Environment OPTIMA 2024 Part II Lyst4711

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ENVIRONMENT OPTIMA PART-II
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Contents
Protected Area in news ............................................................................................................................ 10
Cold Desert Cultural Landscape of India ............................................................................................ 10
Dachigam National Park at risk as forest cover, natural habitat reduces, reveals study ................ 10
Dholpur-Karauli to be Rajasthan's 5th tiger reserve & India's 54th ................................................... 11
‘Veerangana Durgavati Tiger Reserve’ becomes Madhya Pradesh’s 7th protected habitat for big
cats ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
Bihar to get second tiger reserve in Kaimur district .......................................................................... 12
Plea seeks stay on Jewar Airport until wetland protected, UP govt to inform about status in 4
weeks ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change submits proposals for Wetland City
Accreditation under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands for the cities of Indore, Bhopal and
Udaipur .................................................................................................................................................. 13
What Terai tigers eat and what it tells about the habitat .................................................................... 14
Elephant corridor report plagued with inconsistencies, could escalate conflict with humans, says
expert ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
At Asola Bhatti sanctuary, a ‘seed bank’ of plants native to the Aravallis ....................................... 16
Harike wetland....................................................................................................................................... 16
Keoladeo National Park ........................................................................................................................ 18
3 States chip in to stop illegal sand mining in Chambal sanctuary................................................... 18
Consider shifting cheetahs to Rajasthan - SC .................................................................................... 20
Women take the wheel for safer tourism in Satpura Tiger Reserve .................................................. 20
Biporjoy: As cyclone nears Kutch & Saurashtra, concern grows over Gir lions, Naliya bustards . 21
Violations and poor management threaten Gujarat sanctuaries: CAG ............................................. 21
Asiatic lion run over by goods train near Pipavav port in Gujarat’s Amreli district ......................... 22
Traditional salt workers contribute to wild ass conservation and regain access to Little Rann of
Kutch ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
Madia Gond tribes forced to leave ancestral land .............................................................................. 25
Similipal National Park a poacher’s paradise ..................................................................................... 26
Odisha to establish a melanistic tiger safari – a first of its kind in the world ................................... 27
Chilika fishers robbed of livelihood since Cyclone Fani opened new mouths ................................. 28
Odisha’s Debrigarh Sanctuary freed from human settlement ........................................................... 29
Migratory birds arrive in Odisha’s Chilika before winter; is climate change to blame? .................. 29
Sustainable shrimp cultivation provides hope for mangrove restoration in Sundarbans ............... 30
Seshachalam Hills................................................................................................................................. 31
World Wetlands Day: In Andhra Pradesh, efforts on to save a unique wetland near Visakhapatnam
............................................................................................................................................................... 31
First ship to enter Ramayapatnam port by year end to test operational feasibility ......................... 32
Mudumalai Tiger Reserve ..................................................................................................................... 33
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Satyamangalam Tiger Reserve ............................................................................................................ 33
Bengaluru’s civic body dumped mud on the Hosakerehalli lake ...................................................... 34
Habitat loss due to tourism in the Western Ghats pushes endangered frogs to the edge .............. 35
Lessons from Bellandur: Governments should allocate more resources to monitor, and protect
lakes....................................................................................................................................................... 37
Translocating jumbos | A tightrope walk for elephants and humans ................................................ 37
Environmentalists revive contentious call to declare a tiger reserve in Goa ................................... 39
HC bats for animals’ right to live without fear, orders relocation of 495 families near T.N. Tiger
reserve ................................................................................................................................................... 43
Combing operations held at Mukurthi national park, adjoining areas .............................................. 43
Wildlife Institute’s biodiversity study for rail project in Western Ghats raises conflict of interest
concerns ................................................................................................................................................ 44
Climate crisis in forests: Dandeli losing its distinctive grasses & hornbills to erratic weather ...... 44
Climate crisis in forests: Wild fruits, sacred groves in Sharavathi valley bear the brunt ................ 45
Cauvery basin lost nearly 12850 sq. km of green cover..................................................................... 46
Silent Valley bird species goes up to 175 ........................................................................................... 47
Pulicat Lake ........................................................................................................................................... 49
Great Nicobar project ........................................................................................................................... 53
Ornamental fish aquaculture to help women in Lakshadweep islands ............................................. 54
Baghjan blowout: NGT directs Assam government to pay aid to affected families ......................... 55
A treasure trove: field notes from the forests of Arunachal Pradesh ............................................... 56
Arunachal Pradesh’s Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival gears up for its 9th Edition .............................. 57
Kaziranga sanctuary reopens with tribute to British era officer ........................................................ 58
Rare golden tiger snapped in Kaziranga ...................................................................................................... 58
Census records a 27% increase in waterbirds in Kaziranga .............................................................. 59
Roots connect a Meghalaya village ..................................................................................................... 60
Saving India’s only ape, the hoolock gibbon ...................................................................................... 61
Lake Victoria.......................................................................................................................................... 62
Yellowstone National Park ................................................................................................................... 63
Great Salt Lake won’t go the Aral Sea and Lake Urmia way .............................................................. 64
Credit Suisse-Ecuador deal for Galapagos conservation .................................................................. 65
Why Bhutan's Sakteng wildlife sanctuary is disputed by China ....................................................... 66
Europe’s droughts are affecting tourism ............................................................................................ 66
Can green nudges in online food deliveries lead to lesser pollution? A study conducted in China
thinks so ................................................................................................................................................ 68
Heat waves to intensify in Madagascar, one of Earth’s richest biodiversity hotspots: WWA study
............................................................................................................................................................... 68
Climate crisis: Drought causes mass elephant deaths in Zimbabwe game reserve ........................ 69
Species in News ....................................................................................................................................... 70
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Second home for Gujarat lions ............................................................................................................ 70
Kerala to estimate wild elephant and tiger populations ..................................................................... 71
India has 3682 tigers, home to 75 percent of global numbers ........................................................... 72
Periyar Tiger Reserve gets top rank in management review ............................................................. 74
Tigers struggle to move within Nepal even as they cross borders: study........................................ 75
White Tiger ............................................................................................................................................ 75
Black Tiger ............................................................................................................................................ 76
Snow Leopard: Enigmatic big cat of High Asia now National Symbol of Kyrgyzstan ..................... 76
International Leopard Day 2023 ........................................................................................................... 77
India has 718 snow leopards; most of them live in unprotected areas: Centre................................ 77
In remote J&K national park, camera traps snap elusive snow leopard, read out a success story 78
Small cats in big trouble: Why we need to save these elusive endangered species ....................... 79
Free-ranging cats may be catastrophic for wild species ................................................................... 79
Manul: the ‘grumpiest cat’ .................................................................................................................... 79
Project Cheetah: Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary to be new home for African felines ............................... 80
Cheetah Deaths ..................................................................................................................................... 81
India-South Africa sign pact, 12 cheetahs to be brought to Kuno .................................................... 81
Elephants are irreplaceable seed dispersers ...................................................................................... 82
Number of elephants in Karnataka goes up by 364 from last census, touching 6,395 .................... 82
Human-animal conflict increased in Wayanad.................................................................................... 83
Project Tiger merges with Project Elephant — but questions on fund split unanswered ............... 83
The first-ever IUCN assessment of the Himalayan Wolf is out. And it is grim .................................. 84
In a first, a polar bear has died of avian flu in the Arctic, confirms Alaska ...................................... 85
Blackbuck .............................................................................................................................................. 85
Pangolins............................................................................................................................................... 86
Sloth bears ............................................................................................................................................ 87
In Jambavan’s land: Sloth bears mostly coexist peacefully with humans in Karnataka; but conflict
is not non-existent ................................................................................................................................ 87
New frog species found in Meghalaya Siju cave ................................................................................ 88
Dancing frogs of Western Ghats among most threatened amphibians globally .............................. 88
Eurasian otter raises hope for J&K stream ......................................................................................... 89
Two new mammalian species added to Kaziranga’s fauna ............................................................... 89
Evolutionary lineages of the banded krait discovered through molecular methods ....................... 90
Rhino poaching suspect’s body found in river; police say he jumped in to escape........................ 90
African Swine fever threatens India’s Pygmy Hog ............................................................................. 91
The return of wild boars in Kashmir threatens the hangul habitat and crops .................................. 91
Is climate change altering Arctic ground squirrels’ hibernation patterns? ...................................... 92
Missing for 42 years, flying squirrel resurfaces in Arunachal ........................................................... 93
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‘Rescuing’ camels not a solution; Rajasthan needs sanctuaries for its state animal ...................... 93
Pay half of fine to informer: court’s bid to spur animal protection ................................................... 94
China event raises concern over India’s only ape .............................................................................. 94
Scientists pull paper from journal over Arunachal mention .............................................................. 95
Deforestation surges in hotspot of critically endangered Bornean orangutans .............................. 96
Researchers discover first proof of wild female chimpanzees experiencing menopause............... 96
Tamil Nadu and Kerala may join hands to count endangered Nilgiritahr ......................................... 97
Scavenging hyenas save carcass disposal costs .............................................................................. 97
Prey, habitat dictate Asiatic wild dog-tiger coexistence, says study ................................................ 98
As caracals inch towards extinction, path to conserving the wild cat remains unclear .................. 98
The poorly studied Eurasian lynx in Ladakh needs more research for conservation ...................... 99
Elvish Yadav case: How is snake venom used as a recreational drug? ......................................... 100
Rare dinosaur eggs found in Narmada Valley show how ancient reptiles shared traits with today’s
birds: Study ......................................................................................................................................... 100
Where fossils meet faith in a Madhya Pradesh district .................................................................... 101
Godavari estuary in Andhra Pradesh has become prime habitat for Indian Skimmer, says expert
............................................................................................................................................................. 102
Birders’ network finds rare pelagic birds on Karnataka’s coast ..................................................... 102
Great Indian Bustard........................................................................................................................... 103
Vultures in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve depending on cattle carcasses for food are at risk of
poisoning............................................................................................................................................. 104
Ban on more drugs harmful for vultures welcome move, but more stringent steps needed ........ 106
Captive-bred vultures flying high in forest expanses ...................................................................... 106
How the American bald eagle ‘returned’ from the brink of extinction ............................................. 107
World Sparrow Day ............................................................................................................................. 108
KFRI on a clear-the-air campaign for bats......................................................................................... 108
Echolocation: what goes around comes around .............................................................................. 109
How do animals see in the dark? ....................................................................................................... 109
Why are migratory birds giving India a miss? .................................................................................. 110
Intercepting the illegal capture of migratory birds in south-central West Bengal.......................... 111
5% of birds in India are endemic, reveals Zoological Survey of India publication ......................... 112
State of Birds: Most species dip, India Peafowl among those flourishing ..................................... 113
India’s iconic raptors are declining fast, warns new report ............................................................. 114
Cats are killing India’s birds. Are we paying attention? ................................................................... 114
The Tokhü Emong Bird Count (TEBC)............................................................................................... 115
The enigmatic Indian eagle-owl ......................................................................................................... 115
Flying fox bats for vigilance while day-roosting, finds study .......................................................... 116
Coastal raptors make power towers their home ............................................................................... 116
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Bizarre’ bird-like dinosaur has scientists enthralled ........................................................................ 117
Enthusiasm among birdwatchers as orange-headed thrush sighting recorded in Gujarat in a first
............................................................................................................................................................. 117
Ibisbill .................................................................................................................................................. 118
Spot-Billed Pelican.............................................................................................................................. 118
De-extincting the dodo: Why scientists are planning to bring back the bird to Mauritius............. 118
Albatrosses are threatened with extinction — and climate change could put their nesting sites at
risk ....................................................................................................................................................... 119
Study reveals evolutionary history, biogeographic origins of butterflies....................................... 120
Noble’s Helen: Arunachal Pradesh yields India’s newest butterfly ................................................. 121
Rare White Tufted Royal Butterfly found in Kannur ......................................................................... 121
New butterfly species discovered in Kerala ...................................................................................... 121
Studies on migration patterns of milkweed butterflies .................................................................... 122
Butterfly makes a rare call in Himachal ............................................................................................. 123
New butterfly species endemic to Western Ghats discovered in Karnataka .................................. 123
Silent fields: a cocktail of pesticides is stunting bumblebee colonies across Europe, study shows
............................................................................................................................................................. 124
Mayurbhanj’s red ant chutney receives GI tag. Why this is important for nutritional security of
tribals ................................................................................................................................................... 125
The Underappreciated Benefits of Wild Bees ................................................................................... 126
World’s first vaccine for honeybees gets conditional nod in US .................................................... 127
Damselfly species found in Western Ghats named after climate impact on insects ..................... 128
Critically endangered Yangtze finless porpoise return to lost lake stretches after sand mining
ban: Report.......................................................................................................................................... 128
Muggers of Rapti: Anthropogenic threats pose risk to saurians in Nepal’s Chitwan National Park,
says study ........................................................................................................................................... 130
Gharial conservation .......................................................................................................................... 130
First penguin deaths in sub-Antarctic region attributed to bird flu strain ...................................... 131
Humpback Whales .............................................................................................................................. 131
A 340-tonne whale species lived 39 million years ago ..................................................................... 132
Elephant seals enter ‘sleep spiral’ during deep ocean dives........................................................... 132
What is whale stranding and why does it happen? .......................................................................... 132
Shark & ray meat consumption no longer restricted to India’s tribal & coastal peoples: Paper... 133
To protect endangered sharks and rays, scientists are mapping these species’ most important
locations .............................................................................................................................................. 134
Overfishing is driving coral reef sharks toward extinction .............................................................. 134
North Atlantic right whale................................................................................................................... 135
New species of Moray eel discovered off Cuddalore coast named after Tamil Nadu .................... 136
Seahorse.............................................................................................................................................. 136
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Phytoplankton blooms see two-decade surge along world’s coastlines ........................................ 137
Horseshoe crab decline sparks urgent conservation plea .............................................................. 138
They sense electric fields, tolerate snow and have ‘mating trains’: 4 reasons echidnas really are
remarkable........................................................................................................................................... 139
Even platypuses aren’t safe from bushfires — a new DNA study tracks their disappearance ..... 140
Govt to launch Project Dolphin and Project Lion on the lines of Project Tigers ............................ 140
Gangetic dolphins ............................................................................................................................... 140
19 dolphins rescued alive from canals of Ganga-Ghagra basin, says study.................................. 141
India one of the nine countries to sign a global pact to protect endangered river dolphins ......... 142
A different kettle of fish: Kashmir wants Europe to taste its trout .................................................. 143
Mass mortality of Olive Ridley turtles................................................................................................ 143
Tortoise & hard-shell turtle smuggling network wider, more organised than that for soft-shell
turtle: Report ....................................................................................................................................... 144
In Varanasi, turtles help clean the Ganga ......................................................................................... 146
Biologists in slow and steady race to help North America's largest and rarest tortoise species . 147
Green turtles nesting range expands under warming climate ......................................................... 147
This newly discovered fish can change its colour like a chameleon .............................................. 148
Gujarat gets a state fish: Why ghol, the ‘fisherman’s lottery’, was chosen .................................... 148
In Mexico, ecologists going all out to save the iconic ‘water monster’ .......................................... 149
GI (Geographical Indication) tag for the khorasaniimli or the fruit of the baobab .......................... 149
India has registered a global first of a plant fungus infecting human ............................................. 149
Finding gondra amid the floods ......................................................................................................... 150
Orchids are blooming earlier than usual in the northeast — and it’s not good news .................... 151
Over 60 species of plants that can survive extreme dehydration found in Western Ghats ........... 151
Silver cockscomb isn’t a troublesome weed for Karnataka’s Soliga tribe...................................... 153
Botanical Survey of India gets patent for bamboo based reusable straw ...................................... 154
Ready to grow roots: Saplings from 17 countries await G20 leaders ............................................. 154
Effect of Invasive plants ..................................................................................................................... 155
Greatness of Tulasi leaves ................................................................................................................. 155
Flowering plant undoes 100 million years of evolution, shows signs of self-pollination .............. 155
Triple trouble for Gulf of Mannar islands, study finds...................................................................... 156
Nematocyst: a cellular weapon .......................................................................................................... 156
Small herbivores are true victims ...................................................................................................... 157
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Protected Area in news
Cold Desert Cultural Landscape of India

Section: Places in news
Cold Desert Cultural Landscape:
NATURAL HERITAGE
● Located in the Himalayas, stretching from Ladakh (J&K) • Designated as India's 16th Biosphere
to Kinnaur (H.P.). Reserve in 2009, covering Pin Valley
National Park, Chandratal, Sarchu, and
● Features a Cold Desert biome due to its position in the Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal
Pradesh.
rain-shadow zone, resulting in minimal precipitation. • The Changtang Cold Desert Wildlife
● Extreme climatic variations: dry, harsh summers with Sanctuary in Leh, J&K, protects various flora
and fauna.
high temperatures and long, freezing winters with • Home to endangered species like snow
blizzards and snowstorms. leopards, Himalayan brown bears, Tibetan
wolves, and unique plant species.
● Soil fertility is low; water resources mainly come from
glacier-fed streams.
● Inhabited by Indo-Mongoloid (Tibetan) communities, with the Dards community in parts of western
Ladakh.
● Divided into two cultural regions: Leh-Kargil areas in Ladakh and Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
Dachigam National Park at risk as forest cover, natural habitat reduces, reveals study
Subject: Environment
Section: Protected Area.
About the Dachigam National Park:
● It is in Kashmir andis surrounded by the lush Zabarwan mountains.
● It is an important conservation reserve serving as habitat for some endemic and endangered species
in the valley.
● The park is home to rare medicinal plants, conifers, oak RECENT NEWS
trees, shrublands, and meadows. • The Dachigam National Park is currently under
significant threat, as the forest cover decreased
● Fauna- Critically endangered hangul (Kashmir stag), by 7 percent, and there was a notable reduction
in natural habitat, indicating habitat
Asiatic black bears, leopards, langurs and a variety of fragmentation.
endemic bird species. • The significant changes and infrastructure
development in and around the park have a huge
● This conservation reserve plays a crucial role in influence on Dal Lake.
supporting Dal Lake, the second largest lake in Jammu • The Great Himalayan National Park in Himachal
Pradesh is currently grappling with the
and Kashmir. The water from Dachigam National Park exoticbrown trout invasion.
flows into Dal Lake making it an important catchment
area and source of water for Srinagar city.
● A decrease in forest cover of the park can lead to more silt in the water which will eventually flow
into Dal Lake and cause ecological disruptions.
Gulmarg Wildlife Sanctuary in North Kashmir:
● 364 species of plant species were recorded from the sanctuary.
● Out of these plant species, 161 species are native to the Himalayan region and the remaining 203
species are non-natives.
● Out of the total 161 native plant species,82 were endemic to the Himalayan region. Further, 22 plant
species are threatened.
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● The major threats to biodiversity within the sanctuary include “changing phenology, over-
exploitation, overgrazing, land-use change, invasive species, human settlements, huge tourism influx
and pollution”.
o Phenology is the study of seasonal or periodic cycles in ecosystems.
Kishtwar National Park:
● It is located in Jammu and Kashmir.
● It is bounded to the north by Rinnay river, south by KibarNala catchment, east by main divide of
Great Himalaya and west by Marwah river
● The National Park encompasses the catchment area of Kiber, Nanth and KiyarNallas, all of which drain
south-west into Marwah river locally called MarivSudir which joins Chenab
● The national park in Kishtwar attracts wildlife lovers with its rich flora & fauna which comprises musk
deer and Himalayan brown bear.
Dholpur-Karauli to be Rajasthan's 5th tiger reserve & India's 54th
Section: Protected Areas in news
Context: The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) approved Dholpur-Karauli in Rajasthan as a
new tiger reserve bringing the count of tiger reserves in the country to 54.
Details:
● Dholpur-Karaulithe fifth tiger reserve in Rajasthan. The other four tiger reserves in Rajasthan are:
o Ranthambore Tiger Reserve in Sawai Madhopur,
o Sariska Tiger Reserve in Alwar,
o Mukundra Hills Tiger Reserve in Kota and
o Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve in Bundi.
● Rajasthan has witnessed an increase in tiger population from 32 in 2006 to 88 in 2022.
‘Veerangana Durgavati Tiger Reserve’ becomes Madhya Pradesh’s 7th protected habitat for big cats
Subject : Environment
Section: Protected Areas
Context:
● Madhya Pradesh, which is home to the most number of tigers in the country, has got a new protected
area for the big cats named ‘Veerangana Durgavati Tiger Reserve’, the seventh in the state.
Tiger reserves in M.P.:
● M.P. was home to six tiger reserves – Kanha, Bandhavgarh, Satpura, Pench, Panna and Sanjay-Dubri.
● Veerangana Durgavati Tiger Reserve is the 7th tiger reserve of the state.
● The previously notified eco-sensitive zone of Nauradehi and Veerangana Durgavati sanctuaries and
the surrounding forest areas have been included in the notified buffer area.
● The areas including this tiger reserve are already notified as sanctuary or eco-sensitive areas.
Tigers in Madhya Pradesh:

