electronics
Article
Composite Switched Lyapunov Function-Based Control of
DC–DC Converters for Renewable Energy Applications
Tohid Hashemi 1 , Reza Mahboobi Esfanjani 2 and Hamed Jafari Kaleybar 1, *
Citation: Hashemi, T.; Mahboobi
Esfanjani, R.; Jafari Kaleybar, H.
Composite Switched Lyapunov
Function-Based Control of DC–DC
Converters for Renewable Energy
Applications. Electronics 2024, 13, 84.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics13010084
Academic Editor: Ghulam Abbas
Received: 28 November 2023
Revised: 20 December 2023
Accepted: 21 December 2023
Published: 24 December 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Electronics 2024, 13, 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13010084
1 Energy Department, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy; tohid.hashemi@mail.polimi.it
2 Electrical Engineering Department, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz 51335-1996, Iran;
mahboobi@sut.ac.ir
* Correspondence: hamed.jafari@polimi.it
Abstract: Renewable energy sources play a pivotal role in the pursuit of sustainable and eco-friendly
power solutions. While offering environmental benefits, they present inherent challenges. Photo-
voltaic systems rely on surrounding conditions, wind systems contend with variable wind speeds,
and fuel cells are both costly and inefficient. Furthermore, the energy injected by renewable energy
sources (RES) exhibits unpredictable behavior. To tackle these problems, researchers employ diverse
power electronic devices and converters like inverters, power quality filters, and DC–DC choppers.
Among these, DC–DC converters stand out for effectively regulating DC voltage and enhancing
the efficiency of RESs. The meticulous selection of a suitable DC–DC converter, coupled with the
integration of an efficient control technique, significantly influences overall power system perfor-
mance. This paper introduces a novel approach to the design of switching controllers for DC–DC
converters, specifically tailored for application in renewable energy systems. The proposed controller
leverages the power of composite switched Lyapunov functions (CSLF) to enhance the efficiency and
performance of DC–DC converters, addressing the unique challenges posed by renewable energy
sources. Through comprehensive analysis and simulation, this study demonstrates the efficacy of
the controller in optimizing power transfer, improving stability, and ensuring reliable operation in
diverse renewable energy environments. Moreover, the small-scale DC–DC converter experiment’s
findings are presented to confirm and validate the proposed scheme’s practical applicability.
Keywords: switched systems; DC–DC converters; renewable energy sources; composite Lyapunov
functions; guaranteed cost control
1. Introduction
In recent decades, there has been a notable surge of interest in step-up DC–DC con-
verters across diverse applications, particularly in renewable energy sources such as photo-
voltaic (PV) and fuel cell (FC). These interface circuits convert low-input voltage (below
50 V) into a controlled and elevated output voltage [1]. The innovation of pulse-width
modulated (PWM) boost converters has led to the evolution of switched-mode step-up
DC–DC converters. These configurations elevate output voltage by temporarily storing
and releasing energy from the input, utilizing magnetic field storage components (e.g.,
inductors) or electric field storage components (e.g., capacitors) with active or passive
switching elements [2].
DC–DC converters are playing a pivotal role in enhancing the efficiency and viability
of smart grids and microgrids, especially in the context of integrating renewable energy
sources. Meanwhile, in the electric transportation sector, the application of DC–DC convert-
ers is instrumental in addressing the diverse voltage requirements of components within
electric vehicles (EVs) [3] or their integration with electric railway systems [4]. Various
sources, such as batteries and supercapacitors, often produce output voltages that may fall
below the levels needed for efficient power conversion. Elevating these voltages becomes
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 2 of 15

Electronics 2024, 13, 84 2 of 15

may fall below the levels needed for efficient power conversion. Elevating these voltages
becomes
crucial crucial
to meet thetodemands
meet theofdemands of electric systems
electric propulsion propulsion andsystems and other
other vehicle vehicle
subsystems.
subsystems. High step-up DC/DC converters are essential in this
High step-up DC/DC converters are essential in this context, serving as key components context, serving as keyto
ensure optimal energy conversion, distribution, and utilization in EVs. OvercomingEVs.
components to ensure optimal energy conversion, distribution, and utilization in the
Overcoming
limitations the limitations
associated associated with
with conventional conventional
converters is vital converters
for enhancingis vital for enhancing
overall efficiency,
extending the range of electric vehicles, and promoting the broader adoption of the
overall efficiency, extending the range of electric vehicles, and promoting broader
sustainable
adoption of sustainable
transportation solutions. transportation
In Figure 1, ansolutions.
illustrationIn of
Figure 1, an illustration
an integrated of an inte-
hybrid renewable
energy grid-connected system linked with a sustainable transportation system [5] trans-
grated hybrid renewable energy grid-connected system linked with a sustainable is de-
portation
picted, system
where [5] issources,
various depicted, where
such various sources,
as photovoltaic suchfuel
arrays, as photovoltaic arrays, fuel
stacks, supercapacitors,
stacks,
or supercapacitors,
batteries as energy storage or batteries
systemsas energy
(ESS), storage
generated systems (ESS),low-output
relatively generated relatively
voltages,
low-output voltages, often below 48 V. To seamlessly integrate
often below 48 V. To seamlessly integrate these sources into an AC grid-connected these sources into power
an AC
grid-connected
system, or even power system, or
a DC charging even aa crucial
station, DC charging station, boosting
step involved a crucial the stepgenerated
involved
boosting
low the generated
voltages low voltages
to higher levels, to higher
like 380–760 levels,
V for like 380–760
a full-bridge and V for a full-bridge
a half-bridge and
inverter.
a half-bridge inverter.
Furthermore, integrating Furthermore,
two DC hub-likeintegrating two bus
local DC DC and
hub-like
metrolocal DC bus and
or tramway DC metro
lines,
or shown
as tramway in DC lines,
Figure 1,as
canshown in Figure
be realized by1,such
can be realized
DC–DC by such DC–DC
converters convertersthe
[6]. Accordingly, [6].
Accordingly, the realization of step-up DC/DC converters with
realization of step-up DC/DC converters with superior performance has stood out as a superior performance has
stood out as challenge
fundamental a fundamentalin the challenge
domain of in the domain
renewable energyof renewable
applications. energy applications.
The conventional
The conventional
boost converters face boost converters
limitations in face limitations
achieving in achieving
the necessary highthe necessary
step-up high step-
conversion for
up conversion
renewable energyfor systems.
renewable energy systems.

