MICROBIAL FLORA OF SOIL The soil consists of a variety of microbial population. Microbial population in the soil shows a wide divergence in number, form and biochemical activities in response to various factors of the soil environment. + |, Soil Micro Organisms The numbers and kinds of micro-organisms present in the soil depend on many environmental factors. They are: () Amount and type of nutrients available (ii) Availability of moisture (iii) Temperature (iv) pH The presence of roots and the extent of the root system in soil also affect the micro-organisms, The over-all influence of plant roots on soil micro-organisms is called the rhizosphere effect. Soil micro-organisms include bacteria, actinomycetes fungl. algae, protozoa and viruses. (Table 2.1). © Scanned with OKEN Scanner- the oacteria Introductiog to Soll and Agricultural Microbiology TASLE 2.1 SOIL POPULATION IN A FERTILE forcuturaL SOIL, . _ Type |. Number per gram Bacteria Direct count 2,500,000,000 Dilution plate 15,000,000 Actinomycetes | 700,000 Fungi 400,000 Algae 50,000 Protézoa 30,000 Bacteria Bacteria is found in large amount in the soil, Several dillion bacteria are generally present in the soil, The bacteria includes both nutritional and physiological kinds of bacteria. Most of the goil bacteria are heterotrophic and baciltype. Some of tha bacteria have not yet been Isolated and identified, Example of heterotrophic bacteria‘ are Bacillus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Azotobacter. Some of actinomycetes bacteria, for example, Streptomyces and Micromonospora.The actinomycetes bacteria can degrade many complex substances and impyops the soil fertility. Some of them also produce antibiotics. The cyanoWacteria and photosynthetic bacteria play a major role in the transformation of rock to soil. Bacteria does not occur freely in the soil but are closely attached to the different soil particles. They play a major role in organic matter decomposition, . nitrogen fixation etc. They are the most dominant group of micro-organisms in the soil and are present in all types of soil. Bacteria live _in soil as cocci (0.5), bavilli (0.5 ~ 3.0) or Spill In the year 1925, Winogradsky classified the soil micro-organisms into two broad categories, are. Trt (a) Autochthonous (Indigenous population) (©) Zymogenous (Fermentive organisms) The indigenous population is always uniform and constant, For example, Nocardia, Athrobacter. The fermentive organisms require an external source of enefgy, for example Pgeudomonas and Bacillus, The most common soil bacteria come under the genera Arthtobacter, Sart ina, Pseudomonas, Corynebacterium, Clostridium, Micro Flayobacterium. Another type of baclaria Tike © Scanned with OKEN ScannerMicrobial Flora of Soil ; 19 Myxobacteria_is also present in the soil. For example, myxococcus 7 Royangium, ¢ lophaga and $porocytophaga (Fig. 2.4). 7 : In the soil, bacteria exist as mats, clumps and filaments called colonies on and around soil particles wherever food and other conditions are favourable. The jelly-like_mixture_of arganic_colloidal matter and inorganic_materials makes an ideal medium for their development, Many of the soil bacteria are able to produce spores and similar resistant bodies, thus presenting both a vegetative anda resting stage. 7 (8) Desulfovibrio Sp. © Scanned with OKEN Scanner20 (D) Bacillus Sp. Fig. 2.1 Some examples of Soil Bacteria. Fungi i The different kinds of fungi present on the soil surface, where oxygen. is readily available. are Penicillium, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Mucor and so on. A gram of soil contains: thousands of fungi. The mycelium of fungi penetrates through the soil, forming a network. The major part of the total microbial bio-mass is occupied by soil Eungi. They derives nutrients for their growth frem organic matters and living animals. The soil fungi can be classified into various types, like root infecting fungi, symbiotic fungi, mycorrhizal fungi, saprophytic fungi, © Scanned with OKEN Scanner Introduction to Soil and Agricultural Microbiology .Microbial Flora of Soii at specialized and unspecialized parasites. (Garret 1950). Fungi are