● As per the report ‘Status of Tigers: Co-predators & Prey in India-2022’, released by the National
Tiger Conservation Authority and Wildlife Institute of India, MP (785) has the highest number of
tigers in the country, followed by Karnataka (563) and Uttarakhand (560).
Veerangana Durgavati tiger reserve:
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● Veerangana Durgawati Wildlife Sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary in Damoh district of Madhya
Pradesh, India.
● Named after Rani Durgavati, a queen of the Gondi people.
● Flora: consisting of hills, valleys and plains with several streams flowing through them. The
vegetation is predominantly tropical mixed dry deciduous forest and some teak forests with trees
accounting for 70 of the 121 species of plants found here.
● Fauna: The sanctuary hosts 18 species of mammals, including the leopard, wolf, jackal, Indian fox,
the striped hyena and sloth bear besides several species of deer. Besides these, the sanctuary is also
home to 177 species of birds, 16 species of fishand reptiles and 10 species of amphibians.
Bihar to get second tiger reserve in
Kaimur district
Recent news:
Subject :Environment • Bihar is set to get its second tiger reserve in Kaimur
Section: Protected areas district- Kaimur wildlife sanctuary.
• Earlier Dholpur-Karauli TR of Rajasthan became the 54rd
Kaimur Wildlife sanctuary: tiger reserve of the country.
● Situated in Kaimur District and • The Valmiki Tiger Reserve (VTR) in West Champaran
district is currently the 1st and only tiger reserve of the
Rohtas District of Bihar. It is the state.
largest sanctuary in the state. • A report of the NTCA said that the tiger population in the
Valmiki reserve has increased from 31 in 2018 to 54.
● The Kaimur district is divided into • The total tiger count in the State currently is 54.
two parts: • There is a need for the second tiger reserve in the state as
Valmiki TR has reached its saturation point of 50 tigers.
o hilly area which is also
known as Kaimur plateau
and
o The plain area on the western side which is flanked by the rivers Karmnasa and Durgavati.
● The district has a large forest cover and is home to tigers, leopards and chinkaras.
● At 34%, Kaimuralso has the highest green cover in Bihar and the Kaimur forests are the biggest in
the State in terms of area.
● The district shares its boundary with neighboring States of Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh.
● Vegetation: Tropical Dry Mixed Deciduous, Dry Sal Forests, Boswellia Forests and Dry Bamboo
Brakes.
● There are several waterfalls of which the finest are Karkat Waterfall, Manjhar Kund, Dhua Kund.
Plea seeks stay on Jewar Airport until wetland protected, UP govt to inform about status in 4 weeks
Section: Protected Area
Context:
● A petition has been filed to stay the construction of Jewar Airport until Dhanauri Wetland is granted
protection.
Dhanauri wetland:
● Dhanauri wetland is also known as Balmiki Ramsar Wetland and Sarus Sanctuary/Conservation
Reserve.
● Mapped in the National Inventory of Wetlands, the Dhanauri Wetlands is located among the villages
of Dhanauri, Thasrana, and Aminpur Bangar in Dankaur Tehsil, Greater Noida, Gautam Budha
Nagar.
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● Dhanauri Wetland is home to over 217 species of birds and has been recognised as an important
birding area by Bird Life International.
● Dhanauri Wetlands is home to over 150 Sarus Crane, which is UP’s state bird.
Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change submits proposals for Wetland City Accreditation
under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands for the cities of Indore, Bhopal and Udaipur
Context:
• MoEF&CC has submitted three nominations from India for Wetland City Accreditation (WCA) of
Indore (Madhya Pradesh), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) &Udaipur (Rajasthan) under the Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands.
Details:
• These are the first three Indian cities for which nominations have been submitted for WCA based on
the proposals received from respective State Wetlands Authorities in collaboration with the
Municipal Corporations.
• Sirpur Wetland (Ramsar site in Indore), Yashwant Sagar (Ramsar site closer to Indore), Bhoj Wetland
(Ramsar Site in Bhopal), and several Wetlands (Lakes) in and around Udaipur are lifelines to these
cities.
The three nominated cities include:
1. Indore: Founded by Holkars, Indore is the cleanest city in India and the recipient of India’s Smart
City Award 2023 for its best sanitation, water and urban environment.
• Sirpur Lake, a Ramsar Site in the city, has been recognised as an important site for water bird
congregation and is being developed as a Bird Sanctuary.
2. Bhopal: One of the cleanest cities in India that has proposed conservation zones around the
wetlands in its draft City Development Plan 2031.
• Bhoj Wetland, Ramsar Site is the city’s lifeline, equipped with the world-class wetlands
interpretation centre, Jal Tarang.
• Additionally, the Bhopal Municipal Corporation has a dedicated Lake Conservation Cell.
• A network of more than 300 wetland mitras is engaged in wetland management and
conservation of Sarus Crane.
3. Udaipur: Located in Rajasthan, the city is surrounded by five major wetlands, namely, Pichola, Fateh
Sagar, Rang Sagar, Swaroop Sagar, and DoodhTalai.
• These wetlands are an integral part of the city’s culture and identity, help maintain the city’s
microclimate, and provide a buffer from extreme events.
Wetland City Accreditation (WCA):
• Recognizing the importance of wetlands in urban and peri-urban environments and taking
appropriate measures to conserve and protect these wetlands, the Ramsar Convention during
COP12 held in the year 2015 approved a voluntary Wetland City Accreditation system under
Resolution XII.10 which recognizes cities which have taken exceptional steps to safeguard their
urban wetlands.
• The Wetland City Accreditation schemeaimsto further promote the conservation and wise use of
urban and peri-urban wetlands, as well as sustainable socio-economic benefits for local
populations.
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• To be formally accredited, a candidate for the Wetland City Accreditation should satisfy the
standards used to implement each of the six international criteria mentioned in Operational
Guidance for WCA of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Accredited Wetland Cities:
• Currently, there are 42 wetland cities spread across 17 countries worldwide, with China having a
maximum of 13 such cities.
What Terai tigers eat and what it tells about the habitat
Section: Species in news
Context: The poop of tigers has helped a team of scientists at the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) understand
the prey selection patterns of the striped feline in the Indian part of the Terai-Arc Landscape, or TAL.
About the Report:
● Report title: The assessment of the food habits of the tiger (Panthera tigris)
Terai Arc Landscape (TAL):
● TAL is composed of 14 Indian and Nepalese trans-border protected ecosystems of the Terai and
nearby foothills of the Himalayas.
● The area includes Nepal's Bagmati River to the east and India's Yamuna River to the west.
● The TAL is home to many endangered mammals including the Bengal tiger (of which it has one of the
world's highest densities), the Indian rhinoceros, the gaur, the wild Asian elephant, the hispid hare,
the sloth bear, the South Asian river dolphin and the chital, as well as over 500 species of birds,
many endangered.
● Examples of birds are the endangered Bengal florican, the sarus crane, and the black stork.
● About 22% of the wild tiger population in India is found across the TAL.
● The scientists chose the 900 km linear stretch of TAL, recognised as one of the most productive
habitats in the subcontinent.
o The globally important tiger conservation landscape is characterised by a mosaic of forests
and grasslands covering both protected areas (PAs) and non-PAs.
● TAL represents three major habitat types:
o Shivalik covering parts of the lower Himalayas,
o Bhabar covering the foothills of the lower Himalayas marked by pebbles and boulders, and
o Terai comprises the lowland region below the Himalayan foothills and north of the Indo-
Gangetic plains covering entire Uttar Pradesh, southern parts of Uttarakhand, and Bihar.
Panchayat van (community forests):
• Unique to Uttarakhand state.
• It is the legally demarcated village forests under the control of the Village Forest Council, whereas van panchayat refers
to the Village Forest Council or governance institution which the state of Uttarakhand granted authority for managing
these forests.
• The power of managing the forest resides with the locally elected sarpanch (headman) of the van panchayat (village forest
committee).
• In 2010, both the core and buffer areas of Corbett Tiger Reserve were legally notified.
• The NTCA has a policy of providing funds for relocation from the core area only. But with the change in the status of the
Sonanadi WLS from buffer area to core area in 2010, the NTCA gave a budgetary grant for the relocation of the nomadic
Gujjars from the sanctuary.
14
Elephant corridor report plagued with inconsistencies, could escalate conflict with humans, says expert
Context:
● An expert has flagged multiple inconsistencies in the recently published report on elephant corridors
of India by the central government.
Details:
● The central government released a report titled Elephant Corridors of India, 2023, which mentioned
an increase of 62 ‘corridors’ in the country since 2010, bringing the total to 150 — an increase of 40
per cent.
● Inconsistencies in the definition of corridors: The report has classified landscapes and habitats as
corridors.
o Incorrect record of length of corridors in Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal.
What is an elephant corridor?
● A corridor is supposed to be a small patch of land that Impact of Elephant Corridor Expansion:
provides connectivity for elephant movement across ● Increase in human-elephant conflict
habitats, largely within a landscape of the elephant ● Elephant deaths due to electrocution,
● Falling into wells and
reserve.
● Entering human-dominated agricultural
● Landscapes, being an overarching geographical entity, landscapes
are partly fragmented due to agricultural contingencies.
The corridors then serve as crucial links between habitats spread across these landscapes.
● The Project Elephant in 2005-06 issued directives to states concerned over corridors for elephants.
The ones in forest areas shall be notified under the rules mentioned under the Wild Life (Protection)
Act, 1972.
● While for the areas with revenue lands, private lands, must
be notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 as
eco-sensitive, for which the red-category industries may be
prohibited.
● Regional analysis:
o West Bengal has the most elephant corridors(26)
amounting to 17 per cent of the total corridors.
o East central region contributed to 35 per cent, that
is 52 corridors, while North East region was second
largest with 32 percent, number meaning 48
corridors in total.
o Southern India registered 32, that is 21 percent of
the elephant corridors, while northern India was
lowest with 18 corridors or 12 per cent.
● Majority of the corridors were noted to be within state
boundaries and the intensity of the use of corridors has increased by 40 per cent.
● However, it showed that 19 percent of the corridors, that is 29, showed a decrease in use while 10
others were seen impaired and demanding restoration for facilitating elephant movement.
● The decrease in corridor use is attributed to the habitat fragmentation, shrinkage and destruction.
15
● The increase in the elephant corridors also reflected that elephants have expanded their ranges in
Vidarbha region of Maharashtra neighboring Chhattisgarh and southern Maharashtra bordering
Karnataka.
● Elephants have also seen increased presence in Madhya Pradesh found in Sanjay Tiger reserves and
Bandhavgarh.
● Ranges have also increased in northern Andhra Pradesh where the elephants access movement
from Odisha.
● Data on elephant movement remains sketchy in many northeastern states that harbor relatively
small population of elephants.
At Asola Bhatti sanctuary, a ‘seed bank’ of plants native to the Aravallis
● A ‘SEED bank’, which collects and stores seeds of species of plants that are native to the Aravallis, is
gradually taking shape at a nursery at the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary, after a few years of efforts
at collecting seeds from across the city and other state,
● The project, being implemented jointly by the Forest Department and the Bombay Natural History
Society (BNHS), began in 2015 with the purpose of providing saplings that are native to the city and
bringing back species that are now difficult to find in the city with some having lost out to invasive
species like the vilayatikikar which have taken over the Ridge
What is a seed bank?
● A seed bank is a ‘ex-situ’ facility that stores seeds in order to maintain genetically pure variety for
future generations. Typically, they are flood, bomb, and radiation-proof vaults that store seeds from
various plant species. The seeds are usually stored in climate controlled, low humidity and frigid
temperatures. This aids in the long -term preservation of the seeds, guaranteeing that they will grow
at a later day.
● There are over 1700 seed banks around the world, each with its own type, size, and concentration.
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault, often known as the “doomsday vault” or “Noah’s ark of seeds,”
seeks to hold a duplicate of every seed stored in other banks throughout the world. Svalbard has the
capacity to store up to 4.5 million kinds of crops and 2.5 billion seeds. It contains about 1.14 million
seed samples from over 6,000 distinct plant species.
WHY SEEDS BANKS ARE ESSENTIAL:
● Without good genetic diversity, adapting to climate change or new pests can be challenging. Crop
breeders require a diverse set of genetic resources to aid in the adaptation of our crops to changing
situations. A seed bank is a type of insurance, that allows us to safeguard as many plant species as
possible from extinction.
BENEFITS OF SEED BANKS
● Plant genetic diversity is important for a variety of reasons, and seed banks help to preserve it. These
conserved seeds contain a wealth of beneficial genes that breeders might employ to build improved
varieties of our most important food crops. A few specific benefits of seed banks:
○ Improve plant disease and pest resistance, both existing and emerging
○ Allow for drought or flood resistance
○ To feed a growing global population, increase yields and improve nutrition
Harike wetland
Context: Migratory bird arrivals at Punjab’s Harike wetland decline this season, latest census shows.
16
More on the News:
● The arrival of migratory birds this year to Harike declined 12% from 2021.
● Every winter, 90 species of migratory
birds from Siberia, Mongolia, Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS):
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Russia, • Also known as the Bonn Convention.
• It is an international agreement aimed at the conservation of
among others, arrive at the wetland migratory species and their habitats.
site once the water bodies in their • The CMS was signed in Bonn, Germany in 1979 and entered into
native places start to freeze. force in 1983.
• The CMS aims to coordinate and collaborate efforts to conserve
● Punjab witnessed fewer migratory migratory species that cross national boundaries. The Convention
bird arrivals at all wetlands this year. covers a wide range of species, including birds, mammals, fish, and
reptiles, and seeks to address threats to these species, including
Harike wetland: habitat destruction, hunting, and climate change.
● The Harike Wetland, one of the • The CMS has been ratified by over 130 countries, making it one of
the most widely recognized international agreements for the
largest in northern India, is situated conservation of wildlife.
in Tarn Taran district & and Ferozepur • Species Covered: Convention has two Appendices
district of Punjab. o Appendix I lists migratory species that are endangered or
threatened with extinction.
● It stands on the confluence of the o Appendix II lists migratory species which have an
Beas and the Sutlej. It is home to unfavourable conservation status and which require
international agreements for their conservation and
birds visiting from as far as the Arctic management.
and Siberia.
● It was accorded as a wetland by the Ramsar Convention, as one of the Ramsar sites in India, for
conservation, development and preservation of the ecosystem.
● In addition to its ecological importance, the Harike Wetland is also an important source of fish for
local communities.
17
Keoladeo National Park
Context: The Rajasthan state Forest Department has proposed to construct a zoo inside Keoladeo National
Park, a World Heritage Site popularly known as Bharatpur bird sanctuary, to display a range of wetland
species, including rhinos, water buffaloes, crocs, dolphins and exotic species.
National Water Special
Location Vegetation Species
park source features
Animals like
the Jackal,
Bengal Fox,
blackbuck, Declared as
Chital, bird sanctuary
common on 13 March
palm civet, 1956 and a
hog deer,
National Park
sambar. in 1982, was
The most included in
common the World
waterfowl Heritage List
are gadwall, in 1985. It was
shoveler, also notified
teals, tufted as Ramsar Site
Keoladeo Gambhir and duck, painted in October
National Park Banganga Tropical dry stork, white 1981.
rivers, an deciduous spoonbill, A man-made
(Formerly Bharatpur artificial dam forests darter
known as the district, the and man-
called Ajan intermixed warblers,
Bharatpur eastern part managed
Bund, to the with dry babblers, bee
Bird of Rajasthan wetland
south of the grasslands –eater.
Sanctuary) park. It is a reserve
Threatened forest under
avifauna the Rajasthan
species are Forest Act,
also found, 1953.
including
Dalmatian A wintering
pelican, ground in
spot–billed India of the
pelican, western
lesser and population of
greater Siberian crane
adjutants, Grus
Baer’s leucogeranus
pochard,
cinereous
vulture.
3 States chip in to stop illegal sand mining in Chambal sanctuary
18
Concept:
● Three States namely Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh have begun a joint action to
put an end to the illegal sand mining in the National Chambal Sanctuary, situated at the trijunction
of these states.
● National Chambal Sanctuary is known for the critically endangered Gharial populations. Gharials are
a species of fish-eating crocodiles.
National Chambal Sanctuary:
● It is a riverine sanctuary along the Chambal River.
● Its ravines stretches along the Chambal River near the tri-point of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh.
● It is listed as an Important Bird Area (IBA) and is a proposed Ramsar site.
● The Chambal river which is a tributary of River Yamuna cuts through the mazes of ravines and hills
in the sanctuary.
Ecological Significance:
● It is home to critically endangered Gharial (small crocodiles), the red-crowned roof turtle and the
endangered Ganges River dolphin.
● Chambal supports the largest population of Gharials in the wild.
● Only known place where nesting of Indian Skimmers is recorded in large numbers.
● Chambal supports 8 rare turtle species out of the 26 found in the country.
● Chambal is one of the cleanest rivers in the country.
● Chambal supports more than 320 resident and migrant birds.
Chambal River
● It is one of the most pollution-free rivers of India.
● It’s a 960 km. long river that
originates at the SingarChouri
peak in the northern slopes of
the Vindhya
mountains (Indore, Madhya
Pradesh). From there, it flows in
North direction in Madhya
Pradesh for a length of about
346 km and then follows a
north-easterly direction for a
length of 225 km through
Rajasthan.
● It enters U.P. and flows for
about 32 km before joining the
Yamuna River in Etawah
District.
● It is a rainfed river and its basin is bounded by the Vindhyan mountain ranges and the Aravallis.
The Chambal and its tributaries drain the Malwa region of northwestern Madhya Pradesh.
● Tributaries: Banas, Kali Sindh, Parbati.
● Main Power Projects/Dam: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap Sagar Dam, Jawahar Sagar Dam, and
Kota Barrage.
19
Consider shifting cheetahs to Rajasthan - SC
Concept :
● The Supreme Court urged the Centre to spread the remaining cheetahs to different locations to
prevent further deaths.
About Jawai Hills:
Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary:
● It is located in Pali district of Rajasthan, • Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary situated on
surrounded by Jawai Bandh, grasslands the northern boundary of Mandsaur and Nimach districts in
Madhya Pradesh, India.
,riverbed and grazing ground.
• It adjoins Rajasthan state in India.
● The Hills of Jawai were shaped by lava • The Chambal River passes through the sanctuary dividing it
millions of years ago and now the into two parts.
• The western part is in Nimach district and eastern part is in
natural caves and rock shelters of Jawai Mandsaur district.
Hills are home to leopards and Indian • It is in the Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion.
striped hyena.
● Devgiri Cave Temple is located at the half way up the Jawai solitary hills and dedicated to Ashapura
Mata Ji.
● Jawai dam crocodile sanctuary, Jawai hills leopards sanctuary and Kambeshwar ji leopard
sanctuary are located in and around Jawai.
● The picturesque location around the Jawai hills and dam is home to number of wild animals such as
Wolf, Chinkara, Jackals and Jungle cats.
Women take the wheel for safer tourism in Satpura Tiger Reserve
Context: As part of the ‘Safe Tourism Destination for Women’ project launched by the Madhya Pradesh
government, women drivers have been appointed to take tourists on safaris at the Satpura Tiger Reserve.
More on the News:
● Safe Tourism Destination for Women aims to provide employment opportunities to women from
local communities, living in and around tourist destinations, while also ensuring the safety of women
at these spots.
● The project was developed using the central government’s Nirbhaya Fund.
Satpura Tiger Reserve:
● It is located in the Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh. It was declared a tiger reserve in 1999
under the Project Tiger initiative.
● It is located in the Satpura Range of Central India, which is a part of the Deccan Plateau.
● It comprises of three protected areas namely,
● Satpura National Park,
● Bori Sanctuary, and
● Pachmarhi Sanctuary.
● Denwa river is the main water source of the park. It originates from south-eastern part of the
Hoshangabad district in Madhya Pradesh and flows from east to west direction before joining the
Tawa river at the south of Ranipur.
20
● It is also connected to other wildlife reserves in the region like the Pench Tiger Reserve, Kanha Tiger
Reserve, and Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve. This connectivity helps in the movement of animals
and also ensures genetic diversity.
● It is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna. The reserve has a large area of teak forest, which is
interspersed with other trees like sal, bamboo, and grasslands.
● The reserve is home to a variety of animals such as tigers, leopards, Indian bison, wild boars, sloth
bears, and many species of birds. The reserve also has a large population of the endangered Indian
giant squirrel.
● It faces various challenges such as human-wildlife conflict, illegal poaching, and habitat loss.
Pench Tiger Reserve:
● It is one of the premier tiger reserves of India and the first one to straddle across two states –
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
● The portion of the reserve that is in Madhya Pradesh is nestled in the southern slopes of the Satpura
range of Central India.
● It was the inspiration behind Rudyard Kipling’s famous novel, “The Jungle Book”.
● The vegetation is predominantly southern tropical dry deciduous forest. It is home to a variety of
tree species, such as teak, sal, saja, achar, and dhawada. There are also bamboo forests and
grasslands in the reserve.
● River pench flows into reserve cutting it into two from North to South before going on to join the
Kanhan River, The Pench River which emerges from Mahadeo Hills of Satpura Ranges.
● It is also home to other large carnivores such as leopards, wild dogs, and hyenas. Other wildlife
species found in the reserve include jackals, foxes, sloth bears, sambar deer, chital, and wild boars.
The reserve is also a birdwatcher’s paradise with over 285 species of birds.
Biporjoy: As cyclone nears Kutch & Saurashtra, concern grows over Gir lions, Naliya bustards
Subject :Environment
Context:
● Cyclone Biporjoy is expected to make landfall near the port of Jakhau in Kutch along the Pakistan
border. Conservationists are worried about the Great Indian Bustards (GIB) of Naliya near Jakhau as
well as the famous Asiatic lions of the Gir forest.
Details:
● There are nearly 700 lions in the Asiatic Lion Landscape (ALL) spread across the Gir-Somnath, Amreli,
Junagadh and Bhavnagar districts of Gujarat’s Saurashtra region.
● The area is the last bastion of the Asiatic Lion (Panthera leoleo) in the world.
● Earlier in 2018 an epidemic swept the Gir forest named Babesiosis.
o It repeated the next year when Cyclone Tauktae hit Saurashtra.
Violations and poor management threaten Gujarat sanctuaries: CAG
Context:
● A series of violations and other discrepancies have been threatening wildlife in Gujarat, especially in
six sanctuaries managed by the state forest department, flagged the Comptroller Auditor General
of India (CAG).
Six sanctuaries in Gujarat:
21
● Balaram Ambaji and Jessore Lala Bustard Wildlife Sanctuary or Naliya grasslands:
(Banaskantha district); Jambughoda • The sanctuary is located near Jakhau village in Taluka
(Panchmahal district), Ratanmahal Abdasa, Gujarat, India
• This sanctuary is one of the two great Indian bustard
(Dahod district), Shoolpaneshwar sanctuaries in Gujarat; the other one is in Jamnagar.
(Narmada district) and Purna (Tapi and • It was declared as a sanctuary specifically for the
Dangs districts). conservation of the great Indian bustard.
● They offer safe homes to sloth bears,

leopards, striped hyenas, jackals, wolves,
jungle cats, blue bulls, wild boars, Indian
foxes, Indian hares, common langurs,
reptiles, birds, barking deers, antelopes
and chitals, among others.
● The National Forest Commission Report, 2006 mandates each state to devise a policy for sustainable
forest management.
Bear conservation in Gujarat:
● Of the eight species of bears known worldwide, India is home to four.
● Five of the six sanctuaries host the bear population.
● The Ratanmahal sanctuary hosts sloth bears, a flagship species in the area.
Mismanagement of sanctuaries in Gujarat:
● The state hasn’t declared any Critical Wildlife Habitats — areas in national parks and sanctuaries
dedicated to wildlife conservation — in the past 14 years since the implementation of the Scheduled
Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
● The report stated that five of the six, except Purna Sanctuary, were highly fragmented.
● The Dantiwada range of the Jessore sanctuary was plagued with invasive species Prosopis Juliflora.
Asiatic lion run over by goods train near Pipavav port in Gujarat’s Amreli district
Pipavav port:
● Port Pipavav, India's second port in the private sector after Mundra Port, is a port on the West
Coast of India for containers, bulk and liquid cargo.
o Its lead promoter is APM Terminals, one of the largest container terminal operators in the
world.
o The services include pilotage/towage, cargo handling and logistics support.
● Port Pipavav is located in Rajula Saurashtra, Gujarat, at a distance of 90 km South of Amreli, 15 km
South ofRajula and 140 km South West of Bhavnagar.
o The port handles both bulk, container and liquid cargo.
● The port has a natural breakwater facing the wharves called Shialbet Island.
● The port is along the major trade routes and is close to the major Indian Port of Nhava Sheva.
● Pipavav is among the busiest ports of Gujarat and the railway line on which the accident took place
connects the port with Surendranagar and gives the port access to the railway network of the
country.
● Lions often enter even the area of the Pipavav port.
Main ports of Gujarat:
22
● The main ports in Gujarat are Kandla, Bhavnagar, Porbandar, Veraval, Okha, Bedi, Navlakhi,
Mundra, Pipavav, Poshitra, Dahej, Magdalla and Hajira.
● Kandla is the biggest port among the other ports of Gujarat.
National Parks in Gujarat region:
Name of National
District Major wildlife supported
Park
Gir Forest National Asiatic lion, leopard, chausingha, spotted deer,
Junagadh
Park hyena, sambar deer, chinkara
Blackbuck National Blackbuck, fox, Macqueen's bustard, lesser
Bhavnagar
Park, Velavadar florican
Vansda National Park Navsari Leopard, hyena, deer, chausingha
Marine National Park, Jamnagar, Sponges, corals, jelly fish, seahorse, octopus,
Gulf of Kutch Devbhumi Dwarka pearl oyster, starfish, lobster, dolphin
Wildlife sanctuaries in Gujarat:
Name of Sanctuary District Major wildlife supported
Kutch Desert Chinkara, hyena, fox, flamingo, pelicans and
Kutch
Wildlife Sanctuary other waterfowl and herpetofauna
Gir Wildlife Lion, leopard, chausinga, chital, hyena,
Junagadh, Gir Somnath,
Sanctuary & sambar, chinkara, herpetofauna, crocodiles
Amreli
National Parks and birds
Sponges, corals, jellyfish, sea horse, octopus,
Jamnagar, Devbhumi
Marine Sanctuary oyster, pearl oyster, starfish, dolphin,
Dwarka, Gulf of Kutch
dugong, waterfowl
Barda Wildlife Leopard, blue bull, hyena, wild boar, jackal,
Porbandar
Sanctuary birds, herpetofauna
Leopard, barking deer, macaques, four
Purna Wildlife
Dangs horned antelope, sambhar, hyena,
Sanctuary
herpetofauna, birds
Flamingos, pelicans, coot, ducks, waders,
Nal Sarovar Bird Ahmedabad,
storks, herons and other waterfowl,
Sanctuary Surendranagar
herpetofauna
Lion, chinkara, leopard, chital, hyena, wild
Pania Wildlife
Amreli boar, four horned antelope, pangolin, blue
Sanctuary
bull, birds
Rampara Wildlife Blue bull, chinkara, wolf, fox, jackal, birds,
Morbi
Sanctuary herpetofauna
Thol Lake Bird Cranes, geese, flamingos, sarus and about
Mehsana
Sanctuary 125 other waterfowl species
Indian skimmer, ibises, painted stork,
Khijadiya Bird cormorants, etc.
Jamnagar
Sanctuary
About 220 bird species, herpetofauna
Gaga Wildlife Devbhumi Dwarka Great Indian bustard, wolf, jackal, birds,
Sanctuary district herpetofauna
23
Great Indian bustard, lesser florican,
Kutch Bustard
Kutch Macqueen's bustard, chinkara, blue bull,
Sanctuary
herpetofauna
Mitiyala Wildlife
Amreli Lion, Blue bull, Chittal, Chinkara, Panther
Sanctuary
Traditional salt workers contribute to wild ass conservation and regain access to Little Rann of Kutch
Context:
● The forest department of Gujarat has officially acknowledged the role of Agariyas, the salt workers
of the Little Rann of Kutch, in wildlife conservation, particularly of the wild ass that is predominantly
found in the region.
Agariyas:
● Agariyas have traditionally been making salt from underground brine in the Little Rann of Kutch.
● The 60,000-odd Agariyas at the Little Rann produce 30 percent of India’s inland salt. The forest
department is issuing ‘Agar’ cards to some Agariyas for extraction of salt. The card is only valid for a
year and lists 23 conditions. Use of heavy machinery is not allowed.
● In 1973, the area was designated as a Wild Ass Sanctuary and their (Agariyas) access to it was
restricted by the forest department.
o As per law, a sanctuary can only be ‘declared’ once the Survey and Settlement (S&S) of the
rights of people dependent on it has been completed. An incomplete S&S, over the last 50
years, is delaying the declaration of the sanctuary.
● The latest acknowledgment gives theAgariyas official access to land and in turn, access to bank
finance and markets. But legal recognition of their traditional rights, by rights settlement, is still
awaited.
● The wild ass population improved from a meager362 in 1969 to 4451 in 2014 and 6082 in 2020,
shows that salt production activities have no negative impact on wildlife.
● The forest department stated that as per the Mines Act, 1952, salt production is not a mining
activity.
The history and geography of Little Rann of Kutch (LRK):
● LRK is a low-lying bowl-shaped tract of land.
● During monsoon, 11 big and small rivers drain into LRK while water from the Arabian Sea also enters
from a conical creek at another end, making it a large wetland from July to October.
● Gujarat produces 76% of India’s salt. During monsoon it becomes a fishing ground, while during dry
season it becomes a large underground brine from whichAgariyas extract salt.
● Salt was being produced in LRK from the Mughal period. Kharagoda railway station, right at the
edge of LRK, is one of the oldest railway stations in the country that the British administration set
up to transport salt to various parts of the country.
● No permissions and licenses were required by Agariyas, who made salt in 10-acre patches of land
as they were considered small producers. They were not charged any cesseither because India was
still heavily dependent on imports despite many natural sources for salt making and known
traditional technologies to produce salt.
Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary:
24
● Located in the Little Rann of Kutch in the Gujarat state of India. It is spread over
an area of 4954 km².
● The wildlife sanctuary was established in 1972 and came under the Wildlife
Protection Act of 1972. The sanctuary is one of the last places on earth where
the endangered wild ass sub-species Indian Wild Ass (Khur) (Equus hemionus
khur) belonging to Asiatic Wild Ass species Onager (Equus hemionus) can be
spotted.
● Indian Wild Ass:
o The Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur), also called the Indian onager
or, in the local Gujarati language, Ghudkhur and Khur, is a subspecies of the onagernative to
South Asia.
o It is currently listed as Near Threatened by IUCN.
o The population has reached 6,082, according to the census conducted in March 2020.
Madia Gond tribes forced to leave ancestral land
Context: Madia Gond tribes forced to leave ancestral land, as human-animal conflict increases.
More on the News: Madia Gond tribe
● In 2007, 625.82 square kilometers • It is an indigenous community that primarily resides in the Gadchiroli district of
Maharashtra, India. They also live in parts of Chhattisgarh, Telangana, and
within Maharashtra's Tadoba Andhra Pradesh.
reserve became a critical tiger • They are primarily forest-dwellers and depend on the forest for their
livelihood, which includes hunting, fishing, and gathering forest produce. They
habitat. also practice shifting cultivation and grow crops like rice, millets, and pulses.
• They have several unique musical instruments, including the mandar, tarpa,
● By 2022, Chandrapur district
and nagada. Their dances are performed on various occasions like weddings,
witnessed six fatalities from harvest festivals, and religious ceremonies.
human-animal conflicts, primarily • The Madia Gond tribe faces several challenges today, including displacement
from their land due to developmental activities like mining and construction,
linked to coal mines and power lack of access to basic facilities like education and healthcare, and
plants near natural corridors. These discrimination by the dominant caste communities.
pathways are crucial for animal