Utility AC loads
Grid
AC bus

EV charging AC distributed
DC distributed generation
station ESS generation
Bidrectional
AC loads
TSS

DC/DC DC/DC DC/DC AC/DC Railway

DC bus
DC/DC
Local DC
bus AC
DCloads
loads
DC load

Figure 1. Schematic
Figure1. Schematic of
of aa smart
smart grid
grid and
andmicrogrid
microgridwith
withintegrated
integratedDC–DC
DC–DCconverters.
converters.

AA comprehensive
comprehensive investigation
investigation into
into aa family
family of of two-level,
two-level, isolated,
isolated, bidirectional
bidirectional sys-
sys-
tems
tems involving the use of DC–DC converters with pulse-width modulation and
involving the use of DC–DC converters with pulse-width modulation and phase-
phase-
shift
shift (PPS)
(PPS) modulation
modulation has
has been
been documented
documented [7]. [7]. Additionally,
Additionally, novel
novel DC–DC
DC–DC converter
converter
topologies, including Cuk, SEPIC, and Zeta converters, based on critical
topologies, including Cuk, SEPIC, and Zeta converters, based on critical conduction conduction mode-
operating capacitive
mode-operating link DC–DC
capacitive converters,
link DC–DC have been
converters, haveproposed [8]. These
been proposed [8]. converters
These con-
build upon quasi-square-wave zero-current converters, incorporating an auxiliary
verters build upon quasi-square-wave zero-current converters, incorporating an auxiliary circuit
for zero-current and zero-voltage switching, eliminating voltage ringing across
circuit for zero-current and zero-voltage switching, eliminating voltage ringing across the the output
switch
output[8].
switch [8].
A new control strategy for DC/DC buck converters is presented using artificial neural
A new control strategy for DC/DC buck converters is presented using artificial neural
networks (ANNs) in [9]. The ANN, trained with approximation dynamic programming
networks (ANNs) in [9]. The ANN, trained with approximation dynamic programming
(ADP), enables proportional-integral (PI) control with error signals and their integrals.
(ADP), enables proportional-integral (PI) control with error signals and their integrals.
The DC/DC converter’s voltage feedback to the ANN creates an equivalent system to a
The DC/DC converter’s voltage feedback to the ANN creates an equivalent system to a
recurrent neural network, offering superior predictive control. Offline training is employed
recurrent neural network, offering superior predictive control. Offline training is em-
to prevent instability from weight changes in an online method.
ployed to prevent instability from weight changes in an online method.
In [10], minimal distortion point tracking (MDPT) is introduced for parallel-connected
In [10], minimal distortion point tracking (MDPT) is introduced for parallel-con-
DC–DC converters, optimizing with phase-shifting switching waveforms. The control
nected DC–DC converters, optimizing with phase-shifting switching waveforms. The con-
design enhances power quality, suggesting reduced reliance on passive filters.
trol design enhances power quality, suggesting reduced reliance on passive filters.
For voltage step-down DC–DC converters with non-ideal components [11], an optimal
For voltage step-down DC–DC converters with non-ideal components [11], an opti-
transition approach is investigated, exhibiting robust performance even in the presence of
mal transition
parameter approach
uncertainty. Ref. is
[12]investigated,
demonstratesexhibiting robust
a non-isolated performance
quadratic even in the
extended-duty-ratio
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 3 of 15

(EDR) boost converter, combining EDR and quadratic boost converters for high gain. The
recommended Quadratic EDR (QEDR) boost converter achieves exceptional gain at low
voltage and current stress, operating across diverse devices with moderate duty levels.
In [13], the authors explores PID controller design for buck converters, optimizing
parameters using a particle swarm optimization (PSO) framework. An anti-windup control
strategy is proposed, achieving effective voltage control despite input and load fluctuations.
In [14], a time-based control DC/DC converter-specific integrated loop-gain-measuring
circuit is proposed, minimizing its impact on regulator performance. Ref. [15] addresses
balanced current sharing and voltage control in parallel-connected DC–DC converters,
introducing a distributed dynamic control strategy resilient to variations.
Finally, [16–19] collectively present a design process utilizing a single quadratic Lya-
punov function, Lyapunov–Metzler inequalities, and state feedback variable structure
controllers for expedited convergence of DC–DC converters within a class of switched lin-
ear systems, as applied in [19] for the development of a sliding-mode controller according
to the switched sliding.
Addressing the formidable challenge in stabilizing unstable systems through the def-
inition of suitable switching rules is a focal point in the theory of switched systems. In
efforts to mitigate the conservatism associated with stabilization methods for switched
linear systems, [20–24] introduced efficient approaches. Ref. [20] specifically employed
composite quadratic functions to stabilize autonomous linear-switched systems devoid of
external input. By combining multiple quadratic functions to construct a Lyapunov func-
tion, this technique yielded sufficient conditions for formulating stabilizing switching laws
in terms of bilinear matrix inequalities. Notably, superior outcomes were demonstrated
when the number of quadratic functions surpassed the number of subsystems.
In response to the mentioned challenges, this paper introduces a rule for making
switches in a way that ensures stability for linear-switched systems with constant external
input. At the same time, it aims to minimize a guaranteed quadratic cost. A significant
advancement here is the application of findings from [20] to switched affine systems
with constant external input, specifically tailored to address the dynamic models of DC–
DC converters. Unlike the other methods, the proposed control method in this paper is
designed to minimize a certain cost. In contrast to the methods in [16,17], the proposed
scheme introduces the idea of a composite switched Lyapunov function to create a control
strategy for DC–DC converters. This new approach offers more flexibility in the design
conditions, allowing for the selection of the number of quadratic terms in the Lyapunov
function candidate.
Simulation results in Section 4 compare the performance of the proposed method
against outcomes from [16], employing Buck and Buck–Boost circuits to illustrate the
superior efficacy of the proposed method. Section 5 presents the experimental validation of
the derived control scheme on the Buck converter, confirming its practical applicability. It
is emphasized that the developed switching method can be extended to control various
types of converters.
The paper is structured as follows. Section 2. delineates a switched system model for
DC–DC converters and formulates the switching design problem. Section 3 introduces
the necessary conditions for designing a switching strategy for the affine switched system.
Comparative simulation results are presented in Section 4 to underscore the superiority of
the proposed approach. Section 5 details the experimental results, showcasing the practical
implementation of the designed switching method. The paper concludes in Section 6.