present in all soils and possess filamentous-mycelium composed of individual hyphae. The hyphae may be septate or aseptate. The asexual reproduction of fungi takes place by spores of conidia, sporangia and oidia. Well-defined sexual reproduction also takes place by gametic fusion, Fungi may be divided into three groups, which are: v (a) Yeasts 4 ~ (b) Molds ~ (c) Mushroom fungi Among the three groups, molds and mushroom fungi are an important component in soils. Yeasts are rare in such a habitat. Molds belofig to the general purpose heterotrophic group of fluctuating soil micrb-organisms, They are distinctly filamentous, microscopic, or semj-macroscopic. Molds develop vigorously in acid, neutral, or alkaline soil. In general, fungi can be classified intodpur classes. These are : (i) Phycomycetes. - Perfect amg ‘ (il) Ascomycetes - Perfect Fungi 7 7 (i) Basidiomycetes - Perfect Fungi (iv) Deuteromycetes - Fungi imperfect The Deuteromycetes fungi produce abundant asexual spores and lack sexual stages. Examples of Imperfect fungi are Cercospora, Colletotrichum, Alteraria and Fusarium. The other three classes of fungi have both sexual and asexual means of reproduction, The Phycomycetes fungi possess non-septate and unicellular mycelia and sporangia — containing spores. Examples of Phycomycetes fungi are Mucor, Rhizopus, phythium, Cytopus and Cunninghamella. The Ascomycetes tung! possess septate mycelia and contain a definite number of Asco spores. Examples of Ascomycetes fungi are Aspergillus, Penicillium and Chaetomium. t The Basidiamycetes fungi are *4° ‘ctaracterized by specialided } reproductive structures known as j basidium, producing basidiospores. (A) Mushroom 1 © Scanned with OKEN Scannera < reaction t2 Soul and Agncultural Microbiology Examples of Basidiomycetes are Polyporusm, Boletus, etc Arab Tne primary function of filamentous fungi in soil is to decompose organic matter and halp in soil aggregation, Some of the fungi are . capable of forming ectotrophic associations on the root system of forest « ' trees. ; Moreover, fungi function more efficiently than bacteria in soil (C) Rhizopus Sp. (0) Altemaria Sp. © Scanned with OKEN Scanner| Fora of Soil 23 t Macroconidia 0 Oo Microcon Conidiophore ___, (@) Peniciliium Sp. © Scanned with OKEN ScannerIntroduction to Soil and Agricultural Microbiology The Population of algae is lesser when compared to that cf bacteria or fungi. The commonly occuring algae are green algae (chlorophyta) and diatoms (chrysophyta), Both of them are photo-aut ic. Algae are commonly found on the soil surface. Algae combined with fungi Lichens) can help te transform rocky Material into soil particles. C: ‘anobs also provides nitrogen to certain plants. The cyancbacieria tleve @ very important role in Agriculture as biofertilizer, The prominent genera aré Nostoo,_ Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Calothrix and Scytonema. Most algae are chlorophyll = bearing organisms and like higher ' Plants, are capable of Performing photosynthesis, They perform best : under moist-to-wet conditions. Soil algae are divided into four groups as follows: (a) Blue-green algae - Cyanophyta | (b) Green algae - Chlorophyta | (c) Yeliow-green algae ~ Xanthophyta | (d)_Diatoms - Bacilariophyta | The green algae are the commonly occuring soil algae especially | if the pH is low. Soil algae in vegetative forms are numerous on the | surface layers. In sub-soils, most algae are present as. testing spores | or cysts. Morphologically, algae are either unicellular or filamentous. ‘ Some of the green algae in soil belong to the genera, chlorella, chlamydomonas, chlorococcum and oedogonium (Fig. 2.3). = RE TSE © Scanned with OKEN ScannerMicrobial Flora of Soil 25 \ 77 Favela Contractile ‘Vacuoles Sa Stigma Cholorplast Adult (B) Chlamydomonas FALSE BRANCH (C) Oscillatorla (0) Scytonema © Scanned with OKEN Scanner‘oil ang Agricultural Microbiology INTERCALARY HETEROCYST POLAR NOOULE AKINETES CYANOPYCEAN GRANULES (E) Nostoc Fig, 2.3 Some examples of Soil Algae The blue-green algae (cyanophyceae) contain a pigment known as phycocyani hich imparts a special blue-green colour to these organisms. Some