migration to neighboring forests, experts emphasize.
● Following this, the forest department started relocating the tribal families residing there as they
were not allowed to use forest land for their livelihood and graze cattle anymore.
● The tribes that have been relocated to new areas are facing negative consequences due to
inadequate resettlement facilities.
TadobaAndhari Wildlife Sanctuary:
● It is a protected area located in the Chandrapur district of Maharashtra, India.
● The sanctuary is part of the larger Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve, which includes the Tadoba
National Park.
● It is Maharashtra’s oldest and largest national park.
● The sanctuary is home to a wide variety of wildlife, including tigers, leopards, sloth bears, wild dogs,
hyenas, sambar deer, barking deer, chital, and many species of birds.
● The Andhari River, which runs through the sanctuary, is an important source of water for the
animals and birds.
Bhitarkanika National Park
Section: Places of news
25
● The population of saltwater crocodiles in the water bodies of Bhitarkanika National Park and its
nearby areas in Odisha’s Kendrapara district has marginally increased.
● Bhitarkanika is the abode of 20 whitish estuarine crocodiles according to the reptile census report.
● In 1975, the ministry of forest and environment, in collaboration with the United Nations
Development Programme, had started a crocodile breeding and rearing project in Dangamala within
Bhitarkanika.
Bhitarkanka National Park:
● Bhitarkanika is a unique habitat of Mangrove Forests crisscrossed with numerous creeks and mud
flats located in Kendra Para district of Orissa.
● It is a Ramsar Site under Ramsar Convention on wetlands.
● Bhitarkanika located in the estuary of Brahmani, Baitarani, and Dharma & Mahanadi River systems.
● It is a prime habitat of leopard cat, fishing cat, jungle cat, hyena, wild boar, spotted deer, sambar,
porcupine, dolphin, salt water crocodile including partially white crocodile, python, king cobra,
water monitor lizards, terrapin, marine turtle, kingfisher, wood pecker, hornbill, bar headed geese,
pintail, white bellied sea eagle, tern, sea gull, waders and a large variety of resident and migratory
birds.
● Nutrients from Bhitarkanika are flushed out to the Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, which attracts the
world’s largest population of Olive Ridley Sea turtles for congregation and nesting. Nearly half a
million turtles arrive here every winter.
Similipal National Park a poacher’s paradise
Section : Places in news
In the news:
● Similipal has turned out to be the haven for hunters and poachers as the region has witnessed several
killings of elephants, tigers and leopards.
● About 20 adult breeding male elephants die each year, mostly to unnatural causes like poaching and
electrocution. The dwindling breeding male population and the isolated populations due to
fragmented forests is weakening the gene pool due to mating among immature individuals and
inbreeding.
About Similipal National Park:
● It is a tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district in the Indian state of Odisha
● It is part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three protected areas -Similipal Tiger
Reserve, Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary.
● Simlipal National Park derives its name from the abundance of red silk cotton trees growing in the
area.
● The vast terrain of Similipal with wide altitudinal, climatic and topographic variations, criss-crossed
by large number of perennial streams, harbours a unique blend of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats
and Sub-Himalayan plant species.
● The floristic composition indicates a connecting link between South Indian and North Eastern Sub-
Himalayan Species.
● Forest is predominantly moist mixed deciduous forest with tropical semi-evergreen forest in
areas with suitable microclimatic conditions and sporadic patches of dry deciduous forests and
grasslands. It forms the largest watershed of northern Odisha.
● It holds the highest tiger population in Odisha, and harbours the only population of melanistic tigers
in the world.
26
● Other carnivores found here are leopard, leopard cat, fishing cat, jungle cat and wolf. The
active management of mugger has revived its population on the banks of the rivers Khairi and Deo.
● It is also home to the largest population of elephants in Odisha.
● This protected area is part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009.
Odisha to establish a melanistic tiger safari – a first of its kind in the world
Context:
● The Odisha Government in India announced the establishment of the world's first melanistic tiger
safari near Baripada, the district headquarters town of Mayurbhanj.
Details:
● This safari, to be set up adjacent to National Highway-18, will cover an area of 200 hectares, with
100 hectares dedicated to displaying the tigers and the rest for veterinary care facilities, a rescue
centre, staff infrastructure, and visitor amenities.
● The safari will be located near the Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR) in Mayurbhanj, which is home to
the world's only wild melanistic tigers.
● This initiative aims to elevate wildlife tourism in Odisha and promote awareness about the
conservation of these rare animals.
● The safari will house surplus tigers from the Nandankanan Zoo and rescued or orphaned tigers in
open enclosures.
Added attraction:
● The State Government's proposal for this safari has received in-principal approval from the Technical
Committee of the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
● A committee appointed by the NTCA will conduct a feasibility study on-site before granting final
approval.
● Additional statutory clearances, including approval from the Central Zoo Authority (CZA), will be
sought subsequently.
● According to the ‘All India Tiger Estimation’ report, there are about 20 tigers in Odisha as of 2022.
About Similipal National Park:
• Simlipal is a tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district in the Indian state of Odisha
• It is part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three protected areas -Similipal Tiger
Reserve, Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Simlipal National Park derives its name from the abundance of red silk cotton trees growing in the
area.
• The vast terrain of Similipal with wide altitudinal, climatic and topographic variations, criss-crossed
by large number of perennial streams, harbours a unique blend of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats
and Sub-Himalayan plant species.
• The floristic composition indicates a connecting link between South Indian and North Eastern Sub-
Himalayan Specie
• Forest is predominantly moist mixed deciduous forest with tropical semi-evergreen forest in
areas with suitable microclimatic conditions and sporadic patches of dry deciduous forests and
grasslands. It forms the largest watershed of northern Odisha.
• It holds the highest tiger population in Odisha, and harbours the only population of melanistic tigers
in the world.
27
• Other carnivores found here are leopard, leopard cat, fishing cat, jungle cat and wolf. The
active management of mugger has revived its population on the banks of the rivers Khairi and Deo.
• Similipal Tiger Reserve is also home to the largest population of elephants in Odisha.
• This protected area is part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009.
Chilika fishers robbed of livelihood since Cyclone Fani opened new mouths
Context:
● The delicate salinity gradient of the lake disrupted; locals claim Odisha government’s Chilika
Development Authority (CDA) not monitoring new mouths regularly.
More on the News:
● The intense storm surge that had accompanied extremely severe cyclone Fani in early May 2019
had opened four new mouths in the Chilika Lake in Odisha. These were distinct from the main
mouth of the lake where it opens into the sea.
● Fish catch has gone down by 30-40 per cent after Cyclone Fani.
Chilika Lake:
● Chilika is Asia’s largest and world’s second largest lagoon.
● It lies on the east coast of India in the state of Odisha, separated from the mighty Bay of Bengal by a
small strip of sand.
● It spreads over Puri, Khurda and Ganjam
districts of Odisha on the east coast of India,
at the mouth of the Daya River, flowing into
the Bay of Bengal, covering an area of over
1,100 square kilometers.
● It is the largest wintering ground for
migratory birds on the Indian sub-continent
and is home to a number of threatened
species of plants and animals.
● In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the
first Indian wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
● Major attraction at Chilika is Irrawady dolphins which are often spotted off Satpada Island.
● The large Nalabana Island (Forest of Reeds) covering about 16 sq km in the lagoon area was declared
a bird sanctuary in 1987.
28
Odisha’s Debrigarh Sanctuary freed from human
settlement Why in news?
• Debrigarh, a wildlife sanctuary in Odisha’s Bargarh
Subject : Environment district, has been made completely free from any
Section: Protected Area in news human settlement following one of the country’s
largest ‘peaceful’ relocations of forest-dwellers.
About Debrigarh sanctuary: • In a State where permanent human settlements are
● The Debrigarh wildlife sanctuary is located in the common even within wildlife sanctuaries, Debrigarh
now stands out as an exception alongside Nalabana
Bargarh district in the Indian state of Odisha,
Bird Sanctuary in Chilika Lake.
covering a total area of 346.91 km2. Significance of this relocation:
● It is situated near the city of Sambalpur's Hirakud • Drop in cases of man-animal conflict.
Dam. The Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary is an • Inhabitants did not have access to basic facilities such
as electricity, healthcare and education.
important location for the conservation of • It was also a mandate to make critical wildlife
various local wildlife and their habitat. sanctuaries inviolable.
• No force was used for relocating villagers from the
● The sanctuary is bound on the east and north by
sanctuary.
the huge Hirakud reservoir.
● It is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna.
● As per the State Forest and Environment department,Debrigarh Sanctuary, which is proposed to be
a tiger reserve, has high prey base (46 animals per sq. km).
● It boasts of having 82 leopards and one Royal Bengal Tiger, besides wild animals such as Bison,
Leopard, Sambar, wild boar, spotted deer, wild dog, porcupine and Nilgai.
● The sanctuary is home to more than 40 species of mammals, 234 species of birds, 41 species of
reptiles, 12 species of amphibians, 65 species of fishes and 85 species of butterflies.
● The sanctuary is flanked by Hirakud Reservoir which is a Ramsar Site and International Bird Area.
Migratory birds arrive in Odisha’s Chilika before winter; is climate change to blame?
Context:
● Migratory birds have started their annual journey to Chilika —India’s largest waterbird habitat in
Odisha — ahead of winter this year.
● Ducks and wigeon species have been seen this year within the Nalabana bird sanctuary area inside
the blue lagoon.
Bird migration to India:
● Migratory birds, mostly from beyond the
Himalayas in Northern Eurasia, the Caspian
region,Siberia, Kazakhstan, Lake Baikal and the
remote areas of Russia and neighboring
countries visit the Chilika every winter and start
their homeward journey before the onset of
summer.
● In the last winter, as many as 1,131,929 birds of
184 different species had visited Chilika. This
included 1,093,049 migratory birds from 105
various species and 38,859 resident birds
belonging to 79 species.
● Generally the migratory birds fly to Chilika when the temperature here reaches around 30o, but this
year they arrived when the temperature is 33-35o.
29
● Cause of early arrival: Early onset of winter in their native habitats, recent natural disasters in the
Himalayan regions might have pushed them to fly to Chilika, scarcity of food in their native habitats.
The important steps taken for protecting migratory birds are given below:
● Rare and endangered species of birds, including migratory birds, are included in Schedule-I of the
Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 thereby according them highest degree of protection.
● Stringent punishments have been provided for in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 for violation of
the provisions of the Act.
● Important habitats of birds, including migratory birds, have been notified as Protected Areas under
the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 for better conservation and protection of birds and their
habitats.
● Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been established for control of illegal trade in wildlife and its parts
and products.
Sustainable shrimp cultivation provides hope for mangrove restoration in Sundarbans
Section : Protected areas
Context:
● A new initiative of sustainable shrimp cultivation provides hope for mangrove restoration in
Sundarbans. There were concerns over unsustainable aquaculture, particularly shrimp collection,
after cleaning large tracts of mangrove
Sustainable Aquaculture In Mangrove Ecosystem (SAIME):
forests in Sunderbans. • Under the initiative, farmers have taken up cultivation of shrimp at
Shrimp cultivation in sundarbans: 20 hectares at Chaital in West Bengal’s North 24 Parganas, and 10
hectares at Madhabpur in adjoining South 24 Parganas.
● The Sundarbans forest is about 10,000 • The community-based initiative of sustainable shrimp
sq. km across India and Bangladesh, of cultivation is being conceived by NEWS and Global Nature Fund
which 40% lies in India. (GNF), Naturland Bangladesh Environment and Development
Society (BEDS).
● The Sundarbans, a cluster of low- • A research program on the contribution of mangrove leaf litter in
lying islands in the Bay of Bengal, the nutritional dynamics in SAIME ponds has been initiated in
collaboration with the Centre for Excellence in Blue Economy
spread across India and (CoE-BE) of the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research
Bangladesh, is famous for its (IISER), Kolkata.
unique mangrove forests.
● It occupies a position of importance as a tourist spot for the scenic beauty it provides and for the
famous and majestic “Royal Bengal Tiger”.
● Fishing, particularly shrimp cultivation, is one of the key occupations of the people of Sundarbans,
which is a complex network of rivers and low-lying islands that face a tide surge twice a day.
● Shrimp cultivation is practised in about 15,000 to 20,000 hectares of the unique ecosystem in India.
● They are also cultivating indigenous varieties of shrimps such as black tiger shrimp (P.
monodon) and giant freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergii).
30
What is the Significance of the Sundarban Delta?
● The Sundarbans hosts the largest mangrove forests in
the world, lying on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra
and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal.
● Mangrove ecosystem is a very specialised environment
occurring in between the land and the sea in the tropical
and subtropical regions.
● Sundarban is the natural abode of many groups of
animals and a large number of species are known to
feed, breed and take shelter in this ecosystem.
● It is home to many rare and globally threatened wildlife
species such as the estuarine crocodile, water monitor
lizard, Gangetic dolphin and olive ridley turtle.
● Sundarban was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987 (India) and 1997 (Bangladesh).
● Sundarban Wetland, India was recognised as the ‘Wetland of International Importance’ under
the Ramsar Convention in January 2019.
Seshachalam Hills
Section : Protected Area in news
Concept :
● Spot Bellied Eagle Owl was recently spotted in Seshachalam forest of Andhra Pradesh for the first
time.
● It was sighted twice earlier
About Seshachalam Hills:
at Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger
• The Seshachalam Hills are a part of the Eastern Ghats in Andhra
Reserve (NSTR). Pradesh.
Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve: • They are a group of seven hills namely, Seshadri, Neeladri,
Garudadri, Anjanadri, Vrishabhadri, Narayanadri and Venkatadri.
● The Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger • The ranges were formed during the Precambrian era (3.8 billion to
Sanctuary was declared officially in 540 million years ago).
• The Seshachalam hills consist of sandstone and shale along with
1978 and has been recognized by limestone.
the Project Tiger in 1983. • Tirupati which is considered as one of the major Hindu pilgrimage
towns in India is located in the hills.
● Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger
• The Srivenkateshwara National Park is also located in this mountain
Reserve is the largest tiger reserve range.
in India. • Seshachalam was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in the year
2010.
● In 1992, it was retitled as Rajiv o It has large reserves of red sandalwood.
Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. o Tribes of Yanadis are the native population of the reserve.
● The Tiger reserve is spread over 5
districts in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
● The area consists mostly of the Nallamala Hills.
● The multipurpose reservoirs- Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar are located in the reserve.
● The Krishna River cuts the basin of this reserve.
World Wetlands Day: In Andhra Pradesh, efforts on to save a unique wetland near Visakhapatnam
Section :Places in news
Context: The State Forest Department, in association with environmental groups, are taking steps
to preserve Kondakarlava wetland, the second largest freshwater lake of Andhra Pradesh.
More on the News:
31
● A group of environmentalists documented four smooth-coated otters in the Kondakarlava wetland
in 2021.
● This was the first documented record of the smooth-coated otters.
Kondakarla Ava lake
World Wetlands Day
● It is the second largest freshwater wetland of • Celebrated on 2nd February annually to mark
Andhra Pradesh, yet to be declared as a the adoption of the Convention on Wetlands
on February 2nd 1971.
protected site. • It is celebrated to raise awareness among all
● Spread across 750 acres, it is host to over 150 sections of the society about values and
functions of wetlands, utilization of their
species of birds and has a rich biodiversity resources and their environmental importance.
with a range of fish, aquatic, animal and plant • The theme for 2023 is ‘Wetland restoration’ –
species. This year’s theme highlights the urgent need to
prioritize wetland restoration, and calls on an
● The Sanctuary comprises a unique entire generation to take steps to revive and
and endangered forest type and the wet restore degraded wetlands. The theme builds
evergreen forests. It is recognized as an Eco on – and contributes to the efforts to heal the
planet as championed by the UN Decade on
Tourism destination. Ecosystem Restoration.
Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary:
● The Government declared a part of the Godavari mangrove system as Coringa Wildlife
Sanctuary in 1978 to rehabilitate the saltwater crocodile and to protect the other endangered
species, such as Olive Ridley turtles and Indian Otter.
● About 120 species of resident and migratory birds depend on this area for breeding and nesting.
First ship to enter Ramayapatnam port by year end to test operational feasibility
Section: Environment legislation
Context:
● The construction works of Machilipatnam port in Andhra Pradesh are progressing at ‘brisk’ pace
according to a senior official of Andhra Pradesh Maritime Board (APMB).
Ports in Andhra Pradesh:
● Ramayapatnam port in Prakasam district is in progress.
● Greenfield port at Manginapudi is in progress.
● The three upcoming government ports- Ramayapatnam, Machilipatnam and Mulapadu.
● A private SEZ port to come up at Kakinada.
● Andhra Pradesh has the second longest coastline in the country with a length of 974 km with a major
port in Visakhapatnam and 15 other notified State ports spread in eight coastal districts.
Significance of developing these ports:
● Machilipatnam port is considered ideal for export and import of tobacco, granite and other natural
stones, pharma and agricultural products, besides helping eastern shore activities of ONGC.
Fishing harbours:
● Nine state-of-the-art fishing harbours are being developed across the State including Uppada,
Visakhapatnam, Odarevu, Kothapatnam.
● The fishing harbour at Juvvaladinne is likely to be inaugurated over the next three-four months.
Ports in India:
● Indian ports are classified as major, minor and intermediate ports for administrative reasons. Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka, are home to the minor ports.
32
● Minor ports have also been established in 4 Union Territories- Diu & Daman, Lakshadweep Islands,
Pondicherry, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Mudumalai Tiger Reserve
Context: The unusually wet weather last year meant that flowers bloomed early in the reserve and the
wildlife had plenty to eat, but there could be some negative impact too.
More on the News:
● In 2022, the Nilgiris witnessed one of the wettest years recorded in the past 64 years: the number
of rainy days were also more, according to the Nilgiris District Disaster Management Department.
● Due to the prolonged rain, many flowering species have started to bloom early.
Mudumalai Tiger Reserve
● It is a national park in the Nilgiri Mountains in Tamil Nadu, south India.
● It shares boundaries with the states of Karnataka and Kerala.
● It was a declared tiger reserve in 2007.
● It is a part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (1st Biosphere Reserve in India) along with Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary (Kerala) in the West, Bandipur National Park (Karnataka) in the North, Mukurthi National
Park and Silent Valley in the South.
● It is bordered in the north by Bandipur National Park, in the east by Sigur Reserve Forest and in the
west by Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. In the south, it is bordered by Singara Reserve Forest.
● The Moyar River and its tributaries drain this area, and several artificial waterholes provide drinking
water for wildlife during dry seasons.
● The river Moyar, which flows along the Tamil Nadu-Karnataka border, divides the two states. The
Park is bisected by the Mysore-Ooty highway, which follows the direction of the Moyar River, which
divides Mudumalai and Bandipur.
● Flagship Species: Tiger and Asian Elephant.
● The Reserve has tall grasses, commonly referred to as ‘Elephant Grass’.
● Tropical Evergreen Forest, Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest, Moist Teak Forest, Dry Teak Forest,
Secondary Grasslands, Shrubs, and Swamps are among the habitats found here.
Satyamangalam Tiger Reserve
● It is located in the strategic confluence region of Western and Eastern Ghats.
● This area holds a significant population of tiger, and it is also contiguous to other Tiger conservation
landscapes like BRT, Bandipur, Mudumalai and Nagarahole.
● The region is also a part of Nilgiri-Eastern Ghats Elephant Reserve and is an abode to about 800 to
1000 Elephants as per SynchronisedElephant Census conducted during 2012.
● It is the confluence of two distinct geographical regions of bio diversity landscape; Western Ghat and
Eastern Ghat. The diversity of habitat has got an assemblage of several species of rare plants, animals,
birds, invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and reptiles.
● The wildlife sanctuary is part of Project Tiger and Project Elephant conservation programmes. These
forests are home to indigenous tribal people belonging largely to the Irula tribe (also known as the
Urali) and Soliga communities.
33
● Flora: It is mostly tropical dry forest, part of the South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests
ecoregion. There are five distinct forest types: tropical evergreen (Shola), semi-evergreen, mixed-
deciduous, dry deciduous and thorn forests.
● Fauna: It links the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats allowing gene flow between diverse fauna
populations of the two eco-regions. Important fauna include- Bengal tigers, Black Buck, Indian
elephants, gaurs, leopards ,spotted deer, blackbucks, sambar deer, barking deer ,four-horned
antelopes, wild boars, sloth bears , striped hyenas and feral buffaloes.
● Birds: Many bird species including treepies, bulbuls, babblers, mynahs , crows and critically
endangered Indian vulture (Gyps indicus).
Bengaluru’s civic body dumped mud on the Hosakerehalli lake
Context: The lake located in Rajarajeshwari Nagar has been in need of restoration for the last few years. But
residents living in the vicinity of the lake saw BBMP trucks dumping huge mounds of mud into it.
More on the News:
● Trucks dumping huge mounds of mud on Bengaluru’s Hosakerehalli lake in Rajarajeshwari Nagar
recently alarmed local residents and environmentalists. In two weeks, it was observed that a 25 feet-
wide road was being constructed on the lake.
Hosakerehalli lake
● Hosakerehalli Lake is a man-made lake located in the southwestern part of Bengaluru city in the
Indian state of Karnataka.
● The Hosakerehalli Lake was built in the 16th century during the reign of Kempe Gowda, the founder
of Bengaluru. Over time, the lake became an important source of water for irrigation and drinking.
● Hosakerehalli Lake is home to a wide variety of bird species, including migratory birds like the spot-
billed pelican, Eurasian coot, and common teal.
● The lake is connected to several other water bodies in the area, including the Vrishabhavathi River,
which is a major tributary of the Arkavathy River.
● The lake provides important ecosystem services such as groundwater recharge, flood control, and
habitat for a variety of plant and animal species. It is also an important recreational space for local
residents.
● Threats to lake:
● The waste collected from houses and poultries is dumped in the lake. Even the medicinal waste
is dumped here.
● The untreated sewage from Sapthagiri layout enters the lake.
● The borewells have been dug on the lake bed.
● Encroachment of areas around them
● The funds which are released in the name of funding to restore the lake are not being utilised.
34
National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP):
• Since 2001, the Ministry of Environment and Forests has been implementing the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) to
conserve and manage polluted and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban areas.
• An integrated scheme, NPCA, combining the National Lake Conservation Plan and the National Wetlands Conservation
Programme was created to avoid overlap, promote better synergies, and ensure conservation and management work.
• The new scheme will include conservation and management of lakes and wetlands in the country, including an inventory
and information system on lakes and wetlands, a national level directive on lake and wetlands criteria, a regulatory
framework, capacity building at the state government and local body levels, evaluation, and so on.
• Its goal was to conserve aquatic ecosystems (lakes and wetlands) through the implementation of long-term conservation
plans governed by uniform policy and guidelines.
NLCP – Aim & Objectives
• The National Lake Conservation Plan aims at comprehensive conservation and restoration of lakes and
wetlands for attaining desired water quality enhancement in addition to improvement in biodiversity and ecosystem.
• It was planned to be conducted through an integrated and interdisciplinary strategy with a shared regulatory framework.
• This program would promote biodiversity, lower pollutant loads, and the commodities and services that these bodies of
water provide to the stakeholders.
• Through an integrated ecosystem approach, to restore and conserve the country’s urban and semi-urban lakes that have
degraded due to waste water discharge into the lake, as well as other unique freshwater eco systems.
Habitat loss due to tourism in the Western Ghats pushes endangered frogs to the edge
Increasing fragility of Western Ghats:
● Plant species found there are: Groves of eucalyptus, black wattle and acacia — trees grown for
firewood and timber, Neem, rubber bush, etc.
o Patches of shola forests — stunted tropical montane forests which once covered all these
hills — lie scattered across the landscape.
o Coffee and cardamom plantations intersperse the tea gardens, giving this lofty range the
name Cardamom Hills.
o Forests blanket just over half of Idukki are mostly found inside protected areas, including
Eravikulam National Park, Anamudi Shola National Park, and Periyar National Park.
● Fauna species: Elephants (Elephas maximus indicus) or the endemic Nilgiritahrs
(Nilgiritragushylocrius), tiny frogs and toads, Lion-tailed macaque, Gaur, Sloth bear, Nilgirilangoor,
nilgiri marten, King Cobra, Great Hornbill among others.
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35
Gadgil Committee Report on Wester Ghats Kasturiraga Report recommedations on
Western Ghats
•The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated •Instead of the total area of Western Ghats, only 37% (i.e.
the entire hill range as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). 60,000 sq. km.) of the total area be brought under ESA
•The panel, in its report, has classified the 142 taluks in the under Kasturirangan report.
Western Ghats boundary into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) •A complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining in
1, 2 and 3. ESA.
•ESZ-1 being of high priority, almost all developmental activities •Distinguished between cultural (58% occupied in the
(mining, thermal power plants etc) were restricted in it. Western Ghats by it like human settlements, agricultural
•The Gadgil report recommended that “no new dams based on fields and plantations) and natural landscape (90% of it
large-scale storage be permitted in Ecologically Sensitive Zone should come under ESA according to the committee).
1. Since both the Athirappilly of Kerala and Gundia of •Current mining areas in the ESA should be phased out within
Karnataka hydel project sites fall in Ecologically Sensitive Zone the next five years, or at the time of expiry of mining lease,
1, these projects should not be accorded environmental whichever is earlier.
clearance,” it said. •No thermal power be allowed and hydropower projects
•Gadgil Committee report specifies that the present system of are allowed only after detailed study.
governance of the environment should be changed. It asked •Red industries i.e. which are highly polluting be strictly
for a bottom to top approach (right from Gram sabhas) rather banned in these areas.
than a top to bottom approach. It also asked for •The Kasturirangan report on the Western Ghats has made
decentralization and more powers to local authorities. several pro-farmer recommendations, including the
•The commission recommended constitution of a Western exclusion of inhabited regions and plantations from the
Ghats Ecology Authority (WGEA), as a statutory authority purview of ecologically sensitive areas (ESAs).
under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, with the •The Kasturirangan report had said 123 villages fall under
powers under Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, the ESA purview.
1986.
Tree cover loss threatens endemic frogs:

● The vast amphibian diversity of the southern Western Ghats is now at risk. As frogs are extremely
sensitive to small changes in their environment, climate change and other human-caused
disturbances can decimate their numbers.
● Habitat loss
● Beginning in the late 19th century, large swathes of montane shola forests were cut down by the
British colonists to grow coffee, tea and spices like cardamom.
● Over the years, as plantations expanded, the forest cover shrank.
● A 2016 satellite-based study showed that in 1925, most (93.2%) of the landscape was forested, but
by 2012, it dwindled to just over half (52.1%).
● This loss is despite the fact that logging of shola forests — both in and outside of protected areas —
is legally prohibited.
Protection efforts of amphibian species:
● Amphibians contribute to regulating services by reducing mosquito recruitment from ephemeral
wetlands, potentially controlling other pest species, and indirectly through predation of insect
pollinators.
● India lacks proper legal protection for its amphibians.
o India don’t have any protected areas dedicated to frogs.
o Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972—aimed at protecting the country’s biodiversity—lists a
handful of freshwater frogs in its Schedule IV section, which bans hunting or trade of these
species.
● In the 2022 amendment to the Act, species belonging to the Nasikabatrachus genus (like the purple
frog), have been added to Schedule I and get as much protection as tigers or elephants per the law.
36
Lessons from Bellandur: Governments should allocate more resources to monitor, and protect lakes
Context:
● Bengaluru’s Bellandur Lake has been in the news owing to the mysterious foam formation in the
lake.
Bellandur Lake pollution:
● Bellandur is one of the many lakes in India facing the impacts of improper wetland conservation as
well as waste management.
● Cause of pollution- surfactants in the sewage, biodiversity loss, and encroachments.
Water and wetland exploitation:
● Since 1900, 64 to 71 per cent of wetlands have been lost.
● Of these, Asia has a high rate of wetland loss due to large-scale coastal and inland natural wetland
conversion.
● A lot of the lakes in India are also lost or have been altered owing to human interference.
o Shrinking of Chilika Lake in Odisha to 915 square kilometres (sqkm) from 2200 sqkm and Dal
Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, which has now reduced to an area of 12 sqkm area which is less
than half its usual size.
Translocating jumbos | A tightrope walk for elephants and humans

Context:
● The recent translocation of Arikompan, an elephant from Kerala, to the KalakkadMundanthurai
Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu has brought back into focus the variables that dictate the success
of such operations.
Details:
● The attempt is two-fold:
o To give the elephant a second chance at a life in the wild, and
o To provide villagers peace of mind from the threat of attacks for food.
● According to experts, four of the last five elephants released inside the reserve or in the surrounding
areas after being captured have either been recaptured or have died.
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Protected areas in News Description
● KalakkadMundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) located in the
South Western Ghats montane rain forests in Tirunelveli
district and Kanyakumari district in the South Indian state of
Tamil Nadu, is the second-largest protected area in Tamil
Nadu.
1. Kalakkad- Mundanthurai ● It is part of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.
WLS
● Included in “Project Tiger” in fiscal year 2010-11.
● The reserve forms the catchment area for 14 rivers and
streams. Among these rivers and streams are the Ganga,
Tambraparani, Ramanadi, Karayar, Servalar, Manimuthar,
Pachayar, Kodaiyar, Gadananathi River, and Kallar.
● Located in Karnataka
● This National Park was formed by including most of the
forest areas of the then Venugopala Wildlife Park and
named as Bandipur National Park.
● Brought under Project Tiger in 1973.
● The reserve lies in one of the richest biodiversity areas of
our country representing the “Western Ghats Mountains
2. Bandipur Tiger reserve Biogeography Zone”, surrounded by Mudumalai Tiger
Reserve (Tamil Nadu) in the South, Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary (Kerala) in the Southwest& on the North West
Side the Kabini Reservoirseparates the Bandipur and
Nagarahole Tiger Reserve.
● The reserve is recognized as one of the Mega Biodiversity
Areas in the country and is home to rich floral and faunal
diversity.
● It is a protected area and tiger reserve in the Eastern Ghats
in the Erode District of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
● Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve, the Gateway to Eastern
Ghats, is a significant ecosystem and a wildlife corridor in
3. Sathyamangalam Tiger the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve between the Western Ghats
Reserve and the rest of the Eastern Ghats.
● It is a genetic link between the five other protected areas
which it adjoins, including the Billigiriranga Swamy Temple
Wildlife Sanctuary, Sigur Plateau, Mudumalai National Park,
Bandipur National Park and the Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary.
● It harbours a wide spectrum of ecosystem types such as
tropical evergreen forests, Montane sholas and grasslands,
semi-evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, dry
4. Nilgiri Biosphere deciduous forests and thorn forests.
Reserve ● The major part of the core areas spread over Kerala and
Tamil Nadu States.
● This range of ecosystem occurs from hilly terrain to the
meadows extending from 300 to 2670 m constituting an
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excellent habitat for the flora, fauna and other microbial
forms.
● The varied habitats of the NBR house a sizeable number of
species of animals and plants including a large number of
endemics having special relevance to conservation.
● Fauna: Animals like Nilgiritahr, Nilgiri langur, slender loris,
blackbuck, tiger, gaur, Indian elephant and marten are found
here.
● Tribal Population: Tribal groups like the Todas, Kotas, Irullas,
Kurumbas, Paniyas, Adiyans, EdanadanChettis,
Cholanaickens, Allar, Malayan, etc., are native to the
reserve.
● Protected Areas within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve are:
o The Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole
National Park, Mukurthi National Park and Silent
Valley.
Environmentalists revive contentious call to declare a tiger reserve in Goa

