst butter oil
and palm oil incorporated samples. During storage for 3 months at 5 ◦ C
and 25 ◦ C, the highest acid value and peroxide value were reported for
rice bran oil-containing samples.
R. Kamath et al.
The type of fat can also have a profound impact on the quality of the
cheese analogue. When hydrogenated soybean fat and soybean oil were
compared, the size of the fat globule was higher in fat than in oil. It is
also important to note that the sensory appeal and flavor were not able
to match the regular cheese. However, the fat analogue was better
preferred than the oil. Both the fat and the oil reduced the spreadability
and exhibited lower melting indices (Cunha et al., 2013). Therefore, the
use of vegetable oils can help in mimicking dairy fat. However, potential
problems of “oiling-off” and off-flavors can limit their use in CAs.
3.2. Polysaccharides as a dairy fat replacer
The various polysaccharides such as inulin and modified starches can
help in reducing the fat content of cheeses. Inulin does not get hydro­
lyzed by gastric secretions and can be good prebiotic. Modified starches
are an example of resistant starches, which are being viewed as pre­
biotics in recent times (Zaman & Sarbini, 2016). Sugar alcohols such as
xylitol also have the potential to replace fat and sugar in cheese
matrices. To compensate for the loss of fibrous texture and stringiness
that occurs in the production of low-fat pasta filata cheese, the addition
of various polysaccharide slurries to hot cheese was investigated by
Oberg et al. (2015). Polysaccharides used included waxy corn starch,
waxy rice starch, instant tapioca starch, polydextrose, xanthan gum, and
guar gum. It was found that adding starch slurries increased cheese
moisture content by up to 1.6% but was not effective at increasing
stringiness. Xanthan gum functioned best as a fat mimetic and produced
low-fat string cheese. 1% xanthan gum slurry added cheese analogue
fared similarly in terms of physical parameters when compared with
control Mozzarella cheese. However, it was scored better by consumers
after 2 weeks of storage. To optimize a low and reduced-fat Cheddar
cheese, formulation by using protein- and carbohydrate-based fat mi­
metics was carried out by Nateghi et al. (2012). A full factorial design
was used to determine the most suitable amounts of fat mimetics (xan­
than gum and sodium caseinate) to obtain reduced-fat Cheddar cheese
with satisfactory texture profiles. The results showed that the
reduced-fat cheddar cheese produced with xanthan gum simulated the
functions of fat better than sodium caseinate. Hanáková et al. (2013)
observed that ĸ-carrageenan showed the maximum increase in G* and
maximum hardness amongst λ and i-carrageenans, irrespective of the
type of fat (butter, coconut fat, and palm oil) used, after 7-day storage at
6 ◦ C. However, when locust bean gum and Arabic gum were added,
there was no three-dimensional network formed like carrageenan,
leading to very low G* and hardness values. Exudate gums such as Zedu
gum have also been explored for their use in low-fat cheeses. The ho­
mogeneity of the matrix was reinforced due to interactions between the
polysaccharide and casein. However, the low-fat variant was inferior to
full-fat cheese in terms of sensory properties (Baghdadi et al., 2018).
Another ingredient that has been investigated to substitute milk fats
in cheese is inulin. It is a versatile additive that can perform as a dietary
fiber, sweetener and can enhance organoleptic properties. In cheese, it is
mostly applied both as a fat replacer, due to its rheological properties
similar to table fats, and as a texture modifier (Karimi et al., 2015). The
incorporation of inulin along with starter cultures can be an attractive
option for the development of functional CAs, which can act as a syn­
biotic. Two synbiotic cheeses with low fat and salt were prepared with
the help of two different starter cultures Lactobacillus rhamnosus and
Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis in the presence of 2% inulin
(Abd-Rabou et al., 2016). The synbiotic cheeses exhibited enhanced
sensory profiles when compared with probiotic cheeses. This was
indicative of the fact that inulin imparted good body and creamy flavor
to the analogue. Interestingly, inulin promoted proteolysis by the cul­
tures and resulted in better springiness and lower gumminess.
Pre-gelatinized starches are cold-water soluble and give instant vis­
cosity. They exhibit variable melting properties with increased
starch–protein interactions and structural strength when used at
different levels in imitation cheese. In a study conducted by Butt et al.