2. Methodology and Problem Statement

A DC–DC converter is defined as a switched system comprising multiple linear
subsystems characterized by constant external inputs and sharing common state variables.
Within this structure, the active subsystem, denoted as the one dictating the state evolution
at any specific moment, stands out. The control parameters, determined by the switching
rule, influence the activation of a particular subsystem. The dynamics of this converter can
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 4 of 15

be articulated through a state-space realization, encapsulating its behavior and interactions

in a mathematical framework as
.
x(t) = Aσ x(t) + Bσ u (1)

In this context, the state vector, denoted as x(t) ∈ Rn , and the external input, rep-
resented as u, are assumed to be constant for all instances. The more explanation about
the symbols can be found in Appendix A. The switching function, σ (t) : t > 0 → K ⊂ ℵ ,
operates at each moment in time t, selecting a specific known subsystem from the available
options. The primary goal is to formulate an optimal switching strategy, denoted as σ (x(t)),
with the aim of minimizing the defined following performance index:
Z ∞
Jc = (x(t) − xe )T Q(x(t) − xe )dt (2)
0

In this formulation, xe ∈ Xe represents an attainable equilibrium point, and the

matrices of each subsystem Qi have compatible dimensions. Additionally, the set of
all equilibrium points Xe is determined through the proposed switching strategy. The
performance index Jc in Equation (2) penalizes the weighted deviation of each state variable
from the desired equilibrium point. The inherent challenge in solving this control problem
arises from the discontinuous nature of the switching function σ (x(t)). Consequently,
instead of directly addressing this complexity, the focus is on minimizing the upper bound
of the performance index Jc , characterized on the right-hand side of Equation (3):
Z ∞
(x(t) − xe )T Q(x(t) − xe )dt < (x0 − xe )T P(x0 − xe ) (3)
0

wherein symmetric positive definite matrix P ∈ Rn×n and x0 denotes the initial state. It
is worth noting that the right-hand side of (3) refers to the weighted Euclidean distance
existing between the starting and final points.
In essence, the task in the control problem is to determine the switching function σ(x(t)).
This function ensures the asymptotic stability of the equilibrium point xe while satisfying
the specified cost guarantee in Equation (3).

3. Design of Switching Controller

In this part, a method for designing switching signals for switched systems with con-
stant input that is relevant to DC–DC converters is established using the idea of a composite
Lyapunov function. The primary finding of the paper is stated in the subsequent theorem.

3.1. Theorem
Assume that the switched linear system (1) with fixed input u(t) = u ∈ Rm is an exter-
nal input, which is assumed to be constant for all t ≥ 0. Let N ∈ ℵ, Q > 0, and xe ∈ Rn be
given. If there exist λ ∈ Λ real scalars β ij > 0 for i ∈ K, j ∈ I [1, N ] and equiponderant
positive definite matrices Pj ∈ Rn×n for all j ∈ I [1, N ], such that

N
AiT Pj + Pj Ai + Q − ∑k=1 β jk Pj − Pk < 0


(4)

Aλ xe + Bλ u = 0 (5)
Then, the switching strategy can be calculated as

σ = arg minζ ′ P( Ai xe + Bi u) (6)

i∈K

with ζ = x − xe and P ≤ Pj for j ∈ I [1, N ], which makes the equilibrium point xe asymptot-
ically stable and makes the guaranteed cost (3) hold.
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 5 of 15

3.2. Proof
A combined candidate function for Lyapunov Vmin is constructed from the quadratic
functions Vj (ζ ) = ζ T Pj ζ as follows:

Vmin Vj (ζ ) : j ∈ I [1, N ] min (7)

in which Pj = PjT > 0, j ∈ I [1, N ]. Without losing the ability to generalize, it can be
assumed that VTr min , for all r ∈ I [1, N0 ]. This truth can be expressed as ζ T Pj − Pk ζ ≤ 0,

for all j ∈ I [1, N0 ] and k ∈ I [1, N ]. The following matrix inequality is identical to the
following inequality:
Pj − Pk ≤ 0j ∈ I [1, N0 ], k ∈ I [1, N ] (8)
On the other hand, the rate of change over time for Vmin in (7) along an arbitrary
trajectory of the switched system (1) is calculated and forced to be negative by proper
choice of switching strategy and its parameters. Note that
. n. o
Vmin V j (ζ ), j ∈ I [1, N0 ] (9)
min

wherein . .T .
( )
V j (ζ ) = x Pj ζ + ζ T Pj x
(10)
= 2ζ T Pj ( Aσ x + Bσ u)
Substituting x = ζ + xe leads to
.  
V j (ζ ) = 2ζ T Pj ( Aσ xe + Bσ u) + ζ T AσT Pj + Pj Aσ ζ (11)

Since σ = argminζ T Pj ( Ai xe + Bi u), the following holds:

i
 . h i 
 V j (ζ) = min 2ζT Pj ( Ai xe + Bi u) + ζT ( AσT Pj + Pj Aσ )ζ 
i ∈Kh i (12)
 ≤ min 2ζT Pj ( Aλ xe + Bλ u) + ζT ( AσT Pj + Pj Aσ )ζ 
λ∈Λ

Now, let us choose λ such that

 
Aλ xe + Bλ u = 0
(13)
AiT Pj + Pj Ai < − Q
.
or all i ∈ K; then, V j (ζ ) < −ζ T Qζ, wherein Q is the weight matrix in (2). Regarding (9),
the following is obtained:
.
VT min (14)
Thus, the asymptotic stability of xe is assured, as discussed in [20].
By S-procedure [25], the following can be the result of combining Inequalities (8)
and (10):
N
AiT Pj + Pj Ai + Q − ∑k=1 β jk Pj − Pk < 0


(15)
where β ij ≥ 0 are real scalars. Furthermore, by integrating both sides of Equation (11)
from t = 0 to t = ∞ while considering P ≤ Pj and regarding Vmin , Relation (3) is obtained.
• Remark 1
The switching function σ in (6) relies on the matrix that is derived from solving the
set of inequalities given by (4) and (5) that include bilinear terms (the product of scalar
variables and matrix variables), as in [20]. In general, the path-following approach first
presented in [26] can be used to efficiently solve the obtained BMIs.
Electronics 2024, 13, 84
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 6 6ofof15
15