Context:
● An incident of tiger deaths in Goa’s Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary in 2020 and concern over
development activities affecting tiger movement around the Goa-Karnataka border, have revived
the call for notifying a tiger reserve in Goa.
Western Ghats in Goa region:
● The Ghats cover 600 sq. km. on the coastal state’s eastern side and include:
o Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary,
o Bhagwan Mahavir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary,
o Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary and
o Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary.
Catigao- Mhadei forest complex:
● The Cotigao-Mhadei forest complex of Goa comprises five protected areas:
1. Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary,
2. Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary and Mollem National Park,
3. Bhagwan Mahavir National Park,
4. Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary and
5. Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary.
● They together cover an area of 750 sq mts, forming a contiguous belt connecting the forests of
Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS):
● Goa is the only state in India which has protected the complete Western Ghats' section within a state.
● This region is part of the Western Ghats landscape, and is regarded as a Global Biodiversity Hotspot.
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● Goa's four wildlife sanctuaries are located on the eastern side of the state in the Western Ghats,
covering an area of about 750 km2 (290 sq mi).
● The Mahdei Wildlife Sanctuary and Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park all fall
within the Mhadei River basin.
● Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary is located
just to the south of Mhadei in Goa.
● The Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary is a 208.5-
km2 (80.5-mi2) protected area in the
Indian state of Goa in the Western Ghats
of South India.
● It is located in the North Goa District,
Sattari taluka near the town of Valpoi.
● The sanctuary is an area of high
biodiversity, and is being considered to
become a Project Tiger tiger reserve
because of the presence of Bengal tigers.
● The sanctuary is administered by the Goa
State Forest Department.
● The sanctuary includes theVagheri Hills, some of the highest peaks in North Goa.
● The Mhadei River, known downstream as theMandovi River, the lifeline of the state of Goa,
originates in Karnataka, travels28.8 km (17.9 mi) in Karnataka, passes 9.4 km (5.8 mi) through the
Mahdei Wildlife Sanctuary and meets the Arabian Sea at Panaji after traveling 81.2 km (50.5 mi) in
Goa.
Goa, an important tiger corridor:
● Tigers have been spotted in the Goa part of Western Ghats. In 2022, the forest department recorded
six tiger sightings in Goa.
● Once it is converted into a tiger reserve, it could lead to a rise in tiger population and create a
conducive environment for breeding.
● According to the Status of Tigers 2022 report by the NTCA, the tiger population in the Western
Ghats, has shrunk to 824 unique tiger individuals, down from 981 in 2018.
o This decline is in contrast to the national level increase to 3080 tigers from 2461, during the
same period.
o While tiger populations within protected areas have either remained stable or increased, tiger
occupancy outside of these regions has significantly decreased, notes the report.
o The border areas of Goa and Karnataka are one region where tiger occupancy has decreased.
Declaration of an area as a tiger reserve:
● According to subsection (1) of section 38V of the Wild Life Protection Act of 1972, “The state
government shall notify an area as a Tiger Reserve on the suggestion of the tiger conservation
authority.”
● The recommendation is required to be accepted by the state.
● A tiger reserve’s limits may not be changed without the National Board for Wild Life’s approval and
the National Tiger Conservation Authority’s suggestion. Unless it is in the public interest and with
the consent of the National Board for Wild Life and the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
● No State Government may de-notify a tiger reserve.
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● Critical tiger habitats (CTH) are designated under the Wild Life Protection Act (WLPA), which is also
known as the core of tiger reserves.
● According to the law, these regions must be preserved inviolate for the conservation of tigerswithout
compromising the rights of the Scheduled Tribes or other forest inhabitants.
● The state government notifies CTH after consulting with the committee of experts it formed
specifically for the purpose.
Significance of declaring an area as a tiger reserve:
● There is no minimum base population required to declare an area as a tiger reserve.
● Even without the presence of any wildcats,a region can be marked as a tiger reserve if it can serve
as a natural habitat, with sufficient prey base, for tigers.
● Tiger reserves are designated habitats for the conservation of tigers and their prey base. Under the
Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972, a tiger reserve is legally mandated to designate a critical core area
over which human habitation and resource extraction is not permitted.
● This area is encircled by a buffer zone that permits multiple human activities which gives precedence
to conservation objectives.
● The declaration of a tiger reserve will ensure improved monitoring and perhaps lead to an increase
in tiger population while bringing enhanced technical and financial support from the National Tiger
Conservation Authority (NTCA).
● It will also empower the local communities residing inside the sanctuary by giving access to
development opportunities as they will be able to utilise a voluntary resettlement scheme for joining
mainstream society.
● Declaring a tiger reserve will also prevent human encroachment, disallow red category industry
operation and provide access to national and international funding for the upkeep of the tiger
habitat.
S.No. Name of Tiger Reserve State
1 Bandipur Karnataka
2 Corbett Uttarakhand
3 Amangarh (buffer of Corbett TR) Uttar Pradesh
4 Kanha Madhya Pradesh
5 Manas Assam
6 Melghat Maharashtra
7 Palamau Jharkhand
8 Ranthambore Rajasthan
9 Similipal Odisha
10 Sunderbans West Bengal
11 Periyar Kerala
12 Sariska Rajasthan
13 Buxa West Bengal
14 Indravati Chhattisgarh
15 Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh
16 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh
41
17 Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu
18 Valmiki Bihar
19 Pench Madhya Pradesh
20 Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra
21 Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh
22 Panna Madhya Pradesh
23 Dampa Mizoram
24 Bhadra Karnataka
25 Pench Maharashtra
26 Pakke Arunachal Pradesh
27 Nameri Assam
28 Satpura Madhya Pradesh
29 Anamalai Tamil Nadu
30 Udanti-Sitanadi Chattisgarh
31 Satkosia Odisha
32 Kaziranga Assam
33 Achanakmar Chattisgarh
34 Dandeli-Anshi Karnataka
35 Sanjay-Dubri Madhya Pradesh
36 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu
37 Nagarahole Karnataka
38 Parambikulam Kerala
39 Sahyadri Maharashtra
40 Biligiri Ranganatha Temple Karnataka
41 Kawal Telangana
42 Sathyamangalam Tamil Nadu
43 Mukandra Hills Rajasthan
44 Nawegaon-Nagzira Maharashtra
45 NagarjunsagarSrisailam Andhra Pradesh
46 Amrabad Telangana
47 Pilibhit Uttar Pradesh
48 Bor Maharashtra
49 Rajaji Tige Reserve Uttarakhand
50 Orang Tiger Reserve Assam
51 Kamlang Tiger Reserve Arunachal Pradesh
Srivilliputhur-Megamalai Tiger
52 Tamil Nadu
Reserve
42
53 Ramgarh Vishdhari TR Rajasthan
54 Guru Ghasidas TR Chhattisgarh
55 Ranipur Tiger Reserve Uttar Pradesh
HC bats for animals’ right to live without fear, orders relocation of 495 families near T.N. Tiger reserve
Context:
● Highlighting the right of animals to live free from fear and distress, the Madras High Court has
ordered relocation of 495 families of Thengumarahada village, situated within the eastern boundary
of the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, on payment of ₹15 lakh each in compensation.
Details:
● The compensation will be released from the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and
Planning Authority (CAMPA) funds to the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
● The NTCA was directed to transfer the amount to the Tamil Nadu Principal Chief Conservator of
Forests (PCCF) within two months. After receiving the amount, the PCCF must disburse the
compensation and relocate the villagers within a month.
Thengumarahada village:
● Thengumarahada was formed through State action after the issuance of a Government Order in
1948 for leasing out 100 acres to ThengumarahadaVivasaya Corporation (now Thengumarahada
Cooperative Society) for farming.
● In 1961, the extent was increased to 500 acres.
● This human settlement in the forest area was leading to man-animal conflict as the village was
located at the confluence of the rich biodiversity regions of the Eastern Ghats and the Western
Ghats and was serving as a corridor for most of the long-ranging wild animals.
● It blocks the crucial migratory routes of elephants in the Mudumalai- Sathyamangalam landscape.
● Thengumarahada area and the adjoining landscape is one of the rare places in India where healthy
breeding populations of tiger, elephant, leopard, sloth bear, wild dog, hyena, black buck, four
horned antelope, barking deer, mouse deer and sambar are found together.
● The place is also home to many reptiles like star tortoise, rock python, russell’s viper, saw scaled
viper, cobra and common krait to name a few.
Combing operations held at Mukurthi national park, adjoining areas
Context:
● The Forest department conducted combing operations in the Mukurthi National Parkand forest
areas adjoining it to ensure that there is no illegal movement of people and poachers.
About Mukurthi National Park:
● Located in the western corner of the Nilgiris Plateau west of Ootacamund hill station in the
northwest corner of Tamil Nadu state in the Western Ghats mountain range of South India.
● It is bordered on the west by Nilambur South Forest Division, to the northwest by Gudalur Forest
Division, to the northeast, east and southeast by Nilgiri South Forest Division and to the south by
Mannarghat Forest Division. At its southwest tip the peaks of this park straddle the northeast corner
of Silent Valley National Park of Kerala.
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● The park was created to protect its keystone species, the Nilgiritahr.
● The park is characterized by montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with sholas in a high
altitude area of high rainfall, near-freezing temperatures and high winds.
● It is home to an array of endangered wildlife, including royal Bengal tiger and Asian elephant, but
its main mammal attraction is the Nilgiritahr. The park was previously known as Nilgiri Tahr National
Park.
● The park is a part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India's first International Biosphere Reserve. As part
of the Western Ghats, it has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1 July 2012.
● Toda people reside here.
Wildlife Institute’s biodiversity study for rail project in Western Ghats raises conflict of interest concerns
Context:
● In August 2017, the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) prepared a biodiversity and environment
assessment report for a project proposed by Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd (RVNL) to double the railway track
between Kulem in Goa and Castlerock in Karnataka.
About the proposed project of doubling the railway track by Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd (RVNL):
● Location: Kulem in Goa and Castlerock in Karnataka
● The project seeks to cut through the Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary and Mollem National
Park in the Western Ghats in Goa; and will also impact connectivity across the border with Kali Tiger
Reserve in Karnataka.
● The project also includes laying of a 400-kV transmission line, which will involve the expansion of a
national highway from Belagavi to Panaji from the existing two lanes to four lanes.
Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park:
● It is a 240 square kilometers (93 sq mi) protected area located in the Western Ghats of West India,
in Dharbandora taluka, Goa State, along the eastern border with Karnataka.
● The area is situated near the town of Molem.
● National Highway 4A divides it into two parts and the Mormugao - Londa railway line passes through
the area.
● It contains several important temples dating to the Kadambas of Goa, and home to waterfalls, such
as Dudhsagar Falls and Tambdi Falls.
● Devils Canyon:
o This is an eerie canyon of water carved crevices downstream from DudhSagar Falls, created
from solid rock by serpentine underwater currents.
● The parkland is also home to a community of nomadic buffalo herders known as the Dhangar.
● Threats to the sanctuary:
o This protected area is threatened by extensive surface mining and transport of manganese
and iron ores. A serious threat is the deposit of toxic wastes.
Climate crisis in forests: Dandeli losing its distinctive grasses & hornbills to erratic weather
Context:
● In recent years, rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns in the Dandeli forest area are
impacting the forest ecosystem and the people living around them and dependent on them.
44
Dandeli forests and Wildlife sanctuary:
● The Dandeli forest in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka is known for its forest grasses, birds and
cattle herders.
● Along with neighboring Anshi National Park, the sanctuary was declared part of the Anshi Dandeli
Tiger Reserve in 2006.
● It is also an elephant reserve under the Project elephant.
● There are around 100 different types of grasses that grow in the undergrowth of the Dandeli forest.
● These are the primary sources of food for the herbivore population of the forest such as barking
deer, chital (spotted deer) and elephants.
● The wildlife sanctuary is known for its great hornbill (great Indian hornbill or great pied hornbill), the
Malabar pied hornbill and the elusive black panther.
Changes in the ecology of dandeli forests and its impact:
● The grasses are being replaced by eupatorium weed, which is not eaten by the herbivores and is
prone to fires.
o Eupatorium is a non-native species introduced in the area during the British rule for
decorative purposes.
● Honey collection in the area has reduced Climax species:
• Climax species, also called late seral, late-successional, K-selected or
in recent years as the ficus trees are not equilibrium species, are plant species that can germinate and grow
flowering properly. with limited resources; e.g. they need heat exposure or low water
availability.
Climate crisis in forests: Wild fruits, sacred • They are the species within forest succession that are more adapted
groves in Sharavathi valley bear the brunt to stable and predictable environments, and will remain essentially
unchanged in terms of species composition for as long as a site
Subject : Environment remains undisturbed.
• The seedlings of climax species can grow in the shade of the parent
Section: Protected Area trees, ensuring their dominance indefinitely. The presence of climax
species can also reduce the prevalence of other species within an
Context: ecosystem. However, a disturbance, such as fire, may kill the climax
species, allowing pioneer or earlier successional species to re-
● Due to climate change and changing
establish for a time.
rainfall patterns, production of fruits from • They are the opposite of pioneer species, also known as ruderal,
wild trees are decreasing rapidly. fugitive, opportunistic or R-selected species, in the sense that climax
species are good competitors but poor colonizers, whereas pioneer
species are good colonizers but poor competitors.
Details:
● Siddapur taluk of Uttara Kannada district- the area is famous for its sacred groves which have
conserved ancient forests almost intact.
● Climate change has affected evergreen forests and they are increasingly deciduous, which has also
led to a water shortage. Acacia plantations have also led to water shortage in these areas.
● Some sacred groves that have witnessed a decline in production are: Kokum (Garcinia indica) tree,
Wild amla or nellikai (gooseberry) (mainly used for medicinal purposes), kasarakaya (Strychnosnux-
vomica) (kasarakaya is a medicinal fruit but with poisonous qualities because of the presence of the
compound strychnine), Upagi, monkey jacks, Malabar tamarind, Kathalekan sacred groves.
Sharavathi LTM Wildlife Sanctuary:
● Located in Western Ghats of Karnataka state in India.
● Named after the Sharavathi River flowing through the sanctuary.
● The sanctuary was expanded by adding the Aghanashini Lion Tailed Macaque Conservation Reserve
and some of the reserved forests in Uttara Kannada&Shivamogga districts, to the existing sanctuary.
● After expansion, the sanctuary has been renamed as the Sharavathi Lion Tailed Macaque Wildlife
Sanctuary.
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● The expanded sanctuary is aimed at protecting the freshwater habitat of Myristica swamps that
hosts many species like Lion Tailed Macaque, Leaf Nosed Bats, Hornbills etc.
Cauvery basin lost nearly 12850 sq. km of green cover
Context:
● A paper on the Cauvery Basin is published by scientists and researchers at the Indian Institute of
Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
Study findings:
● Natural vegetation on nearly 12,850 sq. km of land (46%) in the Cauvery basin was lost in the 50
years from 1965 to 2016.
● The quantum of reduction of dense vegetation was 35% (6,123 sq. km) and that of degraded
vegetation, 63% (6,727 sq. km).
● Karnataka has lost much more than any other State in the basin.
● It accounts for three-fourths of the lost cover, while Tamil Nadu’s share is around one-fifth.
● Areas that suffered adverse changes in the extent of forest cover include the Brahmagiri Wildlife
Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park and the Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary.
● In respect of the Bannerghatta National Park, the moist deciduous forest area, which was about
50% in 1973, stood at 28.5% in 2015 due to “anthropogenic pressure” on the National Park and its
environs.
Protected areas Description
It is located in Kodagu District, Karnataka State, India, within the Western
Ghats and about 250 km from Bangalore.
Brahmagiri
Flora: Evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and in the higher altitudes are
Wildlife
grasslands with shola.Bamboo plants are widespread.
Sanctuary
Fauna: Mammals in the sanctuary include lion-tailed macaques, Indian
elephants, gaurs, and tigers.
It is a national park covering 868.63 km2 (335.38 sq mi) in Chamarajnagar
Bandipur district in the Indian state of Karnataka.
National Park It was established as a tiger reserve under Project Tiger in 1973.
It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve since 1986.
It is a national park located in Kodagu district and Mysore district in
Karnataka, India.
Nagarhole It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
National Park The park has rich forest cover, small streams, hills, valleys and waterfalls, and
populations of Bengal tiger, gaur, Indian elephant, Indian leopard, chital and
Sambar deer.
It is a protected area located in the Mandya, Chamarajanagar and Ramanagar
districts of Karnataka, India.
Cauvery Wildlife The Cauvery River passes through its midst.
Sanctuary It is established to provide protection, conservation and development of
Wildlife and its environment.
On its east, it adjoins Dharmapuri forest division of Tamil Nadu state.
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The sanctuary mainly consists of dry deciduous forests, southern tropical dry
thorns and riverine forests.
Flora: Terminalia arjuna, jambul (Syzygiumcumini), Albizia amara, Feronia sp.,
Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica, Hardwickiabinata, and Acacia armata.
Fauna: Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, wild boar, Indian leopard, dhole,
spotted deer, barking deer, sambarped hare (Lepus nigricollis), chevrotain,
common langur, bonnet macaque, honey badger, Malabar giant squirrel,
grizzled giant squirrel, and smooth-coated otter.
Cauvery basin:
● The Cauvery basin extends over the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the Union Territory
of Puducherry.
● It spans nearly 2.7% of the total geographical area of the country.
● It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east and south and by
the ridges separating it from the Krishna Basin and Pennar Basin on the north.
● The three main physiographic divisions of the basin are the Western Ghats, the plateau of Mysore
and the Delta. The Western Ghat region is mountainous and covered with thick vegetation.
● The major reservoirs in the Cauvery basin are Krishnaraja Sagar, Mettur (Stanley), Hemavathy,
Kabini, Harasngi, Lower Bhavani and Grand Anicut.
● The Cauvery River is one of the major rivers of the peninsular India.
● It rises at an elevation of 1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala village of
Kodagu district of Karnataka and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
● In size, it is smaller than the Godavari, the Mahanadi and the Krishna.
● Major left bank tributaries: Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati.
● Major Right bank tributaries: the Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the
Noyil and the Amaravati.
Silent Valley bird species goes up to 175
Section : Protected areas
Context:
● A bird survey conducted at the Silent Valley National Park in the last week of December
identified 141 species, of which 17 were new. So far, 175 species of birds have been spotted in Silent
Valley.
About the survey:
● The survey was held in association with the Kerala Natural History Society.
● The first survey was held in the last week of December 1990.
● 139 birds had been identified in a survey held in 2006, and the number of species went up to 142 in
the last survey held in 2014.
● Brown wood owl, Banded bay cuckoo, Malabar woodshrike, White-throated kingfisher, Indian
nightjar, Jungle nightjar, and Large cuckooshrike were among the 17 species newly identified in the
Silent Valley.
● Birds such as Crimson-backed sunbird, Yellow-browed bulbul, Black bulbul, Indian white-eye and
Indian swiftlet were found in abundance in Silent Valley.
● Endemic birds sighted in the survey are:
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o Nilgiri laughingthrush, Nilgiri flowerpecker, Brown-cheeked fulvetta, Black-and-orange
flycatcher, Grey-headed canary-flycatcher, Greenish warbler, Common chiffchaff, Tytler’s leaf
warbler, Shaheen falcon, Nilgiri wood pigeon, and Malabar whistling thrush.
About the Silent Valley National Park:
● Silent Valley national park is one of the magnificent beauties of nature in Kerala. It is a core part of
the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and located in the Nilgiri hills.
● The national park is one of the most protected and untouched areas of rain forests and tropical
moist evergreen forest in the South Western Ghats.
● The Silent Valley National Park comes under the Western Ghats World Heritage Site.
● UNESCO declared parts of Western Ghats as World Heritage site in the year 2007.
● The entire park is surrounded by a buffer zone to protect the flora and fauna. The buffer zone
accounts to 148 sq. Km.
● Silent valley National park is surrounded by New Amarambalam Reserved Forest, Karimpuzha
Wildlife Sanctuary and Nedumkayam Rainforest in Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram district.
● On the other side the national park is borders with Mukurthi National Park of Nilgiris
district and Attappadi Reserved Forest in Mannarkkad Taluk of Palakkad district.
● It is the last remaining rain forest of Kerala.
● It was declared a Reserve forest in 1914.
● Then in 1984 it was declared as a national park.
● Sairandhrivanam, which translates as Sairandhri’s Forest, is the native name for the Silent Valley
region.
● Draupadi, the Pandavas’ wife, disguised herself as Sairandhri, the maid of a queen named
Sudeshna while her family was in exile, according to the epic Mahabharatha.
● During the monsoons, Silent Valley receives a lot of rain, however the exact amount varies due to
the region’s varying geography.
FLORA:
● The park’s valley areas are part of an Eco-region of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests.
● The South Western Ghats montane rain forests region includes hilly terrain above 1,000 metres.
Above 1,500 metres, evergreen forests give place to stunted forests known as sholas, which are
mixed with open grassland.
● The valley’s flora includes around 1000 flowering plant species, 108 orchid species, 100 ferns and
fern allies, 200 liverworts, 75 lichens, and roughly 200 algae.
● The Western Ghats are home to the bulk of these flora.
FAUNA:
● Many endangered species such as the lion-tailed macaque, tiger, gaur, leopard, wild boar, panther,
Indian Civet, and Sambhar can be found in Silent Valley Park.
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Frequent outbreaks of bird flu in Kerala require diagnostic studies
Ramsar Sites in Kerala
Sasthamkotta Lake Ashtamudi Lake Vembanad Lake
Ashtamudi Lake or
It is the largest fresh AshtamudiKayal , in the Kollam
Also known as Vembanad Kayal, Vembanad Kol,
Punnamada Lake (in Kuttanad) and Kochi Lake (in Kochi).
water lake in Kerala. District of Kerala, is the most
visited backwater and lake in the Spanning several districts of Kerala and covering a
It is named after the state. territory of more than 2033.02 km2.
ancient Sastha temple It possesses a unique wetland The lake has its source in four rivers, Meenachil,
located on its bank. ecosystem and a large palm- Achankovil, Pampa and Manimala.
shaped (also described as
It is separated from the Arabian Sea by a narrow barrier
It meets the drinking octopus-shaped) water body,
island and is a popular backwater stretch in Kerala.
water needs of half second only in size to the
Vembanad estuary ecosystem of Vallam Kali (i.e Nehru Trophy Boat Race) is a Snake Boat
million people of the the state. Race held every year in the month of August in Vembanad
Quilon district and also Lake.
Ashtamudi means ‘eight braids’
provides fishing in the local Malayalam language.
resources. In 2002, it was included in the list of wetlands of
The name is indicative of the international importance, as defined by the Ramsar
Convention.
It is a designated lake’s topography with its
multiple branches.
wetland of It is the second-largest Ramsar site in India only after the
international The lake is also called the gateway Sundarbans in West Bengal.
importance under the to the backwaters of Kerala and The Government of India has identified the Vembanad
is well known for its houseboat
Ramsar Convention and backwater resorts.
wetland under the National Wetlands Conservation
since November 2002. Programme.
Ashtamudi Wetland was included The Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary is located on the east
in the list of wetlands of coast of the lake.
international importance, as
defined by the Ramsar Convention In 2019, Willingdon Island, a seaport located in the city of
for the conservation and Kochi, was carved out of Vembanad Lake.
sustainable utilization of wetlands.
One of the most outstanding features of this lake is the
1252 m long saltwater barrier, Thanneermukkom, which
was built to stop saltwater intrusion into Kuttanad.
Pulicat Lake
section: Protected areas in news
Pulicat Lake
● Pulicat Lagoon is the second largest brackish water lagoon in India, after
Chilika Lake. It is present in the Coromandel Region i.e. Andhra Pradesh–
Tamil Nadu Border.
● The barrier island of Sriharikota separates the lake from the Bay of
Bengal and is home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
● The lake encompasses the Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary.
● Flamingo Festival is held every year to promote tourism in Pulicat Lake
and Nellapattu. It has been organised for the past 12 years.
● The primary inflows to the Pulicat Lake are Arani, Kalangi and
Swarnamukhi.
● About 96% of the Pulicat Lake is present in Andhra Pradesh while only 3% is present in Tamil Nadu.
● The Buckingham Canal, a navigation channel, is part of the lagoon on its western side.
Barda Wildlife Sanctuary
● Barda Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected area located in the Porbandar district of Gujarat, India. It
covers an area of about 192 sq km and is located in the foothills of the Aravalli Range in Gujarat.
● The vegetation in the sanctuary includes dry deciduous forest, scrubland, and grassland.
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● The sanctuary is home to a diverse range of flora and fauna, including leopard, hyena, jackal, sloth
bear, jungle cat, Indian civet, and several species of birds and reptiles.
● Barda Wildlife Sanctuary is connected to several other protected areas in the region, including Gir
National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, Pania Wildlife Sanctuary, and Jamjir Wildlife Sanctuary, which
together form a contiguous wildlife habitat.
● Barda Wildlife Sanctuary is recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International.
● Threats: The Barda Wildlife Sanctuary faces several threats, including poaching, habitat loss and
fragmentation, and human-wildlife conflict.
Bandipore Tiger Reserve
● It was established in 1973 under Project Tiger. In 1985, by including adjacent areas from Venugopala
Wildlife Park, it was enlarged and named as Bandipur National Park.
● It is situated in two contiguous districts (Mysore and Chamarajanagar) of Karnataka and is located at
the tri-junction area of the States Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
● It forms a part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Theppakkadu elephant camp
● It lies in one of the richest biodiversity areas • Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Theppakadu Elephant camp is
the oldest elephant camp in Asia. This elephant camp was
of the country. It is surrounded by established 100 years before.
● Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu) • This elephant camp having 28 elephants including 2 calves
at present. In this elephant camp elephants are mainly
in the South, used in Human- Wild animal conflicts, Forest Mansoon
● Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala) in patrolling, eco-tourism, elephant conservation, Education
the South-west & etc.
• The Elephant camp is located on the bank of the river
● The Kabini Reservoir separates the Moyar, opposite to the Reception center.
Bandipur and Nagarahole Tiger Reserve
on the North-west.
● It is endowed with rich floral and faunal diversity and is recognized as one of the Mega Biodiversity
Areas in the country.
● The Bandipur along with Nagarahole, Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam& Wayanad constitutes the
single largest Wild population of Tigers in the world.
● This Landscape is also home to the single largest Asian Elephant population in the world and is part
of the Mysore Elephant Reserve (MER).
● The park is located between the Kabiniriver in the north and the Moyar river in the south. The Nugu
river runs through the park. The highest point in the park is on a hill called HimavadGopalaswamy
Betta.
Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary:
● The Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in the southern state of Kerala in India is spread over the southeast
corner of the Western Ghats, and covers a total area of 128 km2 (49 sq mi).
● It is part of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.
● Geography:
o This is the drainage basin for the Neyyar River and its tributaries - Mullayar and Kallar.
o The towering peak of Agasthyamalai at an elevation of 1868 meters is a very prominent
landmark.
● Climate:
o The average rainfall from the Southwest monsoon between May and July and the Northeast
monsoon between October and November is about 2800 mm.
● Flora and fauna:
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o Fauna includes tiger, leopard, sloth bear, elephant, sambar, barking deer, bonnet macaque,
Nilgiri langur and Nilgiri Tahr.
● Neyyar Elephant Rehabilitation Centre complex within the area cares for several elephants, from
elephant calves to an 87-year-old elephant, and offers elephant rides and elephant feeding.
● There is also a deer rehabilitation centre.
Periyar Tiger Reserve
● Periyar Tiger Reserve is a protected area in the Idukki district of Kerala, India. It is located in the
Cardamom Hills of the Western Ghats and is named after the Periyar River that flows through the
area.
● Flora: The reserve is rich in tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests,
and grasslands. It is home to a wide variety of flora, including over 2000 species of flowering plants.
● Fauna: The reserve is home to a large number of endangered species, including the Bengal tiger,
Indian elephant, gaur, sambar deer, barking deer, Nilgiri langur, and lion-tailed macaque.
● Birdlife: Periyar Tiger Reserve is also a haven for birdwatchers, with over 265 species of birds,
including the great Indian hornbill, Malabar grey hornbill, blue-winged parakeet, grey-headed
bulbul, white-bellied tree pie, and Nilgiri wood pigeon.
● Periyar Lake: The Periyar Lake is an artificial lake that was created by the construction of the
Mullaperiyar Dam across the Periyar River. The lake is an important source of water for the animals
in the reserve, and it is also a popular tourist attraction.
● Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary: The Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary is located within the Periyar Tiger Reserve
and covers an area of 777 square kilometers. It is notable as an elephant reserve.
● Tribal communities: The reserve is home to a number of tribal communities, including the Mannans,
Paliyas, and Uralis. These communities have lived in the area for centuries and have a deep
knowledge of the forest and its flora and fauna.
Eravikulam National Park gets a fernarium
Fernarium:
● A fernarium is a specialized greenhouse or botanical garden that is devoted to the cultivation and
study of ferns. It is a facility where ferns and their close relatives, such as mosses and liverworts, are
grown, displayed and studied.
● Fernariums are designed to create the ideal conditions for growing ferns, including appropriate
levels of humidity, temperature, light, and ventilation. They typically have a variety of specialized
equipment, such as misting systems, humidifiers, and shading devices, to maintain these conditions.
● Fernariums are important resources for the study of ferns and their ecology, as they provide a
controlled environment for experimentation and observation. They also serve as centers for
conservation efforts, as many fern species are threatened or endangered due to habitat destruction
and other human activities.
● Fernariums are popular tourist attractions, as they provide an opportunity for visitors to see and
learn about a diverse range of fern species from around the world.
Ferns
● A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta) is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with
xylem and phloem).
● They are some of the oldest plants on Earth, having first appeared more than 300 million years ago.
There are over 10,000 known species of ferns, which are found in a wide variety of habitats around
the world, from tropical rainforests to arid deserts and from sea level to high altitudes.
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● They grow naturally in a soilless condition. The plants obtain water and nutrients through
leaching from trees.
● Ferns have a unique life cycle that includes both sexual and asexual reproduction. The sexual
reproductive phase involves the production of spores, which are dispersed by wind or water and
grow into new plants. The asexual reproductive phase involves the growth of rhizomes, which are
underground stems that produce new leaves and roots.
● Ferns are unique among plants in that they do not have flowers or seeds. Instead, they reproduce
by means of spores, which are produced in structures called sporangia.
● Ferns are important plants in many ecosystems, providing food and shelter for a variety of
animals. They also play a role in soil conservation, as their deep root systems help to stabilize soil
and prevent erosion. Many fern species have medicinal properties and are used in traditional
medicine to treat a variety of ailments.
Ennore Creek:
● It is a backwater located in Ennore, Chennai along the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal.
● It is located in the zone comprising lagoons with salt marshes and backwaters, submerged under
water during high tide and forming an arm of the sea with the opening to the Bay of Bengal at the
creek.
● Once a flourishing mangrove swamp, the creek has been degraded to patches in the fringes mainly
due to human activities in the region.
● The depth of the creek varies from 1 to 2 m and is shallow near the mouth.
● The north–south trending channels of the creek connect it with the Pulicat Lake to the north and to
the distributaries of the Kosasthalaiyar River in the south.
Kosasthalaiyar river:
● It originates near Pallipattu in Thiruvallur district and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
● Its northern tributaryNagari River originates in the Chitoor district of Andhra Pradesh and joins the
main river in the backwaters of Poondi reservoir.
● Its catchment area is spread over Vellore, Chitoor, North Arcot, Thiruvallur and Chennai districts.
● It branches near Kesavaram Anicut and this tributary flows to the Chennai city as Cooum River, while
the main river flows to the Poondi reservoir.
● From Poondi reservoir it joins the sea at Ennore Creek.
Kamaraj Port in Ennore:
● Earlier known as the Ennore Port, is the 12th major port of India.
● It is located on the Coromandel Coast about 24 km north of Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
● It is the only corporatized major port in India and is registered as a company.
● The port was declared as a major port under the Indian Ports Act, 1908 in March 1999.
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GoMBR):
● Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve is a protected area located in the southeastern coast of India, in
the state of Tamil Nadu.
● The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve includes a marine national park, 21 islands, and the adjacent
coral reefs.
● The area is known for its high marine biodiversity and is home to many threatened species, including
the sea cow (dugong) and various species of sea turtles.
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● Apart from the marine ecosystem, the reserve also includes several terrestrial ecosystems such as
mangroves, forests, and grasslands. The reserve is home to many endemic plant species, including
the mangrove palm and the sea hibiscus.
● The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve has been recognized by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site, and a
Ramsar Wetland of International Importance.
● It is the first Marine Biosphere Reserve in South and SouthEast Asia.
Great Nicobar project
Concept :
● Citing a “strategic” imperative, the Union Home Ministry wanted the 8.45-square-km airport
component of the Great Nicobar Development project to be kept confidential.
● However, the Environment Ministry, in an unprecedented move, has withheld all discussions on the
forest clearance to the entire 166.10-sq km project recommended by the statutory Forest Advisory
Committee (FAC) in which the airport falls.
About Great Nicobar Development project
Forest Advisory Committee
● A “greenfield city” has been proposed, • Forest Advisory Committee is a statutory body constituted
including under the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980.
• It comes under the administrative control of the Ministry
o An International Container
of Environment, Forests & Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
Transshipment Terminal (ICTT), • It is an apex body tasked with adjudicating requests by the
o A greenfield international airport, industry to raze forest land for commercial gains.
• It considers questions on the diversion of forest land for
o A power plant, and non-forest uses such as mining, industrial projects,
townships.
o A township for the personnel
• It also advises the government on the issue of granting
who will implement the project. forest clearances. However, its role is advisory.
● Some 130 sq km of forests have been • Every proposal involving more than 40 hectares of forest
land are referred to the Central Government to the Forest
sanctioned for diversion, and 9.64 lakh Advisory Committee (FAC).
trees are likely to be felled. • FAC may also suggest any condition or restrictions on the
use of any forest land for any non-forest purpose, which in
● The port will be controlled by the Indian its opinion, would minimize adverse environmental impact.
Navy, while the airport will have dual • The MoEF&CC may grant approval after considering the
military-civilian functions and will cater advice of the FAC.
• FAC is headed by Director General of Forests, Ministry of
to tourism as well. Environment and Forests as Chairperson and 3 other
● Roads, public transport, water supply officials.
and waste management facilities, and • It also contains three non-official members who are experts
one each in Mining, Civil Engineering and Development
several hotels have been planned to Economics.
cater to tourists.
Concerns: Environmental impact & mitigation
Flora:
● Due to this project, island will loss 12 to 20 hectares of mangrove cover, which will be compensated
by afforestation in Haryana’s Aravallis as per rules which allow for such remote compensatory
afforestation.
Corals:
● To mitigate the risk of loss of corals, the corals will be translocated in the reefs around the island.
Fauna:
● The project area within a 10 km radius of Galthea Bay is ecologically sensitive zone and home of
rare fauna such as Leatherback Sea Turtles, salt water crocodile, Nicobar macaque.
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● To mitigate the risk, the Indian MoEFCC’s Expert Appraisal Committee has proposed three
conservation sites for fauna – Little Nicobar, Menchal Island and Meroe Island.
● People:
● This project will increase the population to over 3.5 lakh (350,000), which may cause a threat to the
indigenous communities.
● Around 1761 inhabitants, including indigenous Shompen people and Nicobarese communities of
this island, are likely to be affected by this project.
● 853 square kilometers of this island is designated as tribal reserve under the Andaman and Nicobar
Protection of Aboriginal Tribes Regulation, 1956.
● This means that the land is meant for exclusive use of the community and others cannot access the
area without their express permission.
● Around 10% of tribal reserve of the island will be affected by this project.
● According to Forest Rights Act, 2006, Shompen people are legal sole authority to preserve the
forest reserve.
Ornamental fish aquaculture to help women in Lakshadweep islands
Concept :
● Community-based ornamental fish aquaculture with the use of local resources is expected to help
women in the Lakshadweep islands take a step towards self-reliance.
● In a first-of-its-kind experiment, about 82 islanders (77 of them being women) have been selected
and they underwent intensive training with technical support from the ICAR-National Bureau of Fish
Genetic Resources (NBFGR).
● The NBFGR maintains a germplasm resource centre for marine ornamental organisms on Agatti
Island for conservation and improving the livelihood sources for the islanders.
● The NBFGR has supplied culture devices such as rearing tubs, aeration tubes, mini blowers, hand
nets, feed, beneficial bacteria, and seeds of shrimps and clownfish.
Ornamental Fish Farming