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LWT 155 (2022) 112991
(2020), pre-gelatinized starches (native and modified) were used to
partially replace protein and fat in the production of imitation cheese
and were compared with conventional cheese (0% starch). The resultant
imitation cheeses were softer, more cohesive, and had improved melting
properties compared to control. The internal structure was reinforced
and meltability was improved due to these replacements. In conclusion,
pregels allowed easy simultaneous replacement of casein by 15% and fat
by 10% in imitation Mozzarella cheese. The effect of pH on rheology and
meltability was examined by Sołowiej et al. (2016) in acid-casein-based
CA. Acetylated distarch adipate (ADA) and hydroxypropyl distarch
phosphate (HDP) increased the hardness, cohesiveness, and viscosity of
CAs. The complex viscosity was higher in ADA than in HDP. At higher
pH values (6.0–7.0), CAs exhibited more viscous properties. On the
contrary, at lower pH (4.5–5.5), higher elasticity was reported. There­
fore, the meltability of the cheese is highly dependent on the pH of the
CA matrix.
3.3. Plant-based cheese analogues
Cheese analogues can also be prepared entirely using plant-based
ingredients. PBCAs do not have cholesterol but have higher fiber and
complex carbohydrates. The use of coconut oil and milk in PBCAs can be
a good source of medium-chain triglycerides, which are effective against
Alzheimer’s disease (Chatterjee et al., 2020). Soybean is the most
commonly used plant-based protein in PBCAs (Rinaldoni et al., 2014).
However, it is associated with undesirable sensory attributes of beany
flavor and gritty texture. For instance, Li et al. (2020) incorporated
Geotrichum candidum in soft soy cheese to get rid of the beany taste of
soy. The increase in soluble nitrogen, pH, and free fatty acid indicated
fat and protein breakdown, which was desirable for the development of
flavor. In one of the studies, cheese spread analogue was prepared using
corn extract and extracts of papain and pineapple were added to
enhance physicochemical and sensory properties by Aini et al. (2019).
Although the sensory characteristics of the cheese analogue were
favorable, the yield of cheese analogue produced is still low and further
research is needed to increase the yield. The author suggested that the
yield can be improved by the addition of fillers and stabilizers. To pro­
duce low-fat cheese using corn extract, an investigation was carried out
using papain and lime extract as coagulants and the addition of malto­
dextrin to increase volume and total solids (Aini et al., 2020). The
physicochemical properties and sensory properties were evaluated and
compared with cow’s milk cheese. The optimal cheese analogue formula
from corn extract was found to be 2.283% lime extract, 0.022% papain,
and 15% maltodextrin to the corn extract to produce a yield of 20.3%
and 14◦ Brix cheese with 65.3% moisture content. The CA had sensory
characteristics of soft texture, the ability to spread evenly with the
typical color of cheese, and similar physicochemical composition. It can
be inferred that sweet corn has the potential for use as a raw material for
producing low-fat cheese. Mattice and Marangoni (2020) developed a
PBCA using 0–30% zein and also compared the analogues with gluten
and pea-protein based substitutes. Zein was preferred for its high
stretchability and viscosity, with a cheddar-like mouthfeel. The devel­
opment of such analogues can pave the path for the development of
reduced calorie and fat products, while also enjoying the sensory
properties of cheese.
In recent years, there have been efforts to produce sweet processed
cheese spreads using fruit and vegetable substances. For example, PCAs
were made with different ratios of apricot pulps (10, 20, and 30%)
which sweetened with different proportions of sugar (5, 10, and 15%).
The addition of apricot pulp and sugar resulted in PCAs with higher total
solids, fiber, carbohydrates, vitamin A, and potassium content as
compared with the control. Hardness, gumminess, cohesiveness, and
springiness in all PCAs were lower than the control cheese. The addition
of approximately 30% apricot pulp and 20% sugar in the PCs had a
significant effect on the overall acceptability score. Similarly, Mohamed
et al. (2016) prepared carrot PCAs with various ratios of carrot paste (5,
R. Kamath et al.
10, and 15%) which were sweetened with 15% sugar in all treatments.
The base blends were standardized to contain 36% F/DM (fat in dry
matter) and 60% moisture in the resultant control spreads. The analogue
with carrot paste was higher in vitamin A, carotenoids, phenolic com­
pounds, antioxidant activity, and lower in sodium/potassium ratio than
the control. Along with apricot, the use of carrot paste as an optional
ingredient in PCA would be a great way to introduce of a healthy cheese
with orange color, which could be introduced to children instead of
other sweetened products. A spreadable PCA substituted by 20% cooked
chickpeas was developed by Seleet et al. (2014), wherein PER, BV and
NPU of the analogue were 20% higher than the control. While arginine,
histidine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, proline, alanine, aspartic acid and
glutamic acid increased, the sulfur containing amino acids decreased
due to the substitution. The formulation was capable of providing
essential amino acids to pre-school and school children.