• Remark 2
Because the modulation function in Equation (6) has a linear nature, it can be imple-
Because
mented the modulation
in real-world scenarios.function in Equation (6) has a linear nature, it can be imple-
mented in real-world scenarios.
Despite the fact that [16,17] offer a linear-switching law, the synthesis situations that
must Despite
be managedthe fact
arethat [16,17] offer
substantially a linear-switching
more demanding thanlaw, the the synthesis
design situations
criterion that
that is pre-
must be
sented in managed
this study.are
In substantially
comparison tomore thesedemanding
studies, thethan the design
proposed criterion
technique is lessthat is
con-
presentedThis
servative. in this study.
claim Inexamined
will is comparison to these
using studies,
simulation the proposed technique is less
results.
conservative.
RegardingThis the claim willof
potential isLMI-/BMI-based
examined using simulation
approaches,results.
more practical requirements
Regarding the potential of LMI-/BMI-based
can be incorporated into the suggested theorem. For approaches, more practical
instance, inspired requirements
by [3], the extracted
can be incorporated into the suggested theorem. For instance, inspired
result is extended in the following corollary for the case that there exist boundsby [3], the extracted
on the
result is
output extended in the following corollary for the case that there exist bounds on the
peak.
output peak.
3.3. Corollary
3.3. Corollary
Contemplate the switched linear system in (1), given an initial condition 𝒙(0) and
Contemplate the switched linear system in (1), given an initial condition x(0) and
constrained output ‖𝒚(𝑡)‖ ≤ 𝑦 , for 𝑡 ≥ 0 . Let 𝑁 ∈ ℵ , 𝑄 , 𝒙 ∈ ℜ , and 𝑦max ∈ 𝑅 be
constrained output ∥y(t)∥ ≤ ymax , for t ≥ 0. Let N ∈ ℵ, Q, xe ∈ Rn , and ymax ∈ R be
given. If there exist 𝜆 ∈ 𝛬 real scalars 𝛽 > 0 for 𝑖 ∈ K, 𝑗 ∈ 𝐼[1,N] and symmetric positive
Λ real scalars β ij > 0 for i ∈ K, j ∈ I [1, N] and symmetric positive
given. If there exist λ ∈ n×n
decisive
decisive matrices P ∈
matrices 𝑃 ∈ 𝑅Rn×n for
j all 𝑗j ∈
for all ∈ 𝐼[1,N],
I [1, N],as:
as:
 ⎧ 𝑃 𝐶T  ⎫

P𝐶𝑦
jC
⎪ 2 ⎪


Cy
 
⎪ ⎪
 


 max 

𝐼𝜻 (0)𝑃
 
(16)
 
> 0
  T 
⎨ Iζ ⎬

𝑃 ( 0
𝜻(0)𝑃) P j (16)
> 0
⎪ P ( 0 ) P ⎪
 
ζ
⎪T𝐴 𝑃 + 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑄 − ∑N 𝛽 (𝑃 − 𝑃
) < 0⎪
j j

 

 
− ∑ −

 A P j + P j A i + Q β jk Pj Pk < 0 
 ⎩𝐴 𝒙 + 𝐵 𝑢 = 0
i k = 1 ⎭

 
 
Aλ xe + Bλ u = 0

wherein ζ=x-x and 𝐼 is identity matrix, then the switching strategy in (6), with 𝑃 ≤ 𝑃
for = x−xmakes
all𝑗 ∈ζ𝐼[1,N],
wherein e and I the
is identity
equilibrium matrix,point 𝑥 globally
then the switchingasymptotically
strategy in (6), stable ≤ Pjthe
with P and for
all j ∈ I [ 1, N ] , makes
guaranteed cost in (3) holds. the equilibrium point x e globally asymptotically stable and the
guaranteed cost in (3) holds.
4. Simulations Results and Comparison
4. Simulations Results and Comparison
To demonstrate the suggested controller’s superior performance versus the compet-
To demonstrate the suggested controller’s superior performance versus the competing
ing one in [16], the Buck and Buck–Boost converters were simulated while applying the
one in [16], the Buck and Buck–Boost converters were simulated ®while applying the design-
design-switching strategy in the Simulink package in MATLAB 2022a.
switching strategy in the Simulink package in MATLAB® 2022a.
In Figure 2, schematic diagrams of the Buck and Buck–Boost converters feeding a
In Figure 2, schematic diagrams of the Buck and Buck–Boost converters feeding a
resistive load are recalled from [16], where 𝑖 and 𝑣 , respectively, stand for the inductor
resistive load are recalled from [16], where i L and vc , respectively, stand for the inductor
current and the capacitor voltage. In Figure 2, S1 is the power electronic switch and S2 is
current and the capacitor voltage. In Figure 2, S1 is the power electronic switch and S2 is
the diode, where C0 is the stabilizing capacitor, which decreases the voltage fluctuation
the diode, where C0 is the stabilizing capacitor, which decreases the voltage fluctuation
across the load and lets the ripple current pass through, hence maintaining the constant
across the load and lets the ripple current pass through, hence maintaining the constant
current flow across the load.
current flow across the load.
iL

vC vC
iL

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagram of
of (a)
(a) the
the Buck–Boost
Buck–Boost and
and (b)
(b) the
the Buck
Buck converters.
converters.

The Buck–Boost converter in Figure 2a is modeled as a switched system in the form

of (1) that consists of two affine subsystems with state vector x(t) = [𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑉 (𝑡)] and
the following matrices:
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 7 of 15

The Buck–Boost converter in Figure 2a is modeled as a switched system in the form of

 T
(1) that consists of two affine subsystems with state vector x(t) = i L (t) Vc (t) and the
following matrices:
 " # 
R  1 
− L 0
, B1 = L
 
 A1 = 
− Ro1Co
 


 0 0



(17)
     
− R/L −1/L 0

 

 A2 = , B2 =

 

1/C0 −1/R0 C0 0


The total number of equilibrium points that can exist is determined as

n o
Xe = (ie , ve ) : 0 ≤ ve ≤ R0 ie , v2e + ( RR0 )i2e − ( R0 u)ie + uve = 0 (18)
q 
R0
The achieved voltage range is approximated as 0 ≤ ve ≤ 4R u; whenever the
load resistance and source impedance align, R << R0 .
The Buck converter in Figure 1b is described in the form of (1) with two subsystems
with the state vector x (t) = i L (t)vc (t)] T and the following matrices:


 " # 
− RL −1
L
 
 A 1 = A 2 = 1

− R01C0

 

C0

 

(19)
1
     
0

 

 B1 =

 L , B2 =


0 0


The following formula is used to calculate the set of all possible equilibrium points in
the Buck–Boost circuit:

Xe = {(ie , ve ) : ve = R0 ie , 0 ≤ ie ≤ u/( R0 + R)} (20)

given that the resistance of the load and the source satisfy R << R0 .
The performance index in (2) is rewritten as follows for the considered circuits:
Z ∞
Jc = R0−1 [vc (t) − ve ]2 + ρR[i L (t) − ie ]2 dt (21)
0

The values of the elements of circuits are taken from [16] as u = 100 V, R = 2 Ω,
L = 500 µH, C0 = 470 µF, and R0 = 50 Ω. Similar to [16], the weight matrix parameter ρ in
(13) is selected to be zero, which is equivalent to the following cost weight:
" #
00
Q= (22)
0 R10

The matrix inequalities in the Theorem are solved by YALMIP to obtain the parameters
of the switching strategy in (6), which are applied to each circuit in the simulation scenarios.
Time responses of the states in the Buck–Boost converter are shown in Figure 3
for ve = 20 V. As seen, the transient behavior of the suggested converter is noticeably
faster than the one developed in [16]. More specifically, settling times of the outputs in the
proposed converter and the rival one in [16] equal, respectively, 8.5 and 9 ms.
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 8 of 15
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 8 of 15
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 8 of 15

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Trajectories of (a) the inductor current and (b) the output voltage in the Buck–Boost.
Figure
Figure3.3.Trajectories
Trajectoriesof
of(a)
(a)the
theinductor
inductorcurrent
currentand
and(b)
(b)the
theoutput
outputvoltage
voltage in
in the
the Buck–Boost.
Buck–Boost.
To compare the proposed design method with the one in [16], the performance index
To
Tocompare
comparethe theproposed
proposeddesign
designmethod
method with
withthethe
oneone
in [16], the the
in [16], performance
performance index
in-
𝐽 in (13) was extracted. A summary is presented in Table 1 for five distinct desired work-
𝐽dexin (13)
Jc inwas
(13)extracted. A summary
was extracted. is presented
A summary in Table
is presented in1Table
for five distinct
1 for desireddesired
five distinct work-
ing points. The converter results obtained using the suggested control strategy are im-
ing points.points.
working The converter resultsresults
The converter obtained usingusing
obtained the suggested control
the suggested strategy
control are im-
strategy are
proved
improved by up to
by to 30%
up30% compared
to 30% comparedto the results
toresults achieved
the results by
achieved the scheme
byscheme
the schemein [16], which
in which con-
[16], which
proved by up compared to the achieved by the in [16], con-
firms
confirmsthe effectiveness of the
the effectiveness proposed
ofproposed
the proposedmethod.
method.
firms the effectiveness of the method.
Table 1. Comparison
Comparison of the performance index for various equilibrium points in the Buck–Boost
Table 1.
Table 1. Comparisonofofthe performance
the index
performance for various
index equilibrium
for various points in
equilibrium the Buck–Boost
points converter.
in the Buck–Boost
converter.
converter.
Performance Index Jc
Performance Index 𝑱𝒄 Desired Equilibrium Point
Performance
[12] Index 𝑱𝒄 Desired Equilibrium Point
Proposed Method Desired
[12] Proposed Method Equilibrium Point
[12] Proposed Method
0.0779 0.0779 0.0599 0.0599 𝑣 = 50 ve = 50
0.0779 0.0599 𝑣 = 50
0.0457 0.0457 0.0346 𝑣 = 40
0.0457 0.0346 0.0346 𝑣 = 40 ve = 40
0.0236 0.0236 0.0173 𝑣 = 30
0.0236 0.0173 0.0173 𝑣 = 30 ve = 30
0.0099 0.0071 𝑣 = 20
0.0099 0.0099 0.0071 0.0071 𝑣 = 20 ve = 20
0.0023 0.0016 𝑣 = 10
0.0023 0.0016 𝑣 = 10
0.0023 0.0016 ve = 10
Figure 4 depicts the time response of the states of the Buck converter for 𝑣 = 20 V.
Figure
Figure 44depicts
depicts the
thetime response
responseof
timeresponse ofthe
thestates
statesofofthe
theBuck
Buckconverter
converter for 𝑣ve ==20 V.V.
As can be seen, the transient of the suggested converter is faster for
than the20
one
As can be seen,
As can beinseen, the transient response of the suggested converter is faster than the one
proposed [16].the transient response of the suggested converter is faster than the one
proposed
proposedinin[16].
[16].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Waveforms of (a) the inductor current and (b) the output voltage in the Buck.
Electronics 2024,
Electronics 2024, 13, 84
84 9 of 15
Electronics 2024,13,
13, 84 99 of
of 15
15

Figure 4. Waveforms
The of (a) the inductor current
Jc for the Buck and (b) thementioned
output voltage in the2Buck.
Figure 4. performance index
Waveforms of (a) the inductor current circuit
and (b)is in Table
the output voltage for five desired
in the Buck.
equilibrium points. The result obtained using the specified controller is improved up to
aboutThe
20%
The
performance
performance to the𝐽𝐽results
with respectindex
index
for theobtained
Buck circuit is mentioned
by the
for the Buck circuit is mentioned
in Table
mentioned rival
2 for five desired
method.
in Table 2 for five desired
equilibrium points. The result obtained using the specified controller is improved up to
equilibrium points. The result obtained using the specified controller is improved up to
about2.20% with respect
Comparison of theto the results index
performance obtained by the mentioned
for different rival
inmethod.
Table
about 20% with respect to the results obtained by the output voltages
mentioned rival Buck.
method.
Table 2. Comparison of the performance
Performance Jc
Indexindex for different output voltages in Buck.
Table 2. Comparison of the performance index for different output voltages
Desired in Buck.
Equilibrium Point
[12]
Performance Index 𝑱𝒄 Proposed Method
Performance Index 𝑱𝒄 Desired Equilibrium Point
[12] 0.0126 Proposed Method 0.0111 Desired Equilibrium Point
ve = 40
[12] Proposed Method
0.0126 0.0067 0.0111 0.0056 𝑣 = 40 ve = 30
0.0126 0.0111 𝑣 = 40
0.0067 0.0056 𝑣 = 30
0.0067 0.0028 0.0056 0.0022 𝑣 = 30ve = 20
0.0028 0.0022 𝑣 = 20
0.0028 0.00065 0.0022 𝑣 = 20
0.00065 0.00051 0.00051 𝑣 = 10 ve = 10
0.00065 0.00051 𝑣 = 10