● The culture of ornamental fishes is called as aquaculture.
● Ornamental fish culture is the culture of attractive, colourful fishes of various characteristics, which
are reared in a confined aquatic system.
● Farmers and hobbyists mainly grow it. Ornamental fishes are also known as living jewels.
● There are more than 30,000 fish species reported around the world, of this about 800 belong to
ornamental fishes.
● Most of the ornamental fishes survive in freshwater.
● They come under eight closely related families namely, Anabantidae, Callichthyidae, Characidae,
Cichlidae, Cobitidae, Cyprinodontidae, Cyprinidaeand Poeciliidae
● Ornamental fishes of India are contributing about 1% of the total ornamental fish trade.
● The ornamental species are categorized into indigenous and exotic. Availability of a vast number of
native species has contributed significantly to the development of ornamental fish industry in the
country.
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● North-eastern states, West Bengal, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu are blessed with potential indigenous
species. About 90% of native species (85% are from
northeast India) are collected and reared to meet
export demand.
● Kerala, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal mainly practice
ornamental fish farming in India.
● It consists of three major islands. They are ,
o Amindivi Islands (consisting of six main islands
of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat, Bitra and
Perumul Par). [don’t have to remember all
these names]
o Laccadive Islands (consisting of five major
islands of Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and
Suheli Par) and
● Minicoy Island.
o At present these islands are collectively known as Lakshadweep.
o The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 25 small islands.
o They are widely scattered about 200-500 km south-west of the Kerala coast.
o Amendivi Islands are the northern most while the Minicoy island is the southernmost.
● All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll}
● They are surrounded by fringing reefs.
● The largest and the most advanced is Lakshadweep Islands the Minicoy island with an area of 4.53 sq
km.
● Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five metre above sea level
(Extremely Vulnerable to sea level change).
● Their topography is flat and relief features such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are absent.
Baghjan blowout: NGT directs Assam government to pay aid to affected families
Context:
● The National Green Tribunal (NGT)’s principal bench ordered the Assam government to disburse
interim compensation to the victims of Baghjan oil and gas leak that displaced close to 9,000 people
in 2020 in Tinsukia district of Assam.
Baghjan oil and gas leak- 2020:
● The 2020 Assam gas and oil leak, also referred as the Baghjan gas leak, is a natural gas blowout that
happened in Oil India Limited's Baghjan Oilfield in Tinsukia district, Assam, India on 27 May 2020.
● It also impacted the fragile ecology of the villages situated close to DibruSaikhowa National Park
and Maguri-Motapung Wetland.
● NGT appointed a committee led by Justice (retired) BP Katakey to investigate the leak, which
revealed many violations of environmental laws deeming the entire Baghjan oil and gas field as
illegal in November 2020.
Dibru- Saikhowa National Park:
● Located in Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, Assam, India.
55
● It was designated a Biosphere Reserve in July 1997.
● It is located at about 12 km (7.5 mi) north of Tinsukia town at an average elevation of 118 m (387 ft),
ranging from 110 to 126 m (361 to 413 ft).
● The park is bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers in the north and Dibru River in the south.
● It mainly consists of moist mixed semi-evergreen forests, moist mixed deciduous forests,
canebrakes and grasslands.
● It is the largest salix swamp forest in north-eastern India, with a tropical monsoon climate with a
hot and wet summer and cool and usually dry winter.
● Annual rainfall ranges from 2,300 to 3,800 mm (91 to 150 Maguri-Motapung Wetland:
• Maguri-Motapung Beel is a wetland
in). and lake located near to Dibru-
● It is a haven for many endangered species and rich in fish Saikhowa National Park and
Motapung Village of Tinsukia district
diversity. in Assam.
● In December 2020, Gauhati high court stayed a permission • MaguriMotapung Beel serve as a
natural home to wildlife and provides
given to Oil India Limited for hydrocarbon exploration at a source of livelihood to the local
seven locations inside the protected area. communities.
● Species in the park:
o Species include Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, clouded leopard, jungle cat, sloth bear, dhole,
small Indian civet, Malayan giant squirrel, Chinese pangolin, Ganges dolphin, slow loris, pig
tailed macaque, Assamese macaque, rhesus macaque, capped langur, Hoolock gibbon, Asian
elephant, wild boar, Sambar deer, hog deer, barking deer, Asiatic water buffalo, and feral
horse.
o The park is one of the few places in the world which is home to feral horses.
A treasure trove: field notes from the forests of Arunachal Pradesh
Context:
● A book More Than Just Footnotes: Field Assistants in Wildlife Research and Conservation is written
by Ambika Aiyadurai, an anthropologist who teaches at the Indian Institute of Technology,
Gandhinagar, and Mamata Pandya, an independent writer and editor.
Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary:
● Located in the Upper Dibang Valley district.
● As the sanctuary lies in the Indo-Chinese transition zone, the flora and fauna of this region is highly
endemic and significant. There are over 130 species of birds, and various types of snakes. Some
endangered species are the Mishmi takin, the Asiatic black bear, Musk deer and the Blyth’s
tragopan.
o The Mishmi takin (Budorcastaxicolortaxicolor) is an endangered goat-antelope native to
India, Myanmar and the People's Republic of China. It is a subspecies of takin.
o The Mishmi takin lives in Northeast India and eats bamboo and willow shoots. It has an oily
coat to protect it from the fog. Takin is the national animal of Bhutan.
● There are extensive tracts of primary forests —the density of population is very low — and the region
is rich in biodiversity. There are at least 25 species of mammals like the clouded leopard, wild dog,
the Asiatic black bear and the small clawed otter, and more than 240 species of birds.
● Type of cultivation undertaken in the region is known as Swidden agriculture, or shifting cultivation
or jhum cultivation, refers to the technique of rotational farming in which land is cleared for
cultivation (normally by fire) and then left to regenerate for a few years.
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● Subsistence crops like rice, millets and vegetables are grown, and Swidden cultivation intricately
binds the forest communities to their cultural identity.
● The Adi people celebrate at least 13 festivals related to shifting cultivation.
● Jemeithang valley is about four hours from Tawang and home to the Monpa tribe.
Kamlang Tiger Reserve:
● Located in Arunachal Pradesh.
● Kamlang is contiguous to the Namdhapa Tiger Reserve.
● It is home to all four big cats (tiger, leopard, clouded leopard and snow leopard).
● The Kamlang Tiger Reserve has several species of hornbills. Rufous-necked hornbills are common
and Wreathed hornbills visit in the winters. The Glaw Lake, considered sacred by the Mishmis.
Pakke tiger reserve:
● Pakke Tiger Reserve, is a Project Tiger reserve in the East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh in
Northeast India.
● It is bounded by Bhareli or Kameng River in the west and north, and by Pakke River in the east.
● The main perennial streams in the area are the Nameri, Khari and Upper Dikorai. West of Kameng
River are Sessa Orchid Sanctuary and Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary.
● It was known as Pakhui Tiger Reserve, but renamed in April 2001 by the Governor of Arunachal
Pradesh. It has won India Biodiversity Award 2016 in the category of 'Conservation of threatened
species' for its Hornbill Nest Adoption Programme.
Indigenous tribes of Arunachal Pradesh:
● Kman Mishmis, Nyishi, Monpa, Apatani or Tani, Adi people and Tangshang people or Tangsa Naga
are some of the 26 indigenous tribes of Arunachal Pradesh.
Arunachal Pradesh’s Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival gears up for its 9th Edition
Context:
● The 9th edition of the Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival (PPHF), a state festival of Arunachal Pradesh,
will take place at Seijosa in the PakkeKessang district from January 18-20, 2024.
About Pakke Paga Hornbill Festival (PPHF):
● The festival focuses on wildlife conservation, with a particular emphasis on hornbills.
● The first-ever PPHF was held on January 16-18, 2015.
o The area is also home to the Nyishi, the largest tribal group in Arunachal Pradesh.
● The aim was to recognise the role played by the Nyishi in conserving hornbills in PTR. The Nyishi had
formerly hunted hornbills and used their bills to craft traditional headgear. They had later turned
hornbill conservationists.
● Other objectives were to raise alternative sources of income for the region and to create awareness
in the rest of India about the wonders of PTR and its surrounding areas.
● This year, the festival’s theme is DomutohDomutoh, Paga hum Domutoh.
● It translates to ‘Let Our Hornbills Remain’ in the Nyishi language.
● This year’s festival aims to underscore the critical need for preserving these iconic birds.
About Hornbill bird:
● Hornbills are birds found in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Melanesia of the family
Bucerotidae.
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● They are characterized by a long, down-curved bill which is frequently brightly coloured and
sometimes has a horny casque on the upper mandible.
● Hornbills have a two-lobed kidney.
● They are the only birds in which the first and second neck vertebrae (the atlas and axis respectively)
are fused together; this probably provides a more stable platform for carrying the bill.
● The family is omnivorous, feeding on fruit and small animals.
● They are monogamous breeders nesting in natural cavities in trees and sometimes cliffs.
● In the Neotropical realm, toucans occupy the hornbills' ecological niche, an example of convergent
evolution.
● Despite their close appearances, the two groups are not very closely related, with toucans being
allied with the woodpeckers, honeyguides and several families of barbet, while hornbills (and their
close relatives the ground hornbills) are allied with the hoopoes and wood-hoopoes.
Kaziranga sanctuary reopens with tribute to British era officer
Section: Protected areas
Context:
• Named after Patrick D. Stracey, the library was inaugurated on Sunday. Stracey, who was born
in Andhra Pradesh’s Kakinada, served as an Indian Forest Service officer in Assam.
He played a key role in renaming the Kaziranga Game Sanctuary as a wildlife sanctuary in 1950. He
also established the Assam Forest School, a training institute catering to the northeastern region.
Rare golden tiger snapped in Kaziranga
Context:
• Gaurav Ramnarayanan, a wildlife photographer from Coimbatore, captured a rare golden tiger in Kaziranga National Park
on January 24.
About Genetic Study by Researchers:
• The golden appearance results from a genetic variant or mutation, with the absence of black pigmentation and faded
orange colour.
About Golden Tiger (Kazi 106 F)
• Kazi 106 F Golden Tiger, a tigress in Kaziranga National Park, Assam, is also known as the 'Tabby tiger' or 'Strawberry
tiger.'
• Tigers typically have orange-yellow skin with black stripes and a whitish abdominal region.
• The tigress's colour variation is influenced by agouti and tabby genes, which control the yellow background and black
stripes respectively, affecting the expression of pigments in her fur.
About Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary

● Location: It is located in the State of Assam and covers 42,996 hectares (ha). It is the single largest
undisturbed and representative area in the Brahmaputra Valley floodplain.
● Legal Status:
o It was declared as a National Park in 1974.
o It has been declared a tiger reserve since 2007. It has a total tiger reserve area of 1,030 sq
km with a core area of 430 sq. km.
● International Status:
o It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.
o It is recognized as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International.
● Important Species Found:
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oIt is the home of the world's most one-horned rhinos. Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary has the
highest density of one-horned rhinos in the world and second highest number of Rhinos in
Assam after Kaziranga National Park.
o Much of the focus of conservation efforts in Kaziranga are focused on the 'big four'
species— Rhino, Elephant, Royal Bengal tiger and Asiatic water buffalo.
o The 2018 census had yielded 2,413 rhinos and approximately 1,100 elephants.
o As per the figures of tiger census conducted in 2014, Kaziranga had an estimated 103 tigers,
the third highest population in India after Jim Corbett National Park (215) in Uttarakhand
and Bandipur National Park (120) in Karnataka.
● Rivers and Highways:
o National Highway 37 passes through the park area.
o The park also has more than 250 seasonal water bodies, besides the Diphlu River running
through it.
Census records a 27% increase in waterbirds in Kaziranga

Context:
• The Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve have recorded a 27% increase in the number of
resident and winter migratory waterbirds.
• It was the fifth waterbird census conducted through the citizen scientist initiative.
About Kaziranga National Park:
• Located in the Golaghatand Nagaon districts of the state of Assam, India.
• The park, which hosts two-thirds of the world's Indian rhinoceroses, is a UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
• With its unique terrestrial and aquatic habitats, Kaziranga is one of the best-protected areas in the
world.
• Apart from being the home of the Big Five mammals — rhino, tiger, elephant, Asiatic water buffalo,
and eastern swamp deer — the park sustains more than 500 avian species.
• Kaziranga is a vast expanse of tall elephant grass,marshland, and dense tropical moist broadleaf
forests, crisscrossed by four major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, which bisects the park. Other
rivers are: Dhansiri, Difloo, and Laokhowa Suti.
• More than 50% of its landmass under grasslands is dotted with waterbodies, locally known as bells.
• Listed as ‘Important Bird Area’ by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and BirdLife
International.
• Notable wetlands adjoining the tiger reserve that recorded significant bird presence are Hukuma
Beel (3049 individuals), JoysagarDoloni (1765), Gonak Beel (973), Sahala Beel (424), and Sisubari
Beel (348).
• Key avian species in Kaziranga:
• Bengal florican, swamp francolin, and various species of raptors, vultures, and waterfowl.
• It has the highest concentration of ‘Bengal florican’ after the Manas and Orang National
Parks.
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Roots connect a Meghalaya village
Living root bridge:
● Living root bridges or Jing Kieng Jri are the aerial bridges that are built by weaving and manipulating
the roots of the Indian rubber tree.
● A living root bridge is like a suspension bridge formed by guiding the pliable roots of the rubber
fig tree (Ficus elastica) across a stream or river and allowing the roots to grow and strengthen
over time.
● They have been serving as connectors for generations in the Indian state of Meghalaya.
● A root bridge uses traditional tribal knowledge to train the roots of the Indian rubber tree (found
in abundance in the area) to grow laterally across a stream bed resulting in a living bridge of roots.
● It spans between 15 and 250 feet and is built over centuries.
● They are on the tentative list of UNESCO’s World Heritage sites.
● They have also become world-famous tourist attractions. The two most popular tourist spots are-
1. Riwai Root Bridge
2. Umshiang Double Decker Bridge.
● There are no records to suggest when the Khasi community started the living root bridge tradition,
but ecologists say it highlights the symbiotic relationship between people and nature. Many bridges
across the State are over a century old.
● Over 70 living root bridges (LRBs) thrive in the state’s mountainous rainforests in one of the world’s
wettest regions – evidence of an enduring relationship between a pollinator, seed dispersers and
indigenous communities.
Properties of Living Roots Bridge:
● They have three main Ficus Trees
properties: • Keystone role in nature.
• They hold the ecosystem together and promote
1. They are elastic, biodiversity around them.
2. The roots easily combine, • They are hospitable to birds and bats (seed-dispersing
animals) that feed on their fruits.
and
• They stabilise the soil with their root system and prevent
3. The plants grow in rough landslides.
and rocky soils. • Meghalaya government Draft Guidelines for Protection of
Living Root Bridge:
Process of constructing a living root • Underpinned by science-based approaches and
bridge: community participation.
• Zone-based conservation and a responsible development
● The structure of the bridge is approach for regulating activities, including tourism. For
entirely made from tree example, the proposed Zone I suggest declaring at least
approximately 30 meters from the core LRB structure as a
branches, trunks, and roots.
protected area.
● The process begins with placing • Determine the gene pool of both the trees and of the
young pliable aerial roots Ficus pollinators (eg. fig wasp pollinator).
• Raise awareness levels among tourists and students about
Elastica trees in hollowed-out the root bridges.
trunks of the Areca Catechu • The guidelines also emphasise forming Village Cooperative
tree (type of palm tree). Societies for inclusion of all stakeholders, ensuring an
equitable profit-sharing model, and nurturing sustainable
● These trunks provide essential livelihoods
nutrition and protection from • Engage local communities in monitoring the biodiversity in
the LRB ecosystem.
the weather to the young
roots and also serve as a root
guidance system.
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● This is supported by a bamboo framework along with the entire structure.
● Over time, as the aerial roots increase in strength and thickness, the Areca Catechu trunks are no
longer required.
● Dead load in the form of stones, timber planks, leaves, and soil is added to plug gaps and to weight
test the living root structure.
● Meghalaya’s humid climate and pedestrian movement along the bridge contribute to soil/dead load
compaction.
● Over time (15 to 30 years), the root structure becomes strong enough to support substantial weight
without the bamboo framework.
● Unlike the concrete bridges, Living Root bridges become stronger and more resistant with time and
use.
Learnings from such heritage:
● Sights like the Living Root bridges showcase the skilled craftmanship of tribes of India and their self-
sufficient approach towards life.
● Future generations derive inspiration from these ancient techniques and strive for embracing a
greener future.
Namdapha national park:
Geography
● It is the largest protected area in the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot and is located in
the Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh near the international border with Myanmar. It is
India’s easternmost tiger reserve.
● Located between Dapha Bum ridge of Mishmi Hills, of North Eastern Himalayas and Patkai Ranges.
● It lies in close proximity to the Indo-Myanmar-China trijunction.
● It falls within the geographical sub-tropical zone and enjoys the sub-tropical climate.
● The Noa-Dihing River, a tributary of the great Brahmaputra River, flows westwards through the
middle of Namdapha.
Biodiversity:
● It is only park in the World to have the four Feline species of big cat namely the Tiger, Leopard,
Snow Leopard and Clouded Leopard and numbers of Lesser cats.
● Hoolock Gibbons (Hylobates Hoolock), a highly endangered and only ‘ape’ species found in India is
found in this national park.
● The park is also famous for critically endangered species like the Namdapha flying squirrel.
Saving India’s only ape, the hoolock gibbon
In the news:
● The Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary (HGS), a habitat of the endangered Western hoolock gibbon in
Assam, is fragmented by a railway track that goes through the sanctuary.
● At HGS, the gibbon population comprising 125 individuals (in 26 groups) inhabits an area that is
fragmented by the Mariani-Dibrugarh railway line that is currently unelectrified.
● Mariani-Dibrugarh railway line is a part of the Lumding-Dibrugarh broad gauge railway section.
Hollangapar Gibbon Sanctuary:
● Formerly known as the Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary or Hollongapar Reserved Forest.
● It is an isolated protected area of evergreen forest located in Assam, India.
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● Initially in 1881, its forests used to extend to the foothills of the Patkai mountain range.
● Since then, the forest has been fragmented and surrounded by tea gardens and small villages. In the
early 1900s,artificial regeneration was used to develop a well-stocked forest, resulting in the site's
rich biodiversity.
● It contains India's only gibbons – the hoolock gibbons, and Northeastern India's only nocturnal
primate – the Bengal slow loris.
● In addition to the gibbon, the HGS is home to six other primate species, making it an area with the
highest biodiversity of primate species of any Protected Area in the country.
● Western hoolock gibbon is the flagship species of the HGS.
● The upper canopy of the forest is dominated by the hollong tree (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus), while
the nahar (Mesua ferrea) dominates the middle canopy. The lower canopy consists of evergreen
shrubs and herbs.
● The habitat is threatened by illegal logging, encroachment of human settlements, and habitat
fragmentation.
About Suhelwa WLS:
● Suhelwa Sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary located in Balrampur, Gonda and Sravasti districts of the
state of Uttar Pradesh in India.
● It covers an area of 452 square kilometres.
● The main mammals of Suhelwa are Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, sloth bear, antelope and deer.
Other animals include fox, hyena, Indian elephant and wild cat.
Banke National Park:
● It is located in the Lumbini Province and was established in 2010 as Nepal’s tenth national park after
its recognition as a "Gift to the Earth".
● The protected area covers an area of 550 km2 (210 sq mi) with most parts falling on the Churia range.
● Together with the neighboring Bardia National Park, the coherent protected area of 1,518 km2 (586
sq mi) represents the Tiger Conservation Unit (TCU) Bardia-Banke.
Lake Victoria
Section : Places in news
Context: One of the largest lakes in the world, Lake Victoria, has been suffering from a variety of
unsustainable human activities over the last five decades. Delhi-based non-profit Centre for Science and
Environment and National Environment Management Council (NEMC), Tanzania have jointly released a
report on managing its water quality.
About Lake Victoria:
● Lake Victoria is the world’s second largest freshwater
lake by surface area. Findings of the report:
• Mwanza city as a hotspot, contributing
● Its catchment area includes parts of Kenya, Tanzania, a substantial pollution load in the form
Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda. of industrial effluents, domestic sewage
and dumping of solid waste.
● Also referred to as “Darwin’s Dreampond”, the lake is
• It also recognised two rivers,
known for its high levels of unique biodiversity. the Mirongo and the Nyashishi as the
major water bodies carrying domestic
● In terms of volume, Lake Victoria is the world’s ninth-
and industrial pollution loads,
largest continental lake and occupies a shallow respectively.
depression in Africa.
● Threats:
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● IUCN report assessed the global extinction risk of 651 freshwater species, including fishes,
molluscs, dragonflies, crabs, shrimps and aquatic plants native to the Lake Victoria Basin, in East
Africa.
● African Lungfish was declining in the lake basin largely due to overfishing, poor fishing practices
and environmental degradation as wetlands were being converted to agricultural land.
● The purple flowered Water Hyacinth was accidentally introduced to Lake Victoria from South
America in the 1980s, and at its peak covered close to 10 per cent of the lake surface. It reduces
the oxygen and nutrient availability in the water column, which negatively affects native
biodiversity.
● Tanzania has announced that it will establish a Lake Victoria Fisheries Trust Fund (LVTF) to conserve
biological diversity and ensure socio-economic welfare of communities that depend on the lake for
their livelihood.
Central and Eastern Siberian Taiga (CEST):
● This vast ecoregion is located in the heart of Siberia, stretching over 20° of latitude and 50° of
longitude.
● The climate in the CEST is subarctic (the trees growing there are coniferous and deciduous) and
displays high continentality, with extremes ranging from 40
°C (104 °F) to −65 °C (−85 °F) and possibly lower. Protected areas in this
● Winters are long and very cold, but dry, with little snowfall ecoregion include:
1. Stolby Nature Sanctuary
due to the effects of the Siberian anticyclone. Summers are 2. Olyokma Nature Reserve
short, but can be quite warm for the northerly location. 3. Tunguska Nature Reserve
4. Central Siberia Nature
● Precipitation is low, ranging from 200 to 600 millimetres (8 Reserve
to 24 in), decreasing from east to west.
● The topography of this ecoregion is varied, consisting of
wide, flat plains and areas of karst topography.
● In contrast to the neighboring West Siberian taiga, large bogs and wetlands are conspicuously
absent. Some trees also shed their leaves annually, a characteristic of deciduous forests.
Yellowstone National Park
Section: Place in news
Context: Yellowstone Celebrates Its 150th Birthday This March
Yellowstone National Park
● Yellowstone NP is an American national park located in the western United States, largely in the
northwest corner of Wyoming and extending into Montana and Idaho.
● Yellowstone was the first national park in the US and is also widely held to be the first national
park in the world.
● The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful geyser,
one of its most popular.
● While it represents many types of biomes, the subalpine forest is the most abundant. It is part of
the South Central Rockies forest ecoregion.
● The area also represents the one point where the three major river basins of the western U.S.
converge.
● The rivers of the Snake-Columbia basin, Green-Colorado basin, and Missouri River Basin all begin as
snow on the Continental Divide as it weaves across Yellowstone’s peaks and plateaus.
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● Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over
the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcano on the continent.
● The caldera is considered a dormant volcano.
● Well over half of the world’s geysers and hydrothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this
ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of
Yellowstone.
Great Salt Lake won’t go the Aral Sea and Lake Urmia way
Context: Down To Earth speaks to Kevin Perry from the University of Utah on the Great Salt Lake in the
American West.
More on the News:
● United Nations is holding a global water conference in New York City from March 22-24, 2023.
Ironically though, the host of the conference, the United States has been witnessing an ecological
disaster that now seems to be irreversible. The Great Salt Lake, in the US state of Utah, is the largest
saltwater lake in the western hemisphere.
● Great Salt Lake (GSL) is a terminal basin lake that has shrunk dramatically in the last 35 years due to
a combination of climate change, drought, and unsustainable water diversion from tributary
streams.
● The lake elevation has decreased by 17 feet and the surface area of GSL has decreased by more
than half, exposing more than 800 square miles of the lakebed to the atmosphere.
● Strong winds occasionally generate dust plumes from the exposed lakebed which move into the
surrounding communities where more than 2.5 million people reside.
● Utah has received record snow amounts in the mountains this year and the lake has already risen
by 2 feet. The lake will likely rise by an additional two or three feet when the mountain snow melts.
The lake typically loses 2.5 feet of water during the summer due to evaporation. Thus, the net result
of the record-breaking snow year is likely to be an increase of 2 to 2.5 feet.
● The people of Utah have let their leaders know that saving GSL is a priority. Failure to save the lake
will lead to significant economic losses and threats to human health.
Great Salt Lake:
● The Great Salt Lake is located in northern Utah, surrounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east
and the Great Basin Desert to the west.
● The Great Salt Lake is the largest saltwater lake in the Western Hemisphere, covering an area of
approximately 1,700 square miles.
● The Great Salt Lake was formed around 10,000 years ago by the drying up of prehistoric Lake
Bonneville. The lake’s salt content is due to the fact that it has no natural outlets, causing the water
to become concentrated with salt and other minerals.
● The lake’s three major tributaries, the Jordan, Weber, and Bear rivers
● The Great Salt Lake is extremely salty, with a salinity level of around 12-15%. This makes it one of
the saltiest bodies of water in the world, and the high salt content has created unique ecosystems
and land formations around the lake.
● The Great Salt Lake is an important economic resource for the state of Utah, providing opportunities
for mineral extraction, salt production, and recreation. The lake is also a popular tourist destination,
with several state parks and wildlife refuges located around its shores.
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● The Great Salt Lake is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including several species of migratory
birds, such as the American avocet and the western sandpiper. The lake also supports a number of
brine shrimp and brine fly populations, which are important food sources for birds and other wildlife.
● Environmental concerns: The Great Salt Lake is facing several environmental challenges,
including water diversions, climate change, and pollution from human activities such as mining and
agriculture. These issues have led to declining water levels and ecosystem degradation.
Aral Sea
● The Aral Sea, once the world's fourth-largest lake, began shrinking in the 1960s due to Soviet
Union intervention.
● The Soviet Union diverted two major rivers to irrigate farmland, cutting off the lake from its water
sources.
● By the 2010s, the Aral Sea had substantially dried up, marking a severe decline.
● Positioned between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the name "Aral" translates to "Sea of Islands,"
reflecting the numerous islands that once existed within its waters.
● The Aral Sea drainage basin covers territories in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, and Iran.
Lake Urmia:
• Lake Urmia in northwestern Iran is the Middle East's largest permanent hypersaline lake, stretching up to 140 km
north to south and 85 km east to west at its peak.
• Recognized as a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention in 1971 and a UNESCO Biosphere
Reserve in 1976, Lake Urmia boasts unique biodiversity. It harbors the Artemia urmiana brine shrimp and supports
diverse wildlife like reptiles, amphibians, and mammals in its surrounding habitats.
• The lake serves as crucial seasonal habitat for about 200 migrating bird species, including pelicans, egrets, ducks, and
flamingos.
• Beyond its ecological significance, Lake Urmia's watershed is vital for agriculture.
Credit Suisse-Ecuador deal for Galapagos conservation