of the blue-green algae in the soil belong to the genera Oscillatoria, Nostoc, Chroococcus, Lyngbya, Anabaena, Cylindrospermum and Scytonema. Cyanobacteria like Nostoc and Anabaena possess specialized cals known 2s-helareovsts.which are implicatéd in nitrogen ion. The blue-green al re numerous in rice soils, and when such lands are flooded, appreciable amounts of atmospheric nitrogen are fixed or changed to a combined form by these organisms. Microscopic animal life in soils can be classified into two groups. These are: 1, Nematodes; 2, Protozoa The Nematodes are commonly called threadworms or elworms. They are found in almost all soils, often in surprisingly large numbers. These organisms are round and spindle-shaped. © Scanned with OKEN ScannerMicrobial Flora of Soil 27 On the basis of their food demands, nematodes can be distinguished into three groups as — (a) Saprophytes : Those that live on decaying organic matter, (b) Predators : Those that are predatory on bacteria, algae and protozoa. (c) Parasites : Those that are parasitic, attacking the roots of higher plants to pass at least a part of their life cycle. An example of Nematodes is Heterodera. Protozoa_ The protozoa occur in rich soils. They range from a few hundreds to several thousand per gram. Most of them feed upon bacteria and some organic materials. Protozoa can be co-related with plant growth and soil nutrients (Griffin, 1972), The major role of soil protozoa is predatory. Protozoa are the simplest form of animal life. They are considerably larger than bacteria (5-100 mm diam) and are unicellular. The protozoa are the most varied and numerous in the micro animal population of soils. More than 250 species of protozoa have been isolated. Sometimes’as many as 40-50 different groups are found in a single sample of soil. Soil protozoa are divided into three-groups — (a) Amoebae (b) Ciliatas (c) Flagellates Pseudopodium Nucleus Endoplasm Phagocytic Contractile ‘ Ectoplasm vacuple vacuole (A) Amoeba © Scanned with OKEN ScannerIntroduction to Soil and. Agricultural Microbiology (8) Bodo (C) Cerocobodo (D) Calpoda Stylet Muscles Lumen of esophagus Median bulbs of esophagus Excretory pore Salivary glands Basal bulb of esophagus Spicule (E) Plant Parasitic nematode Fig. 2.4 Some examples of Soil Protozoa © Scanned with OKEN ScannerMicrobial Fiora of Soil 29 Of the three, the flagellates are the mosi numerous followed by amoebae and ciliates. The flagellated protozoa belonging to the class mastigophora are pre-dominant in the soil, Some genera are Bodo, Cercobodo, Cerccmonas, Heteromita, Monas, Spiromonas and Spongomonas. The class Sarcodina consists of different genera such as Amoeba, Biomyza, Trinema and Euglypha. \t can move with the help of pseudopodia, The protoplasm may be nacked ar encased in shells The third group of soil protozoa belong to the class Ciliata. They are distinguished by the possession of minute hairs called Cilia around their bodies which help in locomotion, Examples of Ciliata are Colpidium, Colpoda, Halteria, Vorticella and Uroleptus (Fig. 2.4) As a source of food, protozoa ingest bacteria and to a lesser extent, other microflora. Examples - Bacillus, Micrococcus, Aerobacter and Pseudomonas. Protozoa are abundant in the upper layer of the soil and their numbers are directly dependent on bacterial population. The application of organic manures increases the number of protozoans in the soil. Viruses Viruses occur sporadically in soil, tissues of dead plants and animals. Viruses includes both plant viruses and animal viruses. Some of the soil bacteria contain bacterial viruses (Bacteriophages). Some phytopathogenic viruses are also present in the soil. Certain animal and human viruses remain in the soil for long periods, causing damages to the host plant. (Fig. 2.5). Protomer (A) Tobacco mosaic Virus ~ An electron micrograph of the negatively stained helical capsid © Scanned with OKEN ScannerCollar Core or tube (hollow) Helical sheath Tail fibers \ Hexagonal baseplate i (B) Bacteriophage Fig. 2.5 Some examples of Soil Viruses » Bacteriophages are the smallest inhabitants of the soil and they are known to attack the cells of