Moreover,
Moreover, Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the resilience of the Buck circuit’s output voltage
Moreover,Figures
Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the resilience of the Buck circuit’s output voltage
against periodic step changes in the load resistor and source voltage, respectively. In the
against periodic step changes in the load resistor and source voltage, respectively. In the
ofΩ2
first simulation
simulation scenario,the
the loadresistor
resistorisisaltered
altered instantly fromitsits nominal value
of 2of 2
first simulationscenario,
scenario, theload
load resistor instantly
is altered from
instantly from nominal value
its nominal value
Ω
to to
10 Ω
10 Ω and
and viceversa
vice versaperiodically.
periodically.InInthe
thenext
nextsimulation
simulationsetup,
setup,the
the input
input voltage
voltage was
Ω to 10 Ω and vice versa periodically. In the next simulation setup, the input voltage was
varied suddenly from its nominal value of 100 V to 70 V and vice versa, intermittently. It
varied suddenly from its nominal value of 100 V to 70 V and vice versa, intermittently. It
is evident that satisfactory output regulation is achieved by the proposed method in the
is evident that satisfactory output regulation is achieved by the proposed method in the
presence of load and source disturbances.
disturbances.
presence of load and source disturbances.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. The observed time response of the Buck converter’s to periodic step changes in the resistor
Figure5.5.The
Figure Theobserved
observedtime
timeresponse
responseof
ofthe
theBuck
Buckconverter’s
converter’sto
toperiodic
periodicstep
stepchanges
changesin
inthe
theresistor
resistor
value.
value. (a) Output voltage (b) Inductor current..
value.(a)
(a)Output
Outputvoltage
voltage(b)
(b) Inductor current.
current..

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. The change in output voltage and inductor current of the Buck converter in response to
Figure6.6. The
The change
change ininoutput
outputvoltage
voltageand
andinductor
inductorcurrent
current ofthetheBuck
Buckconverter
converterin
inresponse
responseto
to
Figure
cyclic variations in the input voltage, observed over a period of of
time. (a) Output voltage (b) Inductor
cyclic variations in the input voltage, observed over a period of time. (a) Output voltage (b) Inductor
cyclic variations in the input voltage, observed over a period of time. (a) Output voltage (b) Induc-
current.
current.
tor current.
Furthermore, to evaluate the performance of the proposed method in the presence of
Furthermore,to
toevaluate
evaluatethe
the performanceof ofthe
theproposed
proposedmethod
methodinin thepresence
presenceof
of
both Furthermore,
load and source interference,performance
changes in both load and source were the
made (u = 120,
both
both load and source interference, changes in both load and source were made
load and source interference, changes in both load and source were made (u = 120,(u = 120,
R 0 = 20). The output results are shown in Figure 7, and we can confirm that the proposed
R00 =
= 20). The output
output results are shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 7,
7, and
and wewe can
can confirm
confirm that
thatthe
theproposed
proposed
method isThe
R 20). sufficientlyresults
robustare
to the interferences.
methodisissufficiently
method sufficientlyrobust
robusttotothe
theinterferences.
interferences.
 Electronics
Electronics 2024,
2024, 13,13,
84 84 10 of 15
10 of 15

(a) (b)
Figure(a)7. The change in output voltage and inductor current (b) of the Buck converter in respons
cyclic variations in the input voltage, observed over a period of time: (a) output voltage, (b) indu
Figure
Figure 7. 7.The
Thechange
changeininoutput
outputvoltage
voltageand
and inductor
inductor current
current of
of the
the Buck
Buck converter
converter in
in response
response to
current.
cyclic variations in the input voltage, observed over a period of time: (a) output voltage, (b) inductor
to cyclic variations in the input voltage, observed over a period of time: (a) output voltage,
current.
(b) inductor current.
To confirm the performance of the method in different working situations, the in
ToTo
voltage was confirm
also
confirm thethe performance
considered as Vofe of
performance the
=the50 method
and
methodVin in different
e =different
working
10. Theworking
results situations,
are shown
situations, thethe
in input
Figure 8.
input
voltage
voltage was
was also
also considered
considered asas
VeV=e =5050and
andVeV=
e = 10. The results are shown in Figure 8.
10. The results are shown in Figure 8.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 8. Change in the output voltage and inductor current of the Buck converter in response to
cyclic variations in the input voltage, observed over a period of time: (a) output voltage, (b) inductor
current.
(c) (d)
5. Experimental Results
Figure 8. Change
Figure 8. orderintoin
In Change the output
verify
the voltage
the practical
output andinductor
inductor
applicability
voltage and ofcurrent
the of
current ofBuck
proposed
the themethod,
Buck converter
converterthe Buck in respons
con-
in response
cyclictovariations
verter was in theininput
realized
cyclic variations with
the voltage,
input observed
thevoltage,
general structure
observed over aaperiod
shown
over of time:
in Figure
period of time: (a)output
9a. The
(a) output voltage,
converter waswith
voltage (b) indu
com-
Veposed
current. = 10 V of
(b)ainductor
power current
MOSFET withmodule that
Ve = 10 V provided
(c) output the with
voltage converter
Ve = 50leg. Ainductor
V (d) gate driver was
current
employed
with Ve = 10 V.to amplify the control signal for application to the MOSFET gates. The
5. Experimental Results
In order to verify the practical applicability of the proposed method, the Buck c
verter was realized with the general structure shown in Figure 9a. The converter was co
posed of a power MOSFET module that provided the converter leg. A gate driver w
 Electronics 2024, 13, 84 11 of 15

Electronics 2024, 13, 84 5. Experimental Results

In order to verify the practical applicability of the proposed method, the Buck converter
was realized with the general structure shown in Figure 9a. The converter was composed of
a power MOSFET module that provided the converter leg. A gate driver was employed to
amplify the component
converter control signal for application
values to the
were the MOSFET
same gates.
as the The converter
simulation component
circuit in the preced
values were the same as the simulation circuit in the preceding section,
tion, except 𝑢, which was set to be 35 V to adapt to our laboratory hardware except u, which was limi
set to be 35 V to adapt to our laboratory hardware limitations. The experimental prototype
The experimental prototype developed in the lab is shown in Figure 9.b.
developed in the lab is shown in Figure 9b.