In another study by Kassem et al. (2017), processed cheese spread
was prepared using 3 ratios of pumpkin pastes (5, 10, and 15% w/w) and
compared with control. There was no significant difference in ash and
total solids content on using the three pumpkin pastes. A positive trend
was observed for fiber, phenolics, and potassium content while a
negative trend was observed for sodium and firmness of the cheese. It
was concluded that preparing a sweet, processed cheese spread analogue
using 10% pumpkin paste was “preferably acceptable” and can be a new
sweet product suitable for children and patients who suffer from hy­
pertension. Farahat et al. (2021) attempted for the addition of vegetable
blend (mushroom, green pea, potato, celery, squash, carrot, dill, green
bean, leek, and parsley) powder up to 10% in the processed cheese
formulations. The fortified cheese had higher protein and fiber content,
compared to the conventional cheese. Interestingly, there was no change
in the overall acceptability in the consumer sensory test. This can be well
understood from Fig. 2-E.
The development of PBCAs using plant-based milks involves over­
coming the energy barrier of electrostatic repulsion between protein
molecules to induce gelation and curd formation. This is usually facili­
tated by thermal treatment or isoelectric precipitation to induce aggre­
gation (Grossmann & McClements, 2021). Oyeyinka et al. (2019) tried
producing CA using a blend of soymilk and cashew milk in different
proportions. The vegan analogue produced with 40% cashew nut milk
had the highest protein and ash but was lower in lipid. The sample blend
with 40% cashew nut milk was preferred in terms of color, flavor, and
overall acceptability. As an alternative protein source, vegan cheese
analogue from cashew nut and soy milk could also serve as a rich source
of essential fatty acids. Probiotic-added soy cheese have been found to
be ACE-inhibitory, and immunity-enhancing. The reduction in soy oli­
gosaccharides and higher α-galactosidase production after fermentation
impart health benefits to the soy cheese (Jeewanthi & Paik, 2018). The
use of proteolytic enzymes can also produce bioactive peptides, which
are reported to possess many health benefits. A functional veg spread
was prepared by using peanut and probiotic microorganism Lactobacillus
rhamnosus NCDC18 by Sharma et al. (2018). The proportion of peanut
seed and water for milk extraction was optimized. Fermentation of
coagulated protein by probiotic strain was undertaken at 37 ◦ C for 24 h.
The optimum ratio of peanut and water was found to be 1:6 for desired
5.5% solid content. While the moisture, ash, fat, antioxidant, and
vitamin C contents remained unchanged, while protein, carbohydrate,
pH, and titratable acidity were found to change significantly before and
after fermentation. It can be inferred that a functional cheese spread can
be prepared using peanut milk and its subsequent fermentation using
probiotic microorganism Lactobacillus rhamnosus (NCDC18). Łopusie­
wicz et al. (2020) developed a bioactive Camembert-analogue by fer­
menting flaxseed oil cake with Lactic Acid Bacteria, Penicillium
camemberti, and Geotrichum candidum. The analogues exhibited
enhanced antioxidant capacity and oil oxidative stability. Therefore,
fermentation of plant-based ingredients can be a great approach for the
development of analogues. Another approach to the development of
vegan CAs is the incorporation of algal biomass in cheese blends, due to
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LWT 155 (2022) 112991
the high content of antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids, which further
impart the anti-cancer and anti-viral properties to the CAs. The incor­
poration of 2–6% Chlorella vulgaris powder in cheese blends resulted in
the CAs having higher Se, Zn, Fe, Mg and K, with enhanced antioxidant
activity (Tohamy et al., 2018). Interestingly, the addition of 4% algal
biomass resulted in a firm and strong cohesive network, with lower
oiling off and meltability.
The aforementioned approaches thoroughly show the potential of
formulating PBCAs. Nevertheless, there is a need to emphasize the
sensory evaluation of mouthfeel and texture developed in these products
and how close they resemble the conventional cheeses. The evaluation
of consumer liking must be integrated with the physicochemical char­
acteristics of the product while simultaneously using a diverse group of
panelists.