Concept:
● Ecuador has committed to spending millions of dollars annually for 20 years to protect one of the
world’s most precious ecosystems, after the Swiss bank bought bonds at less than half of their
original value.
● And in return, Ecuador’s government had pledged to spend about $18 million annually for two
decades on conservation in the Galapagos Islands.
About Galapagos Islands:
● It is an archipelago of volcanic islands.
● It belongs to the Republic of Ecuador that lies 926 km to the east.
● The islands are located in the eastern Pacific Ocean, 973 km off the west coast of South America.
● They are distributed on each side of the equator in the Pacific Ocean, surrounding the centre of the
Western Hemisphere.
● The islands are located at the Galapagos Triple Junction. The Galapagos Triple Junction is a geological
area in the eastern Pacific Ocean several hundred miles west of the Galapagos Islands where three
tectonic plates – the Cocos Plate, the Nazca Plate and the Pacific Plate – meet.
● The archipelago is precisely located on the Nazca Plate (a tectonic plate), which is moving
east/southeast, diving under the South American Plate at a rate of about 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) per year.
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● Mount Azul, at 5,541 feet is the highest point of the Galapagos Islands.
● The islands are well known for their distinctive endemic species, including giant tortoises, finches,
flightless cormorants, Galápagos lava lizards and marine iguanas, which evolved to adapt to
islands’ environments.
● The remote islands — home to some of the most unspoiled nature in the world — are a UNESCO
world nature heritage site, and their animal life was crucial to Charles Darwin’s research before
publishing his theory of evolution.
Why Bhutan's Sakteng wildlife sanctuary is disputed by China

Context:
● China claims for the first time to Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary, which spans about 740 sq km (285 sq
miles) in eastern Bhutan.
Details:
● Bhutan rejected the claim, pointing out the area had never featured in 24 previous rounds of
boundary talks.
● Sakteng national park was never a disputed area and it was always under Bhutanese control. There
is no evidence of any affiliation to China.
● The plateau is of strategic importance to Delhi because it overlooks the Siliguri corridor, known as
the "chicken's neck", a narrow strip of land that connects India's north-eastern states with the rest
of the country.
About the Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary:
● It is a wildlife sanctuary in Bhutan, located in Merak and Sakteng Gewogs of Trashigang District and
just crossing the border into SamdrupJongkhar District.
● It is one of the country's protected areas and is listed as a tentative site in Bhutan's Tentative List
for UNESCO inclusion.
● The sanctuary has three ranges: Merak Range, Sakteng Range, and Joenkhar Range.
● Sakteng Range is the largest range, followed by Merak Range (287.352 sq.km) and Joenkhar Range
(121.442 sq.km).
● The Sakteng sanctuary borders India's Arunachal Pradesh.
Europe’s droughts are affecting tourism

Concept:
● Much of Europe is experiencing persistent drought. From Italy to Spain, holiday makers face
restrictions as a result.
● Sever tourist attractions like Lake Garda in Italy, North of the Alps in Switzerland and Germany,
Rhine River, Font Magica fountain spectacle in Barcelona, island of Mallorca in spain are facing
severe crisis.
Lake Garda:
● It is the largest lake in Italy.
● It is known for its crystal-clear water.
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● The lake and its shoreline are divided between the provinces of Brescia (to the south-west), Verona
(south-east) and Trentino (north).
● Lake Garda has been reduced to its lowest level ever recorded in decades.
● Reason- River Po, Italy’s longest river, have dried up due to scarcity of rainfall in northern Italy.
● To compensate, authorities allowed more water from Lake Garda to flow out to local rivers. This
resulted in drying of the lake.
About Alps:
● The Alps emerged during the Alpine orogeny (mountain-building event), an event that began about
65 million years ago as the Mesozoic Era was drawing to a close.
● Alps are young fold mountains with rugged relief and high conical peaks.
● They are the most prominent of Western Europe’s
physiographic regions. Some 750 miles long and more than 125
miles wide at their broadest point between Garmisch-
Partenkirchen, Germany, and Verona, Italy, the Alps cover
more than 80,000 square miles.
● The Alps extend north from the subtropical Mediterranean
coast near Nice, France, to Lake Geneva before trending east-
northeast to Vienna, Austria.
● There they touch the Danube River and meld with the adjacent
plain.
● Because of their arc like shape, the Alps separate the marine west-coast climates of Europe from the
Mediterranean areas of France, Italy, and the Balkan region.
● Countries Covered:
o The Alps form part of France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Albania.
o Only Switzerland and Austria can be considered true Alpine countries.
Important Peaks:
● Mont Blanc is the highest peak in the Alps and in Europe, reaching a lofty 4,804 meters above sea
level.
● It is located in the Graian Alps and lies within France,
Switzerland, and Italy.
● Other major peaks are Liskamm, Weisshorn, Matterhorn,
Dent Blanche, Grand Combin etc.
Rhine River:
● The Rhine River has a length of about 1,230
km and originates from the southeastern part of the
Swiss Alps in the Canton of Grisons, Switzerland.
● The river then flows northwards through the large Rhine
Valley and forms the international boundary between
Switzerland and Liechtenstein and later the boundary
between Switzerland and Austria.
● The river then finally empties into the North Sea.
● Some of the notable tributaries of the Rhine River include Aare, Tamina, Moselle, Erft, Rein da
Tuma, Plessur, Rotach, and Wiese.
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● The principal cities that are located along the Rhine River include Düsseldorf, Basel, Rotterdam,
Cologne, and Strasbourg.
Can green nudges in online food deliveries lead to lesser pollution? A study conducted in China thinks so
Why in the news?
● A study conducted in collaboration with an online food delivery platform (Eleme) in China found
that making “no disposable cutlery” the default choice for orders and rewarding customers with
“green points” led to a 648% increase in the share of no-cutlery orders. This step could have
significant benefits for the environment.
What are green nudges?
● In behavioral economics, nudges are interventions that influence people’s choices to make certain
decisions without restricting the choices available to them.
● Green nudges are gentle persuasions to influence environment-friendly behaviour in people.
● Nudges have been criticized in the past for being manipulative: they are not always transparent and
can sometimes bank on ignorance or lack of awareness in people to work.
● But researchers working on the study have said that the green nudges that they implemented are
easy to understand and transparent to users.
The purpose of Green Nudge:
● The green nudges were a result of Chinese regulations that prohibited online food delivery platforms
from including SUCs in orders unless explicitly requested.
● In early 2020, China announced ambitious plans to phase out single-use plastics from the country,
beginning with a country-wide ban on single-use straws by the end of the year.
Heat waves to intensify in Madagascar, one of Earth’s richest biodiversity hotspots: WWA study
Context:
● Madagascar has experienced a heat wave at least two months early this year.
Details:
● Madagascar's population, heavily affected by poverty and lacking access to basic amenities, faces
increased health risks due to extreme heat. Malaria cases in Antananarivo are rising as warmer
temperatures expand the mosquito range.
● Madagascar ranks 124th out of 125 countries in the 2023 Global Hunger Index, highlighting alarming
levels of hunger with a score of 41.0.
Geography of Medagascar:
● Madagascar is the world’s fourth-largest island and is second-largest island country, located just off
the western coast of the African mainland in the Indian Ocean.
● Antananarivo is the capital city.
● Madagascar is a global hotspot, home to a vast array of unique plant and animal species found
nowhere else on Earth.
● Mangoky River: One of Madagascar's major rivers, flowing from the central highlands to the
Mozambique Channel, impacting local ecosystems and communities.
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● Around 90% of Madagascar's wildlife is endemic, featuring iconic species like lemurs, fossas,
chameleons, and unique flora such as baobab trees and orchids.
o Lemurs: This primate group is endemic of Madagascar, and are wet-nosed primates of the
superfamily Lemuroidea.
o With over 100 species of lemurs, showcasing a range of sizes, behaviors, and habitats.
● Tsingy de Bemaraha: A unique limestone formation in western Madagascar, characterized by sharp,
needle-like limestone formations.
● Threats to Biodiversity: Deforestation, habitat loss due to agriculture, logging, and illegal wildlife
trade pose significant threats to Madagascar's unique flora and fauna.
Climate crisis: Drought causes mass elephant deaths in Zimbabwe game reserve
Context:
● In the last two months of 2023, over 160 elephants and numerous other wildlife species perished in
Zimbabwe's Hwange National Park due to a severe drought caused by climate change, as reported
by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Authority (ZimParks).
● This drought affected the southern African region and had a significant impact on the park, which
spans 14,600 square kilometres and is home to around 45,000 elephants.
● The drought was influenced by the El Niño weather pattern linked to climate change.
● This prolonged dry spell also caused elephants to migrate from Hwange to neighbouring Botswana
in search of water and food.
About Hwange National Park (formerly Wankie Game Reserve):
● Located in Zimbabwe, is part of the Kavango Zambezi Trans frontier Conservation Area (KAZA-
TFCA), which includes Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
o Hwange National Park is also known for its diverse wildlife, including over 100 mammal and
400 bird species.
o It is the largest natural reserve in Zimbabwe. It lies near to the Victoria falls.
● Unlike other parts of KAZA-TFCA, Hwange National Park lacks perennial rivers or other reliable
natural water sources, making it heavily reliant on 110 solar-powered boreholes for water during
dry seasons.
Severe drought forecast:
● The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicts that an El Niño weather
phenomenon will cause hot, dry weather with little rainfall in the southern African region during
this period.
● This aligns with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's classification of southern Africa
as a region at high risk of climate change, with increased heat and reduced rainfall.
● Zimbabwe Meteorological Services Department reports a significant rise in both daily minimum and
maximum temperatures over the last century, with fewer cold days and more hot days.
Climate change threat to wildlife:
● The International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) emphasizes the need for an integrated approach
to support climate-resilient landscapes and communities.
o In 2019, over 200 elephants in Zimbabwe died due to severe drought.
o IFAW advocates for wildlife conservation as a key solution to climate change at international
forums like COP28.
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● The African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) also stresses the impact of reduced water access on wildlife
and human welfare.
● There is the risk of flash floods and harsh droughts in Africa's industrializing landscapes and the
struggle of smaller species to adapt to reduced rainfall and drying water sources. Larger animals
like buffaloes and antelopes become weakened and easy prey for predators under severe water
shortages.
● Following the devastating drought in 2019,ZimParks and its partners are taking mitigatory measures,
including one of southern Africa's largest wildlife translocation exercises. Over 2,500 animals,
including 400 elephants, are being moved from the arid south to more favourable northern
conservancies. This translocation, a costly last resort, aims to alleviate the impact of climate change
on wildlife in Zimbabwe.
International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW):
● Founded in 1969, in New Brunswick, Canada.
● IFAW is one of the largest animal welfare and conservation charities in the world.
● The organization works to rescue individual animals, safeguard populations, preserve habitat, and
advocate for greater protection.
● Brian Davies founded IFAW.
● IFAW was instrumental in ending the commercial seal hunt in Canada.
● In 1983Europe banned all white coat harp seals products. This ban helped save over 1 million seals.
● IFAW operates in over 40 countries.
● Headquarters: Washington, D.C., United States
Species in News
Second home for Gujarat lions

Context: The Gujarat government has planned to translocate 40 adult and sub-adult lions to the Barda Wildlife
Sanctuary in the state.
More on the News:
● Barda sanctuary, about 100 km away from Gir National Park, has been identified as a potential site to
accommodate the Asiatic Lions.
● Gir and Barda are too geographically close to make the later a solution for creating an alternative lion habitat
in the country.
● Members of the Maldhari community will also have to be relocated along with the big cats as it is important
to restore around 1,000 km of ‘exclusive lion habitat’ under Project Lion through incentivised voluntary
relocation of forest villages.
● Maldharis are local pastoral communities settled within Gir Protected Areas and the Barda WLS. The report
also talks about providing ‘an appropriate rehabilitation package for incentivised relocation’ to the
communities.
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Asiatic lion
• Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) is a sub-species of lion that is found only in the Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife
Sanctuary in Gujarat, India.
• The Asiatic lion is found only in the Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary.
• The Asiatic lion is slightly smaller than its African counterpart, with a distinctive fold of skin on its belly and a shorter, less
bushy mane.
• Conservation Status
o Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule 1
o CITES :Appendix I
o IUCN Red List: Endangered
• The Asiatic lion faces several challenges to its survival, including habitat loss, fragmentation, and human-wildlife conflict.
Project lion
• Project Lion will involve conservation of the Asiatic Lion and its landscape in a holistic manner.
• Listed in Schedule I of Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, in Appendix I of CITES and as Endangered on IUCN Red List.
Kerala to estimate wild elephant and tiger populations

Context: The Kerala Forest department is set to launch surveys to enumerate wild elephant and tiger populations as
part of its efforts to mitigate man-animal conflict in the State.
About Tiger:
● Scientific Name: Panthera tigris
● Indian Sub Species: Panthera tigristigris.
● Habitat:
o Its habitat stretches from Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests on the Indian
subcontinent and Sumatra.
o It is the largest cat species and a member of the genus Panthera.
o Traditionally eight subspecies of tigers have been recognized, out of which three are extinct.
● Bengal Tigers: Indian Subcontinent
● Caspian tiger: Turkey through central and west Asia (extinct).
● Amur tiger: Amur Rivers region of Russia and China, and North Korea
● Javan tiger: Java, Indonesia (extinct).
● South China tiger: South central China.
● Bali tiger: Bali, Indonesia (extinct).
● Sumatran tiger: Sumatra, Indonesia.
● Indo-Chinese tiger: Continental south-east Asia.
● Threats:
o Habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching.
● Protection Status:
o Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I
o International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List: Endangered.
o Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Appendix
I.
71
NTCA:
● Project Tiger has been converted into a Project tiger
statutory authority (NTCA) by providing ● Launched on 1st April 1973 to promote conservation of the
enabling provisions in the Wild Life tiger. Project Tiger has been the largest species
conservation initiative of its kind in the world. While the
(Protection) Act, 1972 through an field implementation of the project, protection and
amendment, viz. Wild Life (Protection) management in the designated reserves is done by the
Amendment Act, 2006. project States, who also provide the matching grant to
recurring items of expenditure, deploy field staff/officers,
● The Authority ensures enforcing of guidelines
and give their salaries, the Project Tiger Directorate of the
for tiger conservation and monitoring Ministry of Environment and Forests was mandated with
compliance of the same. the task of providing technical guidance and funding
support.
● The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act,
● It started tiger conservation with nine reserves – Manas,
2006 has come into force with effect from Palamau, Simlipal, Corbett, Ranthambhore, Kanha,
the 4th of September, 2006, and the NTCA Melghat, Bandipur and Sundarban.
has also been constituted on the same date.
St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation:
● This resolution was adopted In November 2010, by the leaders of 13 tiger range countries (TRCs) assembled
at an International Tiger Forum in St. Petersburg, Russia
● It aimed at promoting a global system to protect the natural habitat of tigers and raise awareness among
people on white tiger conservation.
● The resolution’s implementation mechanism is called the Global Tiger Recovery Program whose overarching
goal was to double the number of wild tigers from about 3,200 to more than 7,000 by 2022.
● 13 Tiger range countries are: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam.
Conservation efforts- National and Global:
● The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) has launched the M-STrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers
– Intensive Protection and Ecological Status), a mobile monitoring system for forest guards.
● At the Petersburg Tiger Summit in 2010, leaders of 13 tiger range countries launched ‘T X 2’.
● The Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) program of the World Bank, using its presence and convening ability, brought
global partners together to strengthen the tiger agenda.
● Over the years, the initiative has institutionalized itself as a separate entity in the form of the Global Tiger
Initiative Council (GTIC), with its two arms –the Global Tiger Forum and the Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem
Protection Program.
India has 3682 tigers, home to 75 percent of global numbers
Context:
● Report: Status of Tigers 2022 was released on International Tigers Day (29 July).
● Apart from the All India Tiger Estimation 2022 report, a report on the reserves and management effectiveness
and evaluation report were also released. Six tiger reserves in the country — Kali, Melghat, Pilibhit,
TadobaAndhari, Navegaon and Periyar — were given CAT awards.
Tiger population in India:
● Tiger census is held every four years in the country.
● The number of tigers in India has increased from 2,967 in 2018 to 3,682 in 2022, an annual rise of 6 per cent.
● According to data analysis done by the Wildlife Institute of India, the upper limit of the tiger population is
estimated to be 3925 and the average number is 3682 tigers.
● Now India has become home to approximately 75 percent of the world’s tiger population.
State wise analysis:
● States where tiger population has increased:
72
o With a 50 per cent increase in the last four years, Madhya Pradesh has the maximum number (785)
of tigers in the country, followed by Karnataka (563), Uttarakhand (560), and Maharashtra (444).
● States where tiger population has decreased:
o States such as Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand have recorded a
dip in the number of majestic cats in
Tiger census 2022
the last few years.
• The national tiger census is conducted once every four years.
o Arunachal Pradesh lost around 70 • The Nation-wide tiger census was earlier held in 2006, 2010,
percent of its tigers — from 29 in 2018 2014, 2018.
to just 9 in 2022. The number of tigers • The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts
tiger censuses in partnership with state forest departments,
dropped from 28 to 20 in Odisha, conservation NGOs, and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII).
from 5 to 1 in Jharkhand, from 19 to Census methodology
17 in Chhattisgarh and from 26 to 21 • Double sampling based on ground-based surveys and actual
in Telangana. images captured on camera-traps.
• Double sampling method was introduced in 2006 after the
o The count dipped from 6 in 2006 to nil
“pugmark” surveys were found to be inaccurate.
in 2022 in Mizoram and from 10 in • In the 2018 census, 83% of the big cats census were
2006 to just 2 in 2022 in northern individually photographed using camera traps.
West Bengal.
o Nagaland also does not have
any tigers now. Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards (CA|TS)
• CA|TS has been agreed upon as an accreditation tool by the global
Status of tiger reserves: coalition of Tiger Range Countries (TRCs) and has been developed by
● Approximately, 35 percent of the 53 tiger and protected area experts.
• Officially launched in 2013, it sets minimum standards for effective
tiger reserves in India urgently require
management of target species and encourages the assessment of
enhanced protection measures, habitat these standards in relevant conservation areas.
restoration, ungulate augmentation, • CA|TS is a set of criteria that allows tiger sites to check if their
and subsequent tiger reintroduction. management will lead to successful tiger conservation.
• The Global Tiger Forum (GTF), an international NGO working on
● The number of tigers “within the tiger
tiger conservation, and World Wildlife Fund India are the two
reserve” is highest in Corbett (260), implementing partners of the National Tiger Conservation Authority
followed by Bandipur (150),Nagarhole for CATS assessment in India.
(141), Bandhavgarh (135), Dudhwa • The 14 tiger reserves which have been accredited are:
(135), Mudumalai(114), Kanha (105), 1. Manas, Kaziranga and Orang in Assam,
2. Satpura, Kanha and Panna in Madhya Pradesh,
Kaziranga (104), Sundarbans (100),
3. Pench in Maharashtra,
Tadoba (97), Sathyamangalam (85), 4. Valmiki Tiger Reserve in Bihar,
and Pench-MP (77). 5. Dudhwa in Uttar Pradesh,
● Eighteen tiger reserves have less than 6. Sunderbans in West Bengal,
7. Parambikulam in Kerala,
10 big cats left. 8. Bandipur Tiger Reserve of Karnataka and
o These are Ranipur in Uttar 9. Mudumalai and Anamalai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu
Pradesh; Achanakmar, • Six newly added tiger reserves are:
Indravati and UdantiSitanadi in 1. Kali Tiger Reserve, Karnataka
2. Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra
Chhattisgarh; Palamau in 3. Pilibhit tiger reserve, Uttar Pradesh
Jharkhand; Bor and Sahyadri in 4. TadobaAndhari Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra
Maharashtra;Satkosia in 5. Navegaon tiger reserve, Maharashtra
Odisha; Mukundara and 6. Periyar tiger reserve, Kerala
Ramgarh Vishdhari in Rajasthan;Kawal in Telangana;KalakadMundanthurai in Tamil Nadu;Nameri in
Assam;Dampa in Mizoram;Pakke, Kamlang and Namdapha in Arunachal Pradesh and Buxa in West
Bengal.
Regional analysis of tiger population:
● Shivalik hills and Gangetic Plains landscape:
o Experienced a significant surge: 804 unique tigers have been photographed in these regions,
surpassing the estimated 646 population in 2018.
● Western Ghats:
73
o Witnessed a decrease in tiger occupancy, except for a few areas like Kali (AnshiDandeli), where the
number of unique tigers remains stable.
o Reason for decline: increasing human footprint and development.
● Northeastern hills and Brahmaputra Plains landscape:
o While the number of distinctive tigers decreased to 194 from the estimated 219 in 2018, the report
assured that the tiger population in the region is still “secure”.
● Central India:
o Seen an increase in the tiger population, with 1,161 tigers photographed compared to the estimated
1,033 in 2018.
o While this expansion of tiger habitats is positive, urgent attention and conservation efforts are
required in areas including reserves like Kawal, Satkosia, and Sahyadri, to prevent the extinction of
small populations and mitigate human-tiger interactions.
● Sundarbans:
o 100 tigers were captured on camera in 2022 compared to 88 in 2018.
o The population remains steady, but there is limited potential for range extension.
o To preserve the ecological integrity of the Sundarbans, the cross-border collaboration and knowledge
exchange between India and Bangladesh is needed.
Periyar Tiger Reserve gets top rank in management review
Section: Paces in news
Context: Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala is the best-maintained of all tiger reserves in the country, according to the
5th cycle of Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) carried out by the Centre.
More on the News:
● Periyar reserve has obtained an MEE score of 94.3%, it is followed closely by the Satpura Tiger Reserve in
Madhya Pradesh, Bandipur in Karnataka and Nagarhole in Karnataka.
● The government has been using the MEE to assess tiger reserves across the country since its inception in 2006.
Management Effectiveness Evaluation
● MEE is a methodology used to evaluate the effectiveness of protected areas and their management. The
MEE is carried out to assess the strengths and weaknesses of a protected area management system and to
identify areas that need improvement.
● The MEE is conducted by a team of experts who review the management practices of the protected area and
determine how well they are achieving the objectives of the protected area.
● The MEE methodology was developed by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and has been widely
adopted by many countries around the world. The MEE is conducted using a set of standard criteria that are
used to evaluate the management of the protected area.
● There are 30 ”Headline Indicators” developed under six elements of MEE framework suitable in Indian
context for evaluation.
● The MEE process involves a site visit to the protected area by the evaluation team, who meet with the
protected area management staff, local communities, and other stakeholders. The team reviews documents,
conducts interviews, and visits key sites within the protected area to assess its management effectiveness.
● The results of the MEE are used to develop action plans to improve the management of the protected area.
The MEE also provides a baseline for monitoring and evaluating the progress of management improvements
over time.
● At present, the country has 998 Protected Areas – including 106 National Parks, 567 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 105
Conservation Reserves and 220 Community Reserves — covering 1,73,629 sq km or 5.28% of India’s
geographical area.
74
● Of these 53 tiger reserves, however, only 51, covering a total area of 73,765 sq km, were evaluated as two
newly declared tiger reserves, Ramgarh Visdhari and Ranipur, have not been included in the current cycle of
MEE.
Tigers struggle to move within Nepal even as they cross borders: study
Context:
● Tigers in Nepal are increasingly isolated in protected areas and facing difficulties moving within the country
due to human activities and habitat fragmentation.
Details:
● Suhelwa Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh which borders Nepal is the new habitat of tigers of that region.
● Tigers move from here to Banke National Park of Nepal.
● Both the countries, India and Nepal, adopted the landscape-based approach in the early 2000s to save the
Tigers in the Terai ARC Landscape (TAL), a flatland region along the Ganges and its tributaries.
● Presently Nepal has 355 wild Tigers.
● Domestic corridors in the Siwalik hills could connect the tiger populations and increase their genetic diversity
and viability.
● Conservationists recommend involving community forest user groups and implementing wildlife-friendly
infrastructure guidelines to manage and protect the domestic corridors.
Concern:
● The habitat destruction due to various causes include:
o Construction of east-west highway across India and Nepal
o Deforestation
o Development of new settlements
o Mining activities
● The tiger habitat in the ARC region confined to Chitwan and Parsa in the east and Banke-Bardiya and
Shuklaphanta in the west.
● All this has reduced the genetic diversity of tigers.
● Tiger Reserves in India
o Total Number: 53 according to NTCA.
● Largest: NagarjunsagarSrisailam Tiger Reserve, Andhra Pradesh on the basis of core area.
● Smallest: Orang tiger reserve in Assam on the basis of core area.
White Tiger
Context: White tiger cubs Avani & Vyom released for public viewing at Delhi Zoo.
White Tiger:
● The white tiger or bleached tiger is a leucistic pigmentation variant of the Bengal tigers, Siberian Tiger and
man-made hybrids between the two
● They are reported in the wild from time to time in the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal,
Bihar and Odisha in the Sundarbans region and especially in the former State of Rewa.
● Such a tiger has the black stripes typical of the Bengal tiger, but carries a white or near-white coat.
● The first white tiger was spotted in Madhya Pradesh’s Vindhya region, in which the Satna district falls, in
1915.
● The rare breed of the big cat, which was caught for the first time, died in 1920.
75
Black Tiger
Context: Death of rare black tiger in Odisha’s Similipal Tiger Reserve will have big impact on population.
More on the News:
● The death of a rare black tiger reported after three decades in the Similipal Tiger Reserve in Odisha’s
Mayurbhanj district could have a big impact on the population of the animals.
● The carcass of the melanistic male big cat was found in the core areas of the reserve. Forest officials said it
died due to a territorial fight with another male.
Black Tiger:
● They are a rare colour variant of the tiger and are not a distinct species or geographic subspecies.
● The abnormally dark or black coat in such tigers is termed pseudomelanistic or false coloured.
● The only other black tigers outside of Similipal in India exist at the Nandankanan Zoological Park in
Bhubaneswar, Ranchi Zoo and Chennai’s Arignar Anna Zoological Park.
● Simlipal has the world’s highest rate of black tiger sightings in the world. The reserve had last reported eight
tigers, according to the Tiger Status Report 2018.
● The tigers in the Similipal Tiger Reserve are an isolated population in eastern India and gene flow between
them and other tiger populations is very restricted.
Snow Leopard: Enigmatic big cat of High Asia now National Symbol of Kyrgyzstan
In the news:
● The Snow leopard, the mysterious and enigmatic symbol of High Asia with its host of mountain ranges
stretching from the Altai to the Himalayas, is now the national symbol of Kyrgyzstan, a former Soviet Republic
in Central Asia.
Details:
● Inner Asia comprises mountain ranges such as the Altai, Tian Shan, Nan Shan, Kunlun Shan, Pamir, Karakorum,
Hindu Kush, and of course, the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas.
● This region is home to most of the snow and ice on Earth outside the poles. From this region, at least 15 rivers
fan out in every direction across the Asian continent.
● This ‘Water Tower of Asia’ provides essential ecosystem services — it provides clean water for a third of the
world’s population. It is estimated to be warming at nearly two times the average rate of warming in the
Northern Hemisphere.
● Snow leopard conservation received a boost a decade ago with the Bishkek Declaration on Snow Leopard
Protection being unanimously adopted at the World Snow Leopard Conservation Forum in 2013.
Snow Leopard range countries:
● The snow leopard's habitat range extends across the mountainous regions of 12 countries across Asia:
Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan,
and Uzbekistan.
Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Programme (GSLEP):
● GSLEP is an unprecedented alliance of all snow leopard range countries, non-governmental organizations,
multi-lateral institutions, scientists and local communities, united by one goal: saving the snow leopard and
its mountain ecosystems.
● Mission: The snow leopard range countries agree, with support from interested organizations, to work
together to identify and secure at least 20 snow leopard landscapes across the cat’s range by 2020 or, “Secure
20 by 2020.”
World Snow Leopard Conservation Forum:
76
● On October 22-23, 2013, representatives of 12 snow leopard range countries and the international
conservation community gathered in Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic, for the Global Snow Leopard Conservation
Forum, jointly organized by the Office of the President of the Kyrgyz Republic Almazbek Atambayev and the
State Agency on Environmental Protection and Forestry under the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic.
● The objective of the Forum is to discuss urgent actions and a new global strategy to address the conservation
of the endangered snow leopard and its habitat in the critical ecosystems of Central Asia.
● The Forum is co-organized by Global Tiger Initiative, NABU, Snow Leopard Trust, UNDP, and World Bank and
sponsored by Global Environment Facility, Snow Leopard Conservancy, and WWF.
International Leopard Day 2023
Context: A new portal dedicated to leopards (Panthera pardus) was launched by the Cape Leopard Trust (CLT), an
active predator conservation working group, on International Leopard Day (May 3, 2023) to promote and celebrate
leopards worldwide.
Indian Leopard (Pantherapardusfusca)
● It is one of the big cats occurring on the Indian subcontinent, apart from the Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger, snow
leopard and clouded leopard.
● Habitat – India, Nepal, Bhutan and parts of Pakistan.
● Leopard is a middle-sized wild cat has a slim and long body with short, sturdy legs and a long tail, helping the
animal to keep balance when in the trees.
● Leopards are generally asocial animals, living solitarily and avoiding other leopards.
● The leopard is distinguished by its well-camouflaged fur, opportunistic hunting behavior, broad diet,
strength, and its ability to adapt to a variety of habitats ranging from rainforest to steppe, including arid and
montane areas.
● Conservation Status:
● It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
● Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Appendix I
● Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule 1
● Karnataka is set to establish multiple rehabilitation centres to house leopards and tigers captured from
conflict zones.
India has 718 snow leopards; most of them live in unprotected areas: Centre
Context:
● Status Report of Snow Leopards in India released on January 30, 2024, indicates that there are 718 snow
leopards in the country.
Details:
● The report highlights a significant concern: only 34% of their 120,000 square kilometre habitat in India is
under legal protection.
● This leaves about 70% of their crucial habitat unprotected.
● To address this, the report recommends the establishment of a dedicated Snow Leopard Cell at the Wildlife
Institute of India in Dehradun, under the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
o The cell's goal would be to monitor snow leopard populations over the long term, conduct organized
studies, and carry out consistent field surveys.
● The report suggests that states and Union territories consider adopting a periodic population estimation
approach every four years within the snow leopard range to help identify challenges, address threats, and
formulate effective conservation strategies.
77
o Additionally, it calls for a revised assessment of the number of snow leopards in India, updating the
earlier estimate of 400-700, in light of the global estimate of 4,000-7,500 snow leopards.
Counting snow leopards:
● The Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI), conducted over four years (2019-2023) by the
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) along with the Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysuru and World Wildlife
Fund for Nature-India, focused on assessing snow leopard populations in India.
● Researchers installed camera traps at 1,971 locations across the Union Territories of Ladakh and Jammu and
Kashmir and in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. These traps
captured images of 241 unique snow leopards.
● The report reveals that the highest number of snow leopards is found in Ladakh (477), followed by
Uttarakhand (124), Himachal Pradesh (51), Sikkim (21), and Jammu and Kashmir (9).
● Snow leopard occupancy was recorded over 93,392 square kilometres, with an estimated presence of
100,841 square kilometres.
● It's noted that systematic surveys of snow leopards began in the 1980s, initially focusing on the western
Himalayas, especially in Ladakh, and later expanding to Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
● Until recently, the snow leopard's range in India was undefined due to a lack of comprehensive nationwide
analysis.
● Before 2016, only about five per cent of the region in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Himachal
Pradesh was covered. The latest assessment now covers 80 per cent of the area, compared to 56 per cent in
2016.
In remote J&K national park, camera traps snap elusive snow leopard, read out a success story
Context: The Jammu and Kashmir Wildlife Protection Department’s confirmation on the presence of at least half-a-
dozen snow leopards at high-altitude Kishtwar National Park
About Snow Leopard:
● The Snow Leopard (also known as ‘ounce’ or Ghost of the mountains) acts as an indicator of the health of
the mountain ecosystem in which they live, due to their position as the top predator in the food web.
● Scientific name: Panthera uncia
● They live at high altitudes in the steep mountains of Central and Southern Asia, and in an extremely cold
climate.
● They inhabit the higher Himalayan and trans-Himalayan landscape in the states/union territories of Jammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
● India is a unique country to have a good presence of 5 big cats, including Snow Leopard. The other 4 are, Lion,
Tiger, Common Leopard, and Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa).
● The snow leopard’s habitat range extends across the mountainous regions of 12 countries across Asia:
Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan,
and Uzbekistan
Threat: Reduction in prey populations, illegal poaching and increased human population infiltration into the species
habitat and illegal trade of wildlife parts and products among others.
Protection:
● IUCN Red List- Vulnerable
● Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)- Appendix I
● Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)- Appendix I
● Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction.
● Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972- Schedule I
● Schedule I provides absolute protection and offenses under this have the highest penalties.
Difference between Clouded leopard and snow leopard:
78
Features Clouded leopard Snow leopard
Scientific Name Neofelis nebulosa Panthera uncia
Size 25-51 lbs 49-155 lbs
Habitat Arboreal, Forests Alpine & Subalpine Mountains
Activity Nocturnal Crepuscular
Small cats in big trouble: Why we need to save these elusive endangered species
Context:
● In Scotland, the population of the country’s wildcats (Felissilvestrissilvestris) has dwindled so much they’re
now considered functionally extinct.
Free-ranging cats may be catastrophic for wild species
In the news:
● Free-ranging domestic cats around the world are found to eat more than 2,000 other animal species such as
birds, mammals, insects, and reptiles — including 350 species of conservation concern.
● The researchers found records of 2,083 distinct species consumed, including 981 birds, 463 reptiles, 431
mammals, 119 insects, 57 amphibian species, as well as 33 species from across other groups of animals.
● At least 347 of these species are of conservation concern.
Manul: the ‘grumpiest cat’
Context: The presence of the manul, a cold-adapted wild cat the size of a domestic cat, has been confirmed on the
slopes of the world’s highest mountain.
More on the News:
● The confirmation by DNA testing marks the first time the elusive cat has been formally recorded in Nepal’s
eastern Himalayan region.
● Recorded in the western Himalayas, and in the eastern Himalayas, in Sikkim.
About Fishing cats Free Ranging Cat (Felis catus) Manul (Palla’s cat)
Scientific Name ● Commonly referred ● Also known as Pallas’s
: (Prionailurusviverrinus) to as the domestic cat, is a small wild cat
Description : cat or house cat, is that is adapted to life
the only in cold and arid
• Fishing cats are almost twice
domesticated environments.
the size of the house cat.
species in the family ● Found in the high-
• The fishing cat is an adept Felidae. altitude grasslands
swimmer and enters water
● Recent advances in and montane
frequently to prey on fish as
archaeology and steppe regions of
its name suggests.
genetics have shown Central Asia.
• The fishing cat is nocturnal that the ● It is one of the oldest
and apart from fish also domestication of the known cat species
preys on frogs, crustaceans, cat occurred in the
79
snakes, birds, and scavenges Near East around ● Found in high-altitude
on carcasses of larger 7500 BC. grasslands and
animals. ● It is commonly kept montane steppe
Habitat : as a house pet and regions of Central
farm cat, but also Asia, including parts of
• They occur in wetlands like
ranges freely as a China, Mongolia,
marshlands, mangroves and
feral cat avoiding Kazakhstan,
flooded forests in major
human contact. Kyrgyzstan, and
South and Southeast Asian
Russia.
River basins starting from ● It can kill vermin.
Indus in Pakistan till Mekong ● It prefers rocky terrain
● It has a strong
in Vietnam and in the island with sparse
flexible body, quick
nations of Sri Lanka and vegetation, and is well
reflexes, and sharp
Java. adapted to the harsh,
teeth, and its night
cold climate of these
•In India, fishing cats are vision and sense of
regions.
mainly found in the smell are well
mangrove forests of the developed. ● It is a solitary animal
Sundarbans, on the foothills that is primarily active
● It also secretes and
of the Himalayas along the at dawn and dusk.
perceives
Ganga and Brahmaputra pheromones. ● It is a carnivorous
River valleys and in the predator that feeds on
Western Ghats. small mammals such
Conservation Status: as rodents, pikas, and
birds.
● IUCN Red List :Endangered
● Threats: Habitat loss,
● The Convention on
hunting, and
International Trade in
fragmentation of
Endangered Species (CITES)
populations.
lists the fishing cat on
Appendix II part of Article IV ● Conservation
of CITES, which governs Status: Least Concern
international trade in this
species.
● In India, the fishing cat is
included in Schedule I of the
Indian Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 and thereby
protected from hunting.
Project Cheetah: Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary to be new home for African felines
Context:
● Officials plan to shift some African cheetahs from Kuno National Park (KNP) in Madhya Pradesh to the Gandhi
Sagar Sanctuary located on the northern border of Mandsaur and Nimach districts, in the same state.
Sr.
No Parameter African Cheetah Asiatic Cheetah
.
1. IUCN status Vulnerable Critically Endangered.
Appendix-I of the List. This List
2. CITES status comprises of migratory species that Appendix-I of the List.
have been assessed as being in danger
80
of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of their range.
Around 6,500-7,000 African cheetahs
3. Habitat 40-50 found only in Iran.
are present in the wild.
Smaller and paler than the African
cheetah. Has more fur, a smaller
Physical Bigger in size as compared to Asiatic
4. head and a longer neck. Usually have
Characteristics Cheetah.
red eyes and they have a more cat-
like appearance.
5. Image
Name of Cheetah translocated from South Africa:

● 12 cheetahs (7 male and 5 female) translocated from
South Africa in the second phase under the
reintroduction of ‘Project Cheetahs’ have also been given
Indian names. They have been renamed Daksha, Nirva,
Vayu, Agni, Gamini, Tejas, Veera, Suraj, Dheera, Uday,
Prabhas and Pavak.
Cheetah Deaths
Context: One of the 12 cheetahs flown in from South Africa, a six-
year-old male named Uday, died in Kuno National Park.
More on the News:
● Of the 20 cheetahs brought to India from Africa in the world’s first intercontinental translocation project, 18
now remain.
Were these unfortunate cheetah deaths unexpected?
● The Cheetah Project did anticipate high mortality. The criteria for the project’s short-term success was only
“50% survival of the introduced cheetah for the first year”. That would be 10 out of 20.
India-South Africa sign pact, 12 cheetahs to be brought to Kuno

Section: Species in News
Concept:
● An MoU on cooperation in reintroduction of cheetahs to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh, has
signed between India and South Africa.
● In terms of the agreement, an initial batch of 12 cheetahs (7 male and 5 female) are to be flown in from South
Africa to India.
● The cats will join eight cheetahs introduced to India from Namibia.
●Some improvements have been made to the existing ‘bomas’ (wildlife enclosures built usually for the
treatment or quarantine of animals) based on the observations of the last few months.
Cheetah Reintroduction Plan
● Under the ‘Action Plan for Reintroduction of Cheetah in India’, 50 cheetahs will be brought from African
countries to various national parks over 5 years.
Reasons behind re-introducing cheetah from southern Africa:
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● The locally extinct Cheetah-subspecies of India is found in Iran and is categorised as critically endangered.
● Since it is not possible to source the critically endangered Asiatic Cheetah from Iran, India decided to source
Cheetahs from Southern Africa.
● Southern African Cheetahs have the highest observed genetic variety among extant Cheetah lineages, which
is critical for a founding population stock.
● Southern African Cheetahs have been determined to be the ancestors of all other Cheetah lineages, making
them suitable for India’s reintroduction programme.
Metapopulation programme:
● The Metapopulation Initiative is a wildlife conservation programme by the Endangered Wildlife Trust.
● The EWT started the Cheetah Metapopulation Program in 2011.
● Goal: To manage the southern African cheetah in a way that maximizes their genetic diversity and range
expansion.
Elephants are irreplaceable seed dispersers
Context: Indian elephants are optimal seed dispersers of three large forest trees in West Bengal.
More on the News:
● Scientists at Bengaluru’s Indian Institute of Sciences and Princeton University, USA, quantified the role of
Indian elephants and other herbivores (including Indian gaur, cattle, monkeys and wild squirrels) in dispersing
the seeds of three tree species – the elephant apple tree (Dillenia indica), the slow match tree (Careya
arborea) and chaplash, a jackfruit tree endemic to north-eastern India (Artocarpus chaplasha) in Buxa Tiger
Reserve, West Bengal.
● The dispersal of seeds far away from the parent tree maintains the high numbers of tree species in tropical
forests. Trees depend on their fruit-eaters for seed dispersal, including elephants: the seeds of fruits they
consume pass through their guts, come out undigested with dung and germinate when conditions are right.
● Scientists find that no herbivore can replace Indian elephants as the optimal seed dispersers of three large
forest trees in West Bengal.
Elephant census
● Elephant numbers largely rely on States directly counting the number of elephants.
● Elephants are counted once in five years.
● Census methodology:
● The direct elephant counting method is based on sightings of elephants.
● In the indirect method, surveyors follow a dung decay formula for arriving at population estimation which
is being used by Tamil Nadu and Karnataka at present.
● A variation of about 8% to 9% has been noticed between the two methods.
Number of elephants in Karnataka goes up by 364 from last census, touching 6,395
● World Elephant Day is observed on August
12 to create awareness about the
importance of preserving and protecting
these animals that are classified as
endangered species.
Synchronized census:
● The census is conducted by the Karnataka
Forest Department in collaboration with
neighboring Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Goa.
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● The number of elephants in Karnataka that had risen from 5,740 in 2010 to 6,072 in 2012 had decreased to
6,049 in 2017 then increased to 6395 in 2023.
Human-animal conflict increased in Wayanad
Context: In the latest in a series of wild elephant attacks in Kerala, a daily worker was attacked by a rogue elephant at
SulthanBathery town adjacent to the Wayanad wildlife Sanctuary.
About Elephants:
1. Asian Elephants:
● There are three subspecies of Asian elephant which are the Indian, Sumatran and Sri Lankan.
● The Indian subspecies has the widest range and accounts for the majority of the remaining elephants on the
continent.
● Global Population: Estimated 20,000 to 40,000.
● IUCN Red List:
● Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
● CITES: Appendix I
2. African Elephants:
● There are two subspecies of African elephants, the Savanna (or bush) elephant and the Forest elephant.
● Global Population: Around 4,00,000.
● IUCN Red List Status:
● African Savanna Elephant: Endangered.
● African Forest Elephant: Critically Endangered
● CITES: Appendix II
Human-elephant conflict:
● Only 22 percent of elephant habitat is found within our protected area network – the remaining elephant
range lies outside, in places now overrun by people.
● Elephant-human conflict is a result of habitat loss and fragmentation.
● When the mother elephant dies, the herd or the clan may accept the calf. Families of elephants form a herd
and multiple herds form a clan.
● Calves younger than two years are heavily dependent on their mothers. They are breastfed 12-14 times a day
which makes the separation equally painful for both the mother and the calf.
Action taken to prevent human-elephant conflict:

● In March 2023, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEFCC) released 14
guidelines for human-wildlife conflict mitigation to promote harmonious coexistence between humans and
wildlife with a section on managing orphaned/stray elephant calves-in-conflict, covering aspects such as the
stress, immunity and hygiene of the calves.
● 10 calves below the age of one were rescued since 1971 of which seven have survived and are lodged
at Theppekadu elephant camp.
Financial arrangements:
● The cost of taking care of these calves is borne by the forest department.
● Caretakers, calf rearing shed, medicines, milk replacers/ feed are the major expenses.
● In the camps set up by the forest department, caretakers and sheds are already there.
● So, the feeding cost and medicine are the extra expenses needed. This is also covered by existing regular
medicine and feed funds. The only additional cost is for the milk replacer given to calves below two years.
Project Tiger merges with Project Elephant — but questions on fund split unanswered
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Section: Biodiversity
Context:
● An order on June 23, 2023 finally made it official — Project Tiger and Project Elephant have been merged,
meaning a common allocation will fund both beginning this year. The merger was announced in April 2023;
however, there is still no clarity on how the finances would be split between the conservation projects.
Details:
● A new division, ‘Project Tiger and Elephant Division,’ has been notified under the ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
● Project Elephant completed 30 years in 2022 and Project Tiger completed 50 years in 2023.
● A similar proposal was made by the erstwhile Planning Commission in 2011 to merge three centrally
sponsored schemes — Project Tiger, Project Elephant, and Integrated Development under Wildlife Habitat
— into one.
● The administrative setup for the two schemes will continue to exist separately, only funding is to be merged.
● The amalgamated budget of Project Tiger and Project Elephant schemes in 2023-24 stands at Rs 331 crore.
● This is a reduction from 2022-23 combined budgetary amount of Rs 335 crore including Rs 300 crore for
Project Tiger and Rs 35 crores for elephant.
● Fund allocation for Project Tiger was Rs 350 crore in 2018-19, Rs 282.57 crore in 2019-20, Rs 195 crore in
2020-21 and Rs 220 crore in 2021-22.
The first-ever IUCN assessment of the Himalayan Wolf is out. And it is grim
About Himalayan Wolf:
● The Himalayan wolf, scientifically known as Canis lupus chanco, is a canine with uncertain taxonomy,
characterized by distinctive genetic markers.
● Its mitochondrial DNA suggests it is genetically primitive compared to the Holarctic grey wolf and is
genetically identical to the Tibetan and Mongolian wolves, with connections to the African wolf.
● Although there are no significant morphological differences between Himalayan and Tibetan wolves, the
former are adapted to high-altitude environments above 4,000 meters.
● The Himalayan wolf's distribution includes the Himalayan range and the Tibetan Plateau.
● Wolves in India and Nepal are endangered, listed on CITES Appendix I due to international trade.
Assessment of Himalayan Wolf:
● They have been evaluated for the first time on the IUCN Red List and are now classified as 'Vulnerable.'
● The assessment estimates a population size of 2,275-3,792 mature individuals in a single subpopulation across
Nepal, India, and the Tibetan Plateau.
● The continuous decline in the population is attributed to significant threats and a lack of conservation efforts.
● In India, there are 227-378 mature individuals in the Himalayan region, with potential additional presence in
Uttarakhand and Sikkim states.
Causes of decline:
● The Himalayan Wolf is identified as a genetically unique species in a 2018 study.
● The assessment notes a continuing decline in the habitat of these wolves, primarily due to depredation
conflicts, habitat modification, and illegal hunting for trade.
● Hybridization with feral dogs poses a growing threat in Ladakh and Spiti.
● The assessment recommends measures such as securing prey populations, implementing effective livestock
guarding methods, managing feral dog populations, and fostering transboundary conservation efforts.
● Additionally, it calls for incorporating the Himalayan Wolf into conservation programs to enhance public
acceptance and reduce persecution.
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In a first, a polar bear has died of avian flu in the Arctic, confirms Alaska
In the news:
● The Arctic region recorded the first case of a polar bear death due to Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
(HPAI), confirming a concerning development.
Details:
● The polar bear, found deceased near Utqiagvik in Alaska, highlights the vulnerability of these bears, listed as
"vulnerable" due to habitat loss—specifically, diminishing sea ice—on the IUCN Red List.
● The death of the polar bear was confirmed in December 2023 after samples collected in October tested
positive for the virus.
● Although polar bears primarily hunt seals, scavenging on dead birds likely exposed this bear to the influenza
virus, this case emphasizes the virus's survival on deceased animals in cold conditions.
Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI):
● The viral disease HPIA or avian influenza, especially the H5 and H7 strains, mostly affects birds.
● These strains are highly pathogenic and have been reported in domestic poultry, resulting in high mortality
if they manage to reach wild bird populations.
● It spreads among birds and mammals due to predators and scavengers feeding on infected birds. Marine
mammals have also been found to be infected.
● Threatened species from HPAI:
o Avian groups like gulls and skuas, birds of prey such as hawks and caracaras, terns and shorebirds.
o Among marine mammals, fur seals, sea lions, southern elephant seals and dolphins.
HPAI in the polar region:
● The HPAI strain 2.3.4.4b, causing widespread mortality among birds and mammals worldwide, emerged in
the Arctic in April 2023.
● Initially detected among birds and a fox, it quickly spread, infecting chickens, ducks, and various bird species
in different regions, including bald eagles and Canada geese.
● HPAI, initially reported in poultry in 2021, spread rapidly among wild birds and reached the Antarctic region
by October 2023, infecting brown skuas.
● Scientists fear the virus could spread among dense penguin populations during the Southern Hemisphere's
spring, potentially causing a significant ecological disaster.
About the Polar bear:
● Native to the Arctic, is the largest bear species and land carnivore.
● Close relative to the brown bear, they're sexually dimorphic, with males significantly larger than females.
● Their white or yellowish fur, black skin, and fat layer help adapt to Arctic conditions.
● They have specialized teeth and large paws for walking on ice and swimming.
● They're terrestrial and ice-dependent, considered marine mammals due to their reliance on marine
ecosystems.
● Prefer annual sea ice but live on land when it melts; primarily carnivorous, specializing in preying on seals.
● Classified as a “vulnerable” species due to threats like climate change, pollution, habitat loss and energy
development.
● Increased time on land raises conflicts with humans; historically hunted for their coats and other items.
Blackbuck
Context: The blackbuck population has increased threefold in Odisha’s Ganjam district, the only habitat of the most
elegant member of the antelope family in the state, over 12 years.
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More on the News:
● Blackbucks were sighted in the Balukhand-Konark wildlife sanctuary in the Puri district through 2012-13.
● Improvement of habitats and protection by the local people and forest staff are some of the reasons behind
the increase of the blackbuck population in the district.
● Not a single poaching case has been reported in the last few years in the area.
● Like the Bishnoi tribe community of western Rajasthan and the Vala Rajputs of Saurashtra, the people of
Ganjam district in Odisha protect the blackbuck, as its sightings are considered an indicator of good luck.
Blackbuck
● Indian Blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra) is an antelope and is the only living species of the genus Antelope.
● It is considered to be the fastest animal in the world next to Cheetah.
● The blackbuck is a diurnal antelope (active mainly during the day).
● It has been declared as the State Animal of Punjab, Haryana, and Andhra Pradesh.
● Habitat:
● Blackbuck inhabits grassy plains and slightly forested areas.
● It is found in Central- Western India (MP, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and Odisha)
and Southern India (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu).
● Protection Status:
● Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
● IUCN Status: Least Concern
● CITES: Appendix III
● Conservation:
● The Bishnoi community of Rajasthan is known worldwide for their conservation efforts to blackbuck and
Chinkara.
Pangolins
Context: Over 1,200 pangolins trafficked in India in 5 years: Report
More on the News:
● Odisha reported the maximum number of incidents, with 154 pangolins in 74 seizures.
● They are poached mainly for international markets in China and southeast Asia for their scales, which are
used as an ingredient in traditional medicines. Pangolin meat is also considered a delicacy and consumed for
its alleged medicinal properties.
● An earlier analysis of illegal pangolin trade in India by TRAFFIC in 2018 reported poaching of nearly 6,000
pangolins between 2009 and 2017.
Pangolins:
● Pangolins are among the most trafficked wild mammals globally.
● India is home to two species: the Indian Pangolin and the Chinese Pangolin.
● Indian Pangolin is a large ant-eater covered by 11-13 rows of scales on the back. A terminal scale is also
present on the lower side of the tail of the Indian Pangolin, which is absent in the Chinese Pangolin.
● Pangolins acts as both predator and prey, feeding on insects and also preyed upon by other animals.
● Other than regulating the population of insects, the pangolin is an ‘ecosystem engineer’ that builds
burrows that help circulate soil organic matter, increase soil moisture and aeration, and affect plant
community succession.
● Habitat :
● Indian Pangolin is widely distributed in India, except the arid region, high Himalayas and the North-East.
The species is also found in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
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● Chinese Pangolin is found in the Himalayan foothills in Eastern Nepal, Bhutan, Northern India, North-East
Bangladesh and through Southern China.
● Threats to Pangolins in India:
● Hunting and poaching for local consumptive use and international trade for its meat and scales in East
and South East Asian countries, particularly China and Vietnam.
Protection Status:
● IUCN Red List
● Indian Pangolin: Endangered
● Chinese Pangolin: Critically Endangered
● Both these species are listed under Schedule I, Part I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
● Both these species are listed under appendix I of the CITES, meaning they are most endangered.
Sloth bears
Section :Species in news
Context: A new study has found that maintaining forest cover and preventing fragmentation of habitats while
minimising human disturbance is crucial for long-term conservation of bears outside protected wildlife reserves across
India.
Sloth Bears:
● It is a Myrmecophagous bear species.
● Distribution:
● They are endemic to the Indian sub-continent and 90% of the species population is found in India with
small populations in Nepal and Sri Lanka.
● It occurs in a wide range of habitats including moist and dry tropical forests, savannahs, scrublands and
grasslands below 1,500 m (4,900 ft) on the Indian subcontinent, and below 300 m (980 ft) in Sri Lanka’s
dry forests. It is regionally extinct in Bangladesh.
● Found in all parts of the country except Jammu and Kashmir and northeastern States.
● Characteristics:
● They are nocturnal animals.
● It feeds on fruits, ants and termites.
● Sloth bears do not hibernate.
● Protection Status
● IUCN red list: listed as ‘vulnerable’
● Wildlife Protection Act of India, 1972: listed under Schedule I
● Threats:
● Animal-Human conflict: Over the past few years there has been a rise of incidents of human sloth bear
conflict in States like Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra among other states.
● Exploitation: Sometimes captured and kept as pets, which can lead to their exploitation and
mistreatment.
In Jambavan’s land: Sloth bears mostly coexist peacefully with humans in Karnataka; but conflict is not
non-existent
Context:
● Karnataka, known in Hindu mythology as the home of Jambavan, the bear king, is also home to a significant
population of sloth bears (Melursus ursinus).
Details:
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● A survey by the state forest department in Karnataka’s Western Ghats revealed a surprisingly harmonious
coexistence between sloth bears and humans.
● Cultural acceptance in densely populated areas has been favourable for the bears, challenging the typical
narrative of human-wildlife conflict.
● Despite this, Karnataka has experienced some human-sloth bear confrontations, causing concern among
communities and wildlife enthusiasts. Sloth bears occupy about 67% of their potential habitat in
India,extending beyond protected areas into multi-use forests.
● In the Western Ghats, approximately 61% of the forested landscape is inhabited by sloth bears. They show a
preference for drier forests and rough terrains.
● Karnataka's Bannerughatta National Park has become a prominent site for bear protection.
New frog species found in Meghalaya Siju cave
Context: A team of researchers from Zoological Survey of India found Amolops Siju in Siju cave in 2020.
Amolopssiju
● It has been named after the Suji cave where it was discovered.
● It belongs to the cascade Ranidae family and genus Amolops.
● Genus Amolops is among the largest groups of ranid frogs (family Ranidae) with 73 known species widely
distributed across India’s North East and north, Nepal, Bhutan, China, the Indochina region and the Malaya
Peninsula.
● Cascade frogs are named so because they prefer small waterfalls.
● The Amolopssiju is a relatively small frog, with a length of around 2.5 cm.
● It is brown in colour and has a narrow snout. The frog is a semi-aquatic species and is found in the streams
that flow inside the Siju Cave.
Suji caves
● Siju Cave, also known as Bat Cave, is a cave located in Meghalaya, India.
● It is the third longest natural cave in the Indian subcontinent and is famous for its large bat population.
● It is a 4 km long natural limestone cave.
Dancing frogs of Western Ghats among most threatened amphibians globally
Amphibian recovery project
● Wildlife Trust of India’s Amphibian
Context: Recovery Project in the Munnar Landscape
of Kerala is actively working to recover the
● The dancing frogs that are endemic to the Western Ghats
population of threatened amphibians by
are the most threatened amphibian genus of India, addressing the challenges that cause the
according to the Wildlife Trust of India. risk of extinction, threat mitigation through
strategically planned conservation action,
Dancing frogs:
capacity development and training,
● The dancing frogs that are found near the streams do a advocacy and information sharing
unique display to mate. The males stretch up their hind legs implemented by a stakeholder network.
one at a time and wave their webbed toes in the air in a
rapid motion akin to a dance.
● This is to attract mates as well as ward off competition, probably preferred because their mating calls are
drowned out by the gurgling of the streams.
● This act is called “foot flagging” and gives the species their name.
● They prefer habitats in areas with thick canopy cover of at least 70-80 per cent.
● Multiple anthropogenic stresses have impacted the population of the dancing frogs.
o Micrixaluskottigeharensis (commonly called the Kottigehar Dancing Frog) is threatened by invasive
species like the mosquito fish, land use change, variation in temperature and humidity, extreme
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weather events such as floods and excess rainfall, infectious diseases, water pollution, light pollution,
and infrastructure projects such as dams.
● After the dancing frogs, the Nyctibatrachidae (night frogs) are the most threatened with 83.9 percent of its
species threatened across the southern states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Eurasian otter raises hope for J&K stream
Context: The first photographic record of the semi-aquatic carnivorous mammal has indicated that some stretches of
the Neeru stream, a tributary of the Chenab River, are still unpolluted.
Eurasian otter (Lutralutra):
● It is a semi-aquatic mammal found in Europe, Asia, and parts of North Africa. Mammals of the family
Mustelidae with seven genera and 13 species.
● Habitat: Found in freshwater habitats such as rivers, streams, and lakes, although they may also occur in
coastal areas.
● They covers the largest range of any Palearctic mammal, covering parts of three continents – Europe,
Asia, and Africa.
● Diet: They are carnivorous and feed primarily on fish, although they may also consume other aquatic prey
such as crabs, frogs, and insects. They are active mainly at night and are generally solitary, although family
groups may sometimes be observed.
● Conservation status: The Eurasian otter is listed as “Near Threatened” by the IUCN Red List.
● Threats: habitat loss and degradation, pollution, and hunting.
● Ecological role: They play an important ecological role as top predators in freshwater ecosystems. They help
regulate fish populations and maintain the health of aquatic habitats.
Smooth-coated otter
● It is an otter species occurring in most of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with a disjunct
population in Iraq.
● It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
● They are fish specialist. They are strong swimmers and hunt in groups.
● Their numbers are said to be declining with few breeding populations reported from Corbett and Dudhwa
Tiger Reserves and Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary in the north, Kaziranga National Park in the northeast,
Sunderbans, Bhitarkanika and Coringa in the eastern coast; and Periyar Tiger Reserve and the Nagarhole
National Park in the south.
● Major threats to Asian otter population are loss of wetland habitats due to construction of large scale
hydroelectric projects, conversion of wetlands for settlements and agriculture, reduction in prey
biomass, poaching and contamination of waterways by pesticides.
Two new mammalian species added to Kaziranga’s fauna
Context:
● Two new mammalian species have been added to the list of fauna in Assam’s Kaziranga National Park and
Tiger Reserve, the primary address of the one-horned rhinoceros on earth.
Details:
● The two mammals are the elusive binturong (Arctictis binturong), the largest civet in India also known as the
bearcat, and the small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus).
● Both are listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
● The list of mammals in Kaziranga is topped by the Big Five — the great Indian one-horned rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros unicornis), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), wild water buffalo
(Bubalus bubalis), and the eastern swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli).
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● The other mammals found in Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve include the Indian wild boar (Sus
scrofa), Indian gaur (Bos gaurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor), hoolock or white-browed gibbon (Hylobates
hoolock), Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica), capped langur or leaf monkey (Presbytis pileatus), sloth
bear (Melursus ursinus), leopard (Panthera pardus), and the jackal (Canis aureus).
Binturong (Arctictis binturong) (bearcat):
● An arboreal mammalnative to South and Southeast Asia, the binturong is not easily found due to its
nocturnal and arboreal habits. It is also uncommon in much of its range and is known to have a distribution
exclusive to the northeast of India.
● The binturong is the only species in the genus Arctictis.
Small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus):
● Also known as the Asian small-clawed otter, the mammal has a wide distribution range extending through
India eastwards to Southeast Asia and southern China.
● In India, it is found mostly in the protected areas of West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, and some parts of Kerala in the Western Ghats region.
● Small-clawed otters have partially webbed feet with short claws, which make them skilled hunters in aquatic
environments.
● They are primarily found in freshwater habitats where they feed on a diet of fish, crustaceans, and molluscs.
● The small-clawed otter was previously reported from the western Himalayas and parts of Odisha.
Evolutionary lineages of the banded krait discovered through molecular methods
Context: A recent study finds that the highly venomous banded krait (Bungarusfasciatus) is likely to be an assemblage
of different species across Asia.
Banded krait:
● Also known as the common krait, is a venomous snake species found in South and Southeast Asia.
● It belongs to the family Elapidae, which also includes cobras and coral snakes.
● It is easily recognized by its black and white bands.
● The venom of the banded krait is highly toxic and can cause respiratory paralysis, which can be fatal if left
untreated.
● It primarily feeds on other snakes, including cobras and other venomous species.
● Snake that inhabits different landscapes like
Indian Rhino Vision 2020
agricultural lands, forests, and home gardens up to ● Launched in 2005,Indian Rhino Vision 2020 is an
specific elevations. ambitious effort to attain a wild population of at
● Listed as a “Least Concern”. least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread
over seven protected areas in the Indian state of
Rhino poaching suspect’s body found in river; police say Assam by the year 2020.
he jumped in to escape ● Seven protected areas are Kaziranga, Pobitora,
Orang National Park, Manas National Park,
Subject :Environment Laokhowa wildlife sanctuary, Burachapori
Section: Species in news wildlife sanctuary and Dibru-Saikhowa wildlife
sanctuary.
Context: A Rhino poaching case was discovered in Kaziranga
National Park of Assam in more than a year.
Rhinos:
● Rhinos are listed in Schedule 1 of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 as an endangered animal and there is an
international ban on trade of rhino horns under CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna).
● Three species of rhino—black, Javan, and Sumatran—are critically endangered.
● Today, a small population of Javan rhinos is found in only one national park on the northern tip of the
Indonesian island of Java.
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● A mainland subspecies of the Javan rhino was declared extinct in Vietnam in 2011.
● Successful conservation efforts have led to an increase in the number of greater one-horned (or Indian) rhinos,
from around 200 at the turn of the 20th century to around 3,700 today.
African Swine fever threatens India’s Pygmy Hog
Context: The world’s rarest and smallest wild pig species is “extremely susceptible to extinction” from ASF due to its
small populations and limited range.
Pygmy Hogs
● Scientific Name: Porculasalvania
● Pygmy Hogs are the world’s rarest and smallest members of the pig family.
● It is one of the very few mammals that build its own home, or nest, complete with a ‘roof’.
● It is an indicator species as its presence reflects the health of its primary habitat, tall and wet grasslands.
● Habitat:
● Once found in the narrow strip of tall and wet grassland plains on the Himalayan foothills, from Uttar
Pradesh to Assam, through Nepal’s terai areas and Bengal’s duars, it was thought to have become extinct
in the 1960s.
● Currently, the only known population lives in Assam, India and possibly southern Bhutan. The only viable
population in the wild is in the Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam.
● Threats
● One of the main reasons for its decreasing numbers was grassland degradation due to grass burning in
the dry season and livestock overgrazing.
● Protection Status
● IUCN Red List: Endangered
● Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I
Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme
● Conservation of pygmy hog was initiated by noted naturalist Gerald Durrell and his trust in 1971. While
efforts, in the form of a conservation survey, had begun in the late 1970s, the PHCP took off in 1995.
● It follows a two-pronged action plan
● Conservation breeding of the animal against possible early extinction and re-introduction in selected sites.
● Habitat management.
● Under it, six hogs (two males and four females) were captured from the Bansbari range of the Manas National
Park in 1996 for starting the breeding programme.
● The success of the initial programme has led to subsequent efforts.
● Between 2008 and 2020, scientists released 130 pygmy hogs into two national parks, Manas and Orang,
and two wildlife sanctuaries, Barnadi and SonaiRupai, all in Assam.
● By 2025, the PHCP plans to release 60 pygmy hogs in Manas.
● Apart from captive breeding, habitat management in these reintroduction sites was important before the
animals were released.
● Experts have been working on a ‘Re-wild project’ in Manas on grassland management and restoration.
The return of wild boars in Kashmir threatens the hangul habitat and crops
Context: Wild boars resurfaced in Kashmir after 30 years.
More on the News:
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● The species is not native to the region and was declared locally extinct in the 1980s until a sighting was
recorded in 2013.
● The boars are increasing the competition for resources, for the critically endangered hanguls in Dachigam
National Park. They damage farmlands by uprooting their crops.
● Increasing temperatures may have led to the resurgence of wild boars in the region. The Department of
Wildlife Protection is conducting a detailed study to understand more about the presence of wild boars in
Kashmir.
Hangul (Kashmiri Stag):
● It is a species of deer native to the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India.
● Scientific Name: Cervus hanglu.
● Primarily inhabits the dense temperate forests of the Kashmir Valley and its surrounding areas. It is found at
elevations ranging from 1,700 meters to 3,000 meters above sea level.
● Hangul is a medium-sized deer with a distinct appearance. Adult males, known as stags, have a majestic set
of antlers that can grow up to 11 tines or branches. Their coat is reddish-brown in summer and turns dark
brown in winter. Females, known as hinds, have a lighter coat and lack antlers.
● The hangul is a critically-endangered species as per the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List, and a Schedule I Species in as per India’s Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
● The population has experienced a significant decline over the years due to various factors, including habitat
loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict.
● Hangul holds significant ecological and cultural value. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the biodiversity of
its habitat and contributes to the ecological balance of the region. It is also considered a flagship species for
conservation efforts in the Kashmir Valley.
Is climate change altering Arctic ground squirrels’ hibernation patterns?
Section: species in news
Context: A new study analysed more than 25 years of climate and biological data. The findings include shorter
hibernation periods and differences between male and female hibernation periods.
Details of the study:
● Arctic ground squirrels survive harsh Alaska winters by hibernating for over half the year.
● Females are changing when they end hibernation, emerging earlier every year, but males are not.
● Changes in females match earlier spring thaw.
● The advantage of this phenomenon is that they do not need to use as much stored fat during hibernation
and can begin foraging for roots and shoots, berries and seeds sooner in the spring.
Arctic ground squirrel:
● The Arctic ground squirrel is a species of ground squirrel native to the Arctic and Subarctic of North America
and Asia.
● People in Alaska, particularly around the Aleutians, refer to them as "parka" squirrels, most likely because
their pelt is good for the ruff on parkas and for clothing.
● Hibernation:
o The Arctic ground squirrel hibernates over winter.
o During hibernation, its core body temperature reaches temperatures down to −2.9 °C (26.8 °F) and
its heart rate drops to about one beat per minute.
o Peripheral, colonic, and blood temperatures become sub-zero.
o The best theory as to why the squirrel's blood doesn't freeze is that the animal is able to cleanse their
bodies of ice nucleators which are necessary for the development of ice crystals.
o In the absence of ice nucleators, body fluids can remain liquid while in a supercooled state.
o This process may provide a path for better preservation of human organs for transplant.
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o The connections between brain cells also wither away in this state.
o The damage should have resulted in death, but research on related species shows that these
connections regrow after waking up.
o In the warmer months, the squirrel is active during the day.
● Diet:
o This squirrel feeds on grasses, sedges, mushrooms, bog rushes, bilberries, willows, roots, stalks,
leaves, leaf buds, flowers, catkins, and seeds.
o They will also eat insects, and occasionally they will even feed on carrion (such as mice, snowshoe
hares and caribou).
● IUCN Red List: Least Concern.
Missing for 42 years, flying squirrel resurfaces in Arunachal
Context:
● A nocturnal flying squirrel has resurfaced in Arunachal Pradesh after going missing for 42 years. It was last
recorded in the Namdapha Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh’s Changlang district.
● The Aaranyak study was supported by Re:Wild, a global wildlife conservation organisation, and the Small
Mammal Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Species Survival
Commission.
Namdapha flying squirrel (Biswamoyopterusbiswasi):
● They are an arboreal, nocturnal flying squirrelendemic to Arunachal Pradesh in northeast India, where it is
known from a single specimen collected in Namdapha National Park in 1981.
● It was the sole member in the genus Biswamoyopterus until the description of the Laotian giant flying squirrel
(Biswamoyopteruslaoensis) in 2013.
● What sets the Namdapha flying squirrel apart from the red giant flying squirrel is the prominent tuft of hair
on the ears of the former.
Red giant flying squirrel (Petauristapetaurista):
● It is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae (squirrels).
● It is found in a wide variety of forest–types, plantations and more open habitats with scattered trees in
Southeast Asia, ranging north to the Himalayas and southern and central China.
● One of the largest arboreal squirrels, all populations have at least some reddish-brown above and pale
underparts, but otherwise, there are significant geographic variations in the colours.
● Mostly nocturnal and able to glide (not actually fly like a bat) long distances between trees by spreading out
its patagium, skin between its limbs.
● It is a herbivore and the female has one, infrequently two, young per litter.
● It is not a threatened species.
‘Rescuing’ camels not a solution; Rajasthan needs sanctuaries for its state animal
Context: Rajasthan’s camels are regularly being rescued from slaughter, but this only increases their suffering, as it
involves no long-term solution.
Details:
● Camels need protected grazing areas where they can feed on native vegetation. Such camel sanctuaries would
serve as biodiversity hotspots and conserve other native drought-adapted animal and plant species as well.
o These would be areas where native trees that camels thrive on grow – such as khejri (Prosopis
cineraria), bordi (Zizyphusnummularia), babool (Acacia nilotica) and other drought-adapted species.
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● The International Year of Camelids in 2024 provides a window of opportunity for rekindling Rajasthan’s camel
heritage by setting up a network of camel sanctuaries that could turn into a major tourist attraction and secure
rural livelihoods.
Kharai camel:
● It is a unique breed of camel found only in Kachchh, Gujrat.
● They have the special ability to survive on both, dry land and in the sea.
● They swim in seawater and feed on saline plants and mangroves.
● The Kharai was recognised as a separate breed in 2015 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Issues:
● As per the livestock census 2012, the camel population had shrunk from over a million in the 1980s to around
300,000.
● The Raikas are no longer able to make a living from camel herding with the availability of motorised vehicles.
● Their ancestral grazing areas disappeared due to development, irrigation agriculture and forest conservation
areas.
Steps taken:
● Rajasthan declared the camel as its state animal in 2014 and enacted the Rajasthan Camel (Prohibition of
Slaughter and Regulation of Temporary Migration or Export) Act, 2015.
● The act prohibited not only slaughter but also prevented the movement of camels across state borders.
o The act further deteriorated the camel population. Between 2012 and 2019, India’s camel numbers
declined by an additional 37.1% to 2.5 lakh.
● 2024 has been designated as the International Year of Camelids by the United Nations General Assembly
catapulting this species into the limelight of international development.
Pay half of fine to informer: court’s bid to spur animal protection
Context:
● In a first-of-its-kind judgement, a sessions court in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan has ordered the
payment of half of the fine amount, imposed on a convict in a Chinkara killing case, to the informer as a prize
for helping in the detection of crime against wildlife.
Chinkara (or Gazelle):
● Rajasthan have two animals Camel and Chinkara as their state animals.Chinkara was declared a state animal
in 1981, it is also known as a small deer.
● The chinkara (Gazellabennettii), also known as the Indian gazelle, is a gazelle speciesnative to Iran,
Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.
● Distribution and habitat
o Chinkara live in arid plains and hills, deserts, dry scrub and light forests.
o They inhabit more than 80 protected areas in India.
o In Pakistan, they range up to elevations of 1,500 m (4,900 ft).
o In Iran, their largest population is the Kavir National Park.
o In 2001, the Indian chinkara population was estimated at 100,000 with 80,000 living in the Thar
Desert.
o The population in Pakistan is scattered and has been severely reduced by hunting.
o Also in Iran, the population is fragmented.
o In Afghanistan, chinkaras are probably very rare.
China event raises concern over India’s only ape
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Context:
● The conservation status of India’s only ape was a cause for concern at a global event on gibbons held a week
ago in China.
● The Global Gibbon Network (GGN) had its first meeting at Haikou in China’s Hainan province from July 7-9.
Hoolock Gibbon: About the Global Gibbon Network (GGN):
● Gibbons, the smallest and fastest of all apes, live ● During the International Gibbon Day 2020 event,
in tropical and subtropical forests. representatives from 20 gibbon conservation
organizations came together for the first time to
● The tailless Hoolock Gibbon is the only ape found discuss gibbon conservation.
in India. ● During the event, Eco Foundation Global, the
● The primate is native to eastern Bangladesh, Hainan Institute of National Park, the IUCN Species
Survival Commission Section on Small Apes (IUCN
Northeast India and Southwest China. SSA), the Zoological Society of London and other
● The estimated population of hoolock gibbons is organizations jointly launched the Global Gibbon
12,000. Conservation Network Initiative that has been
published on the IUCN website since 17 December
● Like all apes, they are extremely intelligent, with 2020, calling on the world to join forces to establish
distinct personalities and strong family bonds. a Global Gibbon Network (GGN).
● The hoolock gibbon faces threat primarily from the ●
The GGN was founded with a vision to safeguard and
conserve a key element of Asia’s unique natural
felling of trees for infrastructure projects. heritage — the singing gibbon and their habitats, by
● The Hoolock Gibbon is categorized into two types: promoting participatory conservation policies,
legislations, and actions.
● Western hoolock gibbon:
o It inhabits all the states of the north-east, restricted between the south of the Brahmaputra river and
east of the Dibang river. And outside India, it is found in eastern Bangladesh and north-west
Myanmar.
o It is listed as Endangered under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.
● Eastern hoolock gibbon:
o It inhabits specific pockets of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in India, and in southern China and north-
east Myanmar outside India.
o It is listed as Vulnerable under the IUCN Redlist.
o In India, both the species are listed on Schedule 1 of the Indian (Wildlife) Protection Act 1972.
One species, not two:
● A study proved through genetic analysis that there is only one species of ape in India.
● The Red List maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature categorises the western
hoolock gibbon as endangered and the eastern hoolock gibbon as vulnerable.
Scientists pull paper from journal over Arunachal mention
Context:
● Indian scientists were forced to withdraw a paper in an international peer-reviewed journal published from
China on the grounds that it could not mention Arunachal Pradesh.
● Paper title: Two Y chromosome lineages in White-Cheeked Macaque (Macaca leucogenys)’
White-Cheeked Macaque (Macaca leucogenys):
● It is a species of macaque found only in Mêdog County in southeastern Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh in
northeastern India.
o The forests in Mêdog, Tibet are protected by the YarlungZangbo Grand Canyon Nature Reserve.
● They live in forest habitats, from tropical forests to primary and secondary evergreen broad-leaved forests
and mixed broadleaf-conifer forests.
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● It is one of twenty-three extant species in the genus Macaca. It is likely threatened by poaching,
deforestation, and increased human development of its habitat, much like the other primates which inhabit
the area.
● They live in small multi-male multi-female groups. When the white-cheeked macaque detects the presence
of humans it emits a loud high-pitched alarm call, flees, and climbs trees. This call is distinct in frequency from
the Assam macaque.
Deforestation surges in hotspot of critically endangered Bornean orangutans
Context:
● Deforestation within a pulpwood concession that overlaps with key orangutan habitat in Indonesian Borneo
has escalated in recent months.
● Indigenous Dayak community of KualanHilir resides in those forests.
Bornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus):
● The Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is a species of orangutan endemic to the island of Borneo.
● Together with the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) and Tapanuli orangutan (Pongo tapanuliensis), it
belongs to the only genus of great apes native to Asia.
● Like the other great apes, orangutans are highly intelligent, displaying tool use and distinct cultural patterns
in the wild.
● Orangutans share approximately 97% of their DNA with humans. Also called mias by the local population, the
Bornean orangutan is a critically endangered species, with deforestation, palm oil plantations, and hunting
posing a serious threat to its continued existence.
● The Bornean orangutan population has declined rapidly in the past few decades, with nearly 150,000
individuals lost between 1999 and 2015. By 2016, it was estimated that only 57,350 Bornean orangutans
remained in the wild.
Peat forests:
● Sungai Paduan protected peat forest. The 6,788-hectare (16,774-acre) area consists mostly of peat swamp
rainforest and has been identified as one of the pockets of orangutan populations.
● Tropical peat ecosystems play a critical climate role because of the carbon they store: double the CO2 found
in all of Earth’s temperate and tropical forests.
● Peatlands also play a crucial role in water regulation by acting as a sponge, absorbing and retaining excess
water and reducing the risk of downstream flooding.
Researchers discover first proof of wild female chimpanzees experiencing menopause
Context:
● A recent study has uncovered the very first pieces of evidence of female wild chimpanzees experiencing
menopause and having a post-fertile life, which has been very rare in the animal kingdom.
● A handful of mammals, including humans and toothed whales, are known to have extended lifespans in
females beyond their reproductive years.
Relevance of menopause to fertility
● Menopause is when menstruation stops and female reproductive hormones slow down.
● This phenomenon is universal and marks the end of a female's reproductive cycle.
● It is the time in a female's life when menstruation stops permanently and she will no longer be able to bear
children.
● Menopause is defined as having occurred when a female has not had any vaginal bleeding for a year.
Relation Between Menopause and Fertility
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● Menopause is the end of a woman's reproductive cycle.
● Women cannot bear children once menopause occurs.
● Early menopause can also lead to fertility problems.
Significance of findings
● We now know that menopause and post-fertile survival arise across a broader range of species and socio-
ecological conditions than formerly appreciated, providing a solid basis for considering the roles that improved
diets and lowered risks of predation would have played in human life history evolution.
Tamil Nadu and Kerala may join hands to count endangered Nilgiritahr
Context:
● Tamil Nadu is in consultation with Kerala to conduct the census of its state animal and southern India’s only
mountain ungulate, Nilgiri Tahr.
Counting technique:
● For counting techniques it will take help from WWF-India, the Nature Conservation Foundation, and the WII.
● Counting methods could be: Bounded count, double-observer survey methods or/and Camera traps.
Threats:
● Nilgiritahr habitats face threats in the form of the spread of invasive plants such as wattles, pines, and
eucalyptus in the grasslands.
About Nilgiri Tahr:
● The Nilgiritahr (Nilgiritragushylocrius) is an ungulate that is endemic to the Nilgiri Hills and the southern
portion of the Western and Eastern Ghats in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in southern India.
● It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu.
● Despite its local name, it is more closely related to the sheep of the genus Ovis than the ibex and wild goats
of the genus Capra. It is the only species in the genus Nilgiritragus.
● Its population has been estimated at 3,122 in the wild, as per the WWF-India census of 2015.
● Eravikulam National Park is home to the largest population.
● The nilgiritahr’s habitat ranges between the Nilgiris in the north and the Kanniyakumari hills in the south.
o Their habitat include: The Nilgiris hills; Siruvani hills; Anamalais, high ranges and Palani hills;
Srivillipudur, Theni and Tirunelveli hills; and the KalakadMundanthurai Tiger Reserve and Ashambu
hills. Among these, the Anamalai hills and the Nilgiris, mainly the Mukurthi National Park, are home
to the highest number of the animals.
Project Nilgiri Tahr:
● India’s first Nilgiri Tahr project to conserve the State animal of Tamil Nadu will be taken up at a cost of ₹25.14
crores.
About the project:
● Announced during the Tamilnadu state budget 2022-23.
● The project will be implemented over the span of five years- 2022-27.
● The project will have nine components, including bi-annual synchronised surveys across the
division, diagnosis and treatment for affected individuals and the Shola grassland restoration pilot in Upper
Bhavan.
● Project Nilgiri Tahr of Tamil Nadu Forest aims to restore the fragmented habitat, especially Shola grasslands
where it thrives, reintroduce the Tahr population in its historic habitat and ensure proper rehabilitation
facilities are provided.
Scavenging hyenas save carcass disposal costs
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Context:
● A new study estimates the monetary benefits of striped hyenas scavenging on livestock carcasses and wild
prey in Rajasthan’s Sawai Mansingh Wildlife Sanctuary.
Details:
● The waste disposal services provided by striped hyenas may also play a role in hindering disease transmission.
● Educating local communities on the monetary benefits of striped hyenas scavenging services may play a role
in removing their negative image and aid in the conservation of these carnivores.
Hyenas:
● Four species of hyenas exist in the world, of which, one, the striped hyena, is found in India.
● Sporting a dog-like appearance, striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena) are large, solitary carnivores that inhabit
arid and semiarid landscapes from East Africa to South Asia.
● The shy, nocturnal animals rarely hunt or kill livestock. Instead, they feed opportunistically on remains of
animals predated by larger carnivores such as tigers and leopards and discarded domestic livestock carcasses.
● The main diet of the striped hyenas is livestock, mainly cows and buffaloes but wild prey such as nilgai,
sambar, wild boar, and chital also contribute to the diet of striped hyenas.
● Ecological significance of Hyenas:
o Hyenas have a unique ability to crush and consume bones. Without bone scavengers, skeletons
would take many years to decompose depending on the environmental conditions.
o The concentration of calcium and phosphorus, key components of bones, in hyena fecesis between
1,000 to 20,000 times higher than in local soils in two reserves in southern Africa.
o Consequently, the soils in which hyenas defecate will become enriched with these nutrients,
changing the fertility of the landscape with important implications for plant growth, community
composition and animal diet quality.
Prey, habitat dictate Asiatic wild dog-tiger coexistence, says study
Context:
● Overlapping prey availability or habitat suitability could dictate a positive association between dholes and
tigers, facilitating co-existence or even cooperative behaviours between the two species of carnivores, a
new study has found.
● Study conducted in: Western Assam’s Manas National Park
About Dhole (Asiatic wild dog):
● The dhole (Cuon alpinus) is the only endangered wild pack-living canid in the tropical Indian forests and is
considered at high risk of extinction.
● They are native to Central, South, East and Southeast Asia.
● Dholes were once widespread across southern and eastern Asia.
● Other English names for the species include Asian wild dog, Asiatic wild dog, Indian wild dog, whistling dog,
red dog, red wolf, and mountain wolf.
● The dhole is a highly social animal. It is a diurnal pack hunter which preferentially targets large and medium-
sized ungulates.
● In tropical forests, the dhole competes with the tiger (Panthera tigris) and the leopard (Panthera pardus),
targeting somewhat different prey species, but still with substantial dietary overlap.
● IUCN Red list: Endangered
● Factors such as habitat loss, declining prey availability, persecution, disease, and interspecific competition
have contributed to the ongoing fragmentation of its populations.
As caracals inch towards extinction, path to conserving the wild cat remains unclear
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Context:
● An estimated 50 caracals are left in the small clusters in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, making caracal
the second cat species after the Asiatic cheetah to reach the brink of extinction in India.
Caracal (Caracal caracalschmitzi):
● A small wild cat noted for its long-tufted ears and a reddish-tan or sandy-brown coat.
● The feline, with distinctive black markings on its face and white circles around the eyes and mouth, is native
to Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and arid areas of Pakistan and northwestern India.
● Typically nocturnal, the caracal is highly secretive and difficult to observe. It is territorial, and lives mainly
alone or in pairs.
● The caracal is a carnivore that typically preys upon birds, rodents, and other small mammals.
● After the Asiatic cheetah, which was declared extinct in 1952, the caracal will be the second cat species to be
wiped out from the country.
● Protection status:
o The species is listed under ‘least concern’ under the IUCN Red List globally, it has been listed as ‘near
threatened’ by the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) and IUCN Red List
assessment in India.
o The species is included in the Schedule-I category of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
offering it the highest possible protection.
● Habitat range:
o It is a species of wasteland, open forests and shrublands.
o Some 28 caracal individuals are found in the Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan and around
20 in Kutch in Gujarat.
The poorly studied Eurasian lynx in Ladakh needs more research for conservation
Eurasian lynx:
● Eurasian lynx is a carnivorous cat species found in barren, relatively open, rocky mountainous plateau of
Central Asia. In India, the lynx is found in some parts of Ladakh and Dobaj forest area of South Kashmir’s
Shopian district. and sightings of the cat have been very rare.
● It is the second largest feline species in Ladakh, after the snow leopard.
● Lynx usually preyonTibetan wooly hare, marmots, and Royle’s pika, female or juvenile ungulates, domestic
sheep and goats. Their role in the food chain involves regulating the populations of these prey species.
● Over a period of time, it is estimated that the population of Eurasian lynx in India has gone down. Conducting
a population survey of the elusive cat is also difficult in comparison to other cat species.
A medium-size cat:
● There are six subspecies of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) found in Europe and North-central Asia.
● The subspecies found in India is known as the central Asian lynx (Lynx lynxisabellinus). It is also known as
Turkestan lynx, Tibetan lynx or Himalayan lynx.
● The Eurasian lynx is the largest species of the genus lynx and is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List.
The species is listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act which means it has the highest level of
protection.
● Locally known as Eeh or Ee in Ladakhi, is found in different parts of Ladakh such as the Changthang Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tso-Kar basin, Hemis National Park and Nubra Valley, which are major habitats of the cat.
Lynx in Ladakh:
● In Ladakh there are three major felids – snow leopard, being the largest cat, is the apex predator, the Eurasian
lynx subspecies which is a medium size wildcat and Pallas’s cat which is a small wildcat.
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● The Eurasian lynx found in Ladakh has long legs and big paws. Its tail is very short and the ears have a black
back with long black hair tufts. The fur is yellowish with a faint and almost unmarked coat.
● While other subspecies of Eurasian lynx are mostly found in forested areas, the central Asian lynx or
Himalayan lynx inhabits a barren environment.
● By preying on these herbivores, lynxes help control their numbers, preventing overgrazing and habitat
degradation.
Elvish Yadav case: How is snake venom used as a recreational drug?
Context:
● Snake venom is often used as a recreational drug. Its smuggling is a multi-million dollar illicit industry, media
reports suggest.
Details:
● Not enough scientific studies have been done on the recreational use of snake venom, according to a 2018
study, ‘Snake Venom Use as a Substitute for Opioids: A Case Report and Review of Literature’, published in
the Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine.
Snake venom:
● Snake venom is a highly toxic saliva containing zootoxins that facilitates the immobilization and digestion of
prey. This also provides defence against threats. Snake venom is injected by unique fangs during a bite,
whereas some species are also able to spit venom.
● The glands that secrete zootoxins are a modification of the parotid salivary glands found in other vertebrates
and are usually located on each side of the head, below and behind the eye, and enclosed in a muscular sheath.
The venom is stored in large glands called alveoli before being conveyed by a duct to the base of channelled
or tubular fangs through which it's ejected.
● Venom contains more than 20 different compounds, which are mostly proteins and polypeptides.
How is snake venom consumed?
● Snakes were deliberately made to bite on the consumer’s feet or tongue. Snakes like cobras and Indian kraits
were most commonly used for this purpose.
How does snake venom affect the human