Figure 9.9.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram of Buck
diagram of converter (a) and developed
Buck converter experimentalexperimental
(a) and developed prototype of Buck
prototype
converter (b).
converter (b).
The proposed control relation in (6), implemented through the use of an 8-bit AVR
The proposed
microcontroller control
operating at an relation in (6),frequency
external clock implemented through
of 16 MHz, thea use
utilized shunt of an 8-b
resistance and a differential
microcontroller operating voltage
at anmeasurement
external clock circuit to gauge the
frequency of inductor
16 MHz,current.
utilized a sh
Analog-to-digital conversion was performed with 10-bit resolution to acquire and convert
sistance and a differential voltage measurement circuit to gauge the inductor curre
the output voltage and coil current. The analog-to-digital sampling process took 37 µs.
alog-to-digital
Waveforms wereconversion was performed
captured utilizing with 10-bit
a digital oscilloscope. resolution
Figure 10 displaystothe
acquire
mea- and
the
suredoutput voltage
response and coilcapacitor
of the converter current. The analog-to-digital
(output) voltage and inductorsampling process took 3
current waveforms,
alongWaveforms were captured utilizing a digital oscilloscope. Figure 10 displ
with the corresponding simulation results.
measured responsebetween
The concordance the experimental
of the converter capacitor findings and numerical
(output) voltage andsimulations
inductor is curren
evident, as evidenced by the congruent transient and steady-state behaviors observed
forms, along with the corresponding simulation results.
in both the simulation and experimental output voltages. Figure 11 displays the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) of the output voltage, providing further insights into its frequency
components. In Figure 12, the converter output voltage is depicted alongside the MOS-
FET switching waveform, shedding light on the interplay between these crucial signals.
Zooming in on the steady state of the output voltage waveform and the switching signal,
 Figure 9. Schematic diagram of Buck converter (a) and developed experimental prototype of Buck
converter (b).
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 12 of 15
The proposed control relation in (6), implemented through the use of an 8-bit AVR
microcontroller operating at an external clock frequency of 16 MHz, utilized a shunt re-
Figure
sistance13and
provides a detailed
a differential examination
voltage measurement of their
circuitcharacteristics. Moreover,
to gauge the inductor Figure
current. An- 14
presents the control
alog-to-digital signalwas
conversion and performed
its FFT during
with the steady
10-bit state, showcasing
resolution how
to acquire and the fluc-
convert
tuation of current
the output voltagehas
andbeen successfully
coil current. reduced. This comprehensive
The analog-to-digital sampling processanalysis not only
took 37 µs.
underscores the agreement
Waveforms between
were captured experimental
utilizing a digitaland simulated results,
oscilloscope. butdisplays
Figure 10 also highlights
the
measured
the efficacyresponse of thestrategy
of the control converterincapacitor (output)
mitigating currentvoltage and inductor
fluctuations, current wave-
as corroborated by the
forms, along with the
frequency-domain corresponding
analysis using FFT.simulation results.

Electronics 2024, 13, 84 12 of 15

Electronics 2024, 13, 84 12 of 15

Figure 10. Output voltage and inductor current for 𝑢 = 35 V: (a) Experiment (b) Simulation.
Figure 10. Output voltage and inductor current for 𝑢 = 35 V: (a) Experiment (b) Simulation.
The concordance between the experimental findings and numerical simulations is
Theas
evident, concordance
evidenced by between the experimental
the congruent findings
transient and and numerical
steady-state behaviors simulations
observed in is
evident, as evidenced by the congruent transient and steady-state behaviors
both the simulation and experimental output voltages. Figure 11 displays the Fast Fourier observed in
both the simulation
Transform andoutput
(FFT) of the experimental
voltage,output voltages.
providing Figure
further 11 displays
insights the Fast Fourier
into its frequency com-
Transform (FFT) of the output voltage, providing further insights
ponents. In Figure 12, the converter output voltage is depicted alongside into its frequency
the MOSFET com-
ponents. In Figure 12, the converter output voltage is depicted alongside
switching waveform, shedding light on the interplay between these crucial signals. Zoom- the MOSFET
switching
ing waveform,
in on the shedding
steady state light onvoltage
of the output the interplay
waveformbetween these
and the crucial signals.
switching signal, Zoom-
Figure
ingprovides
13 in on theasteady state
detailed of the output
examination of voltage waveform and
their characteristics. the switching
Moreover, Figure signal, Figure
14 presents
13 provides
the a detailed
control signal examination
and its FFT duringofthe their characteristics.
steady Moreover,
state, showcasing howFigure 14 presents
the fluctuation of
the control
current has signal and its FFTreduced.
been successfully during the steady
This state, showcasing
comprehensive analysishow
not the
onlyfluctuation
underscores of
(a)
current has been successfully reduced. This comprehensive (b) not only underscores
analysis
the agreement between experimental and simulated results, but also highlights the effi-
the agreement
cacy between
of the control experimental
strategy andcurrent
in mitigating simulated results, but
fluctuations, also highlights
as corroborated by the
the effi-
fre-
Figure
cacy 10.
of theOutput
control voltage
strategy and
in inductor
mitigating current
current u = 35 V: (a)asExperiment
forfluctuations, corroborated (b)by
Simulation.
the fre-
quency-domain analysis using FFT.
quency-domain analysis using FFT.

Figure 11. Experimental result of the output voltage’s FFT.

Figure 11. Experimental result of the output voltage’s FFT.
Figure 11. Experimental result of the output voltage’s FFT.

Figure 12. Experimental results of the output voltage and the switching signal (CH1: Output Volt-
Figure 12. Experimental results of the output voltage and the switching signal (CH1: Output Volt-
age, CH2:
Figure 12. Switching Pulses).
Experimental results of the output voltage and the switching signal (CH1: Output Voltage,
age, CH2: Switching Pulses).
CH2: Switching Pulses).
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 13 of 15
Electronics 2024,13,
Electronics2024, 13,84
84 13 of 15
13 15

Figure
Figure13.
13.AAcloser
closerlook
lookatatthe
theoutput
outputvoltage
voltageand
andswitching
switchingwaveforms
waveformsininsteady
steadystate
state(CH1:
(CH1:Output
Output
Figure 13. A closer
Voltage, look at the output voltage and switching waveforms in steady state (CH1: Output
Voltage, CH2:
CH2: Switching
SwitchingPulses).
Pulses).
Voltage, CH2: Switching Pulses).

Figure 14. Experimental results of the steady-state switching signal and its FFT (CH2: Switching
FigureCHm:
Figure
Signal, 14. Experimental
14. Experimental results of
results
Output Voltage). of the
thesteady-state
steady-state switching
switching signal
signaland
andits
itsFFT
FFT(CH2:
(CH2:Switching
Switching
Signal, CHm: Output Voltage).
Signal, CHm: Output Voltage).
6. Conclusions
6.6. Conclusions
Conclusions
In conclusion, this paper has successfully expanded upon an efficient technique for
In
Inconclusion,
conclusion,this thispaper
paperhas hassuccessfully
successfullyexpanded
expanded upon uponan anefficient
efficienttechnique
techniquefor for
deriving a stabilizing state-feedback switching law, originally designed for autonomous
deriving
deriving aastabilizing
stabilizingstate-feedback
state-feedback switching
switching law,law,originally
originallydesigned
designedfor forautonomous
autonomous
switched systems, to encompass affine switched systems with constant external input. The
switched
switched systems, to toencompass
encompassaffine affineswitched
switched systems
systems with
with constant
constant external
external input.input.
The
novel switching strategy introduced in this paper not only ensures stability but also min-
The
novel novel switching
switching strategy
strategy introduced
introduced in this
in this paper paper not only
not only ensures
ensures stability
stability but min-
but also also
imizes a quadratic guaranteed cost, demonstrating its versatility and applicability to a
minimizes a quadratic
imizes a quadratic guaranteed
guaranteed cost,demonstrating
cost, demonstratingits itsversatility
versatility and
and applicability to to aa
broader class of systems. The efficacy of the proposed design approach was substantiated
broader
broaderclass classof ofsystems.
systems.The Theefficacy
efficacyof ofthe
theproposed
proposeddesign
designapproach
approachwas wassubstantiated
substantiated
through simulations on classical Buck and Buck–Boost converters, illustrating the simplic-
through
throughsimulations
simulationson onclassical
classicalBuck
Buckand andBuck–Boost
Buck–Boost converters,
converters, illustrating
illustrating thethe
simplicity
simplic-
ity and effectiveness of the strategy.
and effectiveness of the strategy.
ity and effectiveness of the strategy.
AAcrucial aspect of this research involves aacomparative analysis with a recent ap-
A crucial
crucial aspect
aspect of of this
this research
research involves
involves a comparative
comparative analysis
analysis with
with aa recent
recent ap-ap-
proach,
proach, revealing that the proposed method enhances the design performance criterion
proach, revealing that the proposed method enhances the design performancecriterion
revealing that the proposed method enhances the design performance criterion
by
by approximately 30% when compared to the competing strategy. This significant im-
by approximately
approximately 30% 30% when
when compared
compared to to the
the competing
competing strategy.
strategy. This
This significant
significant im- im-
provement
provement underscores the practical viability and superiority of the introduced approach,
provementunderscores
underscoresthe thepractical
practicalviability
viabilityand andsuperiority
superiority of of the
the introduced
introduced approach,
approach,
making
making it a compelling choice for control subsystems in advanced converter circuits.
makingititaacompelling
compellingchoice choiceforforcontrol
controlsubsystems
subsystemsininadvanced
advancedconverter
convertercircuits.
circuits.
The
The experimental validation using a Buck circuit further underscores the real-world
Theexperimental
experimentalvalidation
validation using
using aaBuck
Buckcircuit
circuitfurther
furtherunderscores
underscoresthe thereal-world
real-world
applicability
applicability of the
of the proposed
theproposed method,
proposedmethod,
method, demonstrating
demonstrating its robustness
its robustnessand reliability in prac-
applicability of demonstrating its robustness andand reliability
reliability in
in prac-
tical settings.
practical Importantly,
settings. the
Importantly, proposed
the Lyapunov-based
proposed Lyapunov-based method stands
method out
standsfor its re-
out for
tical settings. Importantly, the proposed Lyapunov-based method stands out for its re-
markable
its robustness,
remarkable speed, and
robustness, accuracy, providingproviding
a notable advantage
notable over alternative
markable robustness, speed,speed, and accuracy,
and accuracy, providing a notableaadvantage advantage
over alternativeover
approaches.
alternative
approaches.approaches.
Electronics 2024, 13, 84 14 of 15

Looking ahead, the applications of this method extend beyond theoretical advance-
ments. The proposed approach holds great promise for addressing the challenges posed
by renewable energy sources. By leveraging composite-switched Lyapunov functions, the
method is poised to play a pivotal role in optimizing power transfer, improving stability,
and ensuring reliable operation in diverse RES environments. This is particularly rele-
vant as RES integration becomes increasingly integral to the pursuit of sustainable and
eco-friendly power solutions. The proposed method not only offers a robust solution for
addressing the inherent challenges of renewable energy systems but also paves the way for
enhancing the overall efficiency and performance of RES integration in power systems.

Author Contributions: In the process of preparing this manuscript, T.H. and R.M.E. were responsible
for executing the methodology, managing data curation, conducting software-based simulations,
obtaining experimental results, and drafting the original written content. On the other hand, H.J.K.
undertook the tasks of editing, validation, visualization, handling resources, and funding acquisition,
as well as contributing to editing and supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to Hossein Madadi Kojabadi for
his invaluable assistance and insightful discussions. Additionally, we express our appreciation to
Milad Farsi for his valuable support in the design and construction of experimental results at Sahand
University of Technology.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A
R represents the set of real numbers, and ℵ represents the set of natural numbers.
I [k1 , k2 ] symbolizes the set containing all integers within the range from k1 to k2 . The
notation M > 0 (M ≥ 0) signifies that M is a real-symmetric positively definite (or positive
semi-definite) matrix. The superscript T denotes matrix transposition. Λ denotes the set of
all non-negative vectors. λ = λ1 λ2 · · · λ N ] T with the property ∑iN=1 λi = 1. The convex


combination of matrices { A1 , · · · , A N } is defined as Aλ = ∑iN=1 λi Ai .

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2. Forouzesh, M.; Siwakoti, Y.P.; Gorji, S.A.; Blaabjerg, F.; Lehman, B. Step-up DC–DC converters: A comprehensive review of
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