bacteria. Babteriophages can be seen only under “an electron microscope because of their minute size. ; Viruses which attack actinomycetes are known as actinaphages. The phages attacking blue-green algae are Rnown ds cyangéphages, 77 | Viruses have also been dbserved in sections of fungal spores, for ! example, penicillium spp. Actinomycetes ‘Actinomycetes are soil organisms which have characteristics similar to bacteria and fungi, Actinomycetes resemble molds in that they are filamentous. often profusely branched. Actinomycetes are similar to bacteria in that they are unicellular and of about the same | diameter. When they break up into spores, they closely resemble bacteria, On the basis of organization, actinomycetes occupy a position between true molds and bacteria. Actinomycetes develop best in moist © Scanned with OKEN Scannerralvia! ©ora of Soil 7 e well aerated soil. Their optimum development occurs at pH values between §.0 and 7.5. The number of actinomycetes increases in the presence of decomposing organic matter in the soil. Under favourable conditions, a biomass of more than 4,500 kilograms of actinomycete threads and spores might be present in a hectare. The commonest genera of actinomycetes are Streptomyces, Micromonospora and Nocardia. (Fig. 2.6) (B) Nocardia Sp. © Scanned with OKEN ScannerCe (C) Streptomycete Condla arrangement Fig. 2.6 Some examples of Soil Actinomycetes » ll. Factors Affecting Soil Microbial Population The soil micro-organisms are influenced by various factors, as follows : (i) Ecological Factors (ii) Soil Fertility (iii) Soil Moisture (iv) Temperature (v) Soil Air (vi) Organic Matter (vil) Inorganic Nutrients (vill) Soil pH (i) Ecological Factors: In the soil, the microbes are in dynamic equilibrium. The most pre-dominant organisms like fungi are capable of growing very fast. The stability of micro-organisms is influenced by various ecological factors. (ii) Soil Fertility: The microbes requite some basic nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for normal growth. The same © Scanned with OKEN ScannerMicrobial Flora of Soil 33 nutrients are utilized by plants in the soil. The fertility level of soil in influenced by the availability of these elements. eo _(iil) Soil Melsture: It is also ap important factor for influencing the microbial population. The soil ture’ varies, depending on the water-holding capacity of the Soil. The water is very important component for various physiological process. The decomposition process js also determined by the nature of soil moisture. (iv) Soil Temperature: Micro-organisms have been found to exist under extreme temperature such as 60°C. In the same way, some of the microbes can grow at very low temperatures (-40°C), The temperature changes can also influence the micro-organism both quantitatively and qualitatively, (v) Soil Air: The soil consists of number of pore spaces, through which sufficient amount of O, is supplied to the living organisms. A number of aerobic bacteria normally occur in such conditions. The high moisture level reduces the number of micro-organisms, particularly aerobic bacteria. So a large number of anaerobic bacteria are found. The N, fixing bacteria are more active in aerated soil. (vi) Organic Matter: Organic matter is a major source of energy for most soil micro-organisms. The increase and decrease in the microbial population depends on the nature of organic matter. The organic matter influences the nature and properties of soil and affects the activity of micro-organisms in the soil. (vii) Inorganic Nutrients: The growth in microbial population also depends on the concentration of inorganic substances in the soil. The humus decomposes into several simple compounds like. and Mg, Some amount of these nutrients are readily taken up by plants and micro-organisms in the soil. (viil) Soil pH: Soil pH-plays a very important role in Microbial activity. The Hydrogen ion concentration of the soil is essential for plant growth and microflora. The fungi grow very easily under the pH §-6.and the actinomycetes grow in pH 7. The high salt content may be toxic for some micro-organisms. © Scanned with OKEN Scanner