4. Altered processing methods
Since CAs require substitution or addition of various ingredients, the
processing methods often need to be altered to achieve similar proper­
ties to that of conventional cheese. One of the major challenges in the
development of healthy CAs is the development of low-salt cheese an­
alogues, as salt plays a major role in the formation of flavor and body,
preventing bitter taste, off-flavors, and excessive acidity. Therefore, the
approach can be the substitution of salt, followed by the addition of
flavor enhancers and bitter blockers. A potassium salt, hydrolyzed
vegetable protein, and adenosine monophosphate were used by Khetra
et al. (2016) for reduced sodium Cheddar cheese. However, the texture
and body were significantly affected. A novel approach was adopted by
Ozturk et al. (2015) by coupling ultrafiltration (UF) and high hydrostatic
pressure (HPP). To decrease the possibility of the development of
excessive acidity, the UF retentate was fortified into the cheese to
facilitate curd buffering, followed by HPP (500 MPa|3 min) to decrease
the initial load of the starter culture, thus reducing the rate of acid
development. Camel chymosin was also incorporated to prevent any
bitter taste. Often citrate and phosphate salts are added as “melting
salts” during the process of heating to break down the sparsely soluble
lipid-protein-calcium-phosphate complex and achieve a uniform gelling
mass. Pavlyuk et al. (2016) employed freezing and cryogrinding to
destroy and hydrolyze proteins into amino acids, thus forming a uniform
gel and reduce the usage of melting salts. The development of low salt
analogues is challenging, as salt plays a major role in the prevention of
growth of pathogens and microbial spoilage (Fig. 1). This problem was
solved by Effat et al. (2018), by the incorporation of probiotic Lactoba­
cilli and Pediococci strains, which prevented the growth of total co­
liforms, yeast-mold, Salmonella, Enterococci, and thermoduric bacteria
during storage. The functional soft cheese had higher content of oleic
and linoleic acid than the control. Therefore, the functional cheese
provided a dual advantage of reduced salt and the potential health
benefits of the probiotics.
As already discussed, the development of CAs requires the formation
of emulsions (Fig. 2). Leong et al. (2020) attempted to develop Cheddar
CAs with canola oil and ultrasonication by forming single emulsion (O|
W) and double emulsion (W|O|W) systems. The O|W emulsion was
softer and showed more coalescence. On the contrary, the W|O|W sys­
tem exhibited greater hardness, melted less, but developed higher free
fatty acids during storage. More work needs to be undertaken to un­
derstand the effect of altered processing techniques in the development
of CAs.
5. 3-D printed cheese analogues
Recent trends in sustainable food systems have given rise to the
concept of 3-D printing. 3-D printing is a novel technique of constructing
foods of the desired shape, color, taste, and nutrition by the deposition of
the printing material layer by layer (Fig. 3). It is innovative due to its
wide range of possibilities of customization and high control over the
R. Kamath et al.
Fig. 3. A schematic of the application of 3-D printing in the development of desired CAs, according to consumer requirements.
process. The construction of 3-D printed milk protein composite gel in
sodium caseinate solution was reported by Liu et al. (2019). Le Tohic
et al. (2018) used a commercially available processed cheese paste as the
printing material. The molten cheese was extruded through a nozzle of a
3-D printer in the Cartesian coordinate space using computer control.
Interestingly, the meltability of this new cheese increased and the
hardness decreased. CLSM revealed partially coalesced fat globules,
indicating shearing and solidification, leading to disruption of the
emulsion. The larger fat globules resulted in darker cheeses with lower
adhesiveness. An interesting study was also undertaken by Shahbazi
et al. (2021), where a reduced-fat 3-D printed cheese was produced
using extrusion printers in presence of a micro-biosurfactant (acetylated
microcrystalline cellulose). The printed cheese analogue presented
better freeze-thaw stability and greater creaminess, mouth-coating, and
fatty aftertaste.
6. Conclusion
The growth of interest in CAs can be attributed to the primary desire
of reducing costs of cheese production. However, a recent trend of
greater interest in PBCAs is being observed in the market and literature
as well. Consumers still believe in the “art” of cheese making and may
not be ready to substitute cheese with its analogues. The recent de­
velopments, however, are making it possible to achieve analogues with
greater nutritional appeal at significantly lower costs. The shift towards
“reduced-fat” or “cholesterol-free” products has forced the industry to
rethink and develop products, which meet consumer preferences. The
time associated with ripening adds to the costs of cheese making. Higher
amounts of antioxidants, dietary fiber and phytoconstituents due to
incorporation of fruit and vegetable blends add to the health benefits of
PBCAs. The addition of probiotics and flavor enhancers has allowed the
formulation of analogues with reduced emulsifying and melting salts.
The concept of veganism coupled with the potential health benefits of
plant proteins can boost the market growth of CAs. The incorporation of
algal biomass also presents a great opportunity. Lack of a clear regula­
tory framework for such products, unlike in cheese is required to give
this sector a boost. Newer technologies such as 3-D printing have made it
possible to construct food products according to one’s personalized
6
LWT 155 (2022) 112991
nutritional requirements. Better functional and nutritional properties of
such analogues with greater shelf stability are the current need of the
industry.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
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Key ReferencesThe references have discussed about different strategies for the
development of cheese analogues. The inclusion of various hydrocolloids,
fermenting microorganisms and 3-D printing have been strategically covered. They
are recent studies and have been covered in reputed journals such as LWT-Food
Science and technology, Carbohydrate polymers, and Journal of Food Processing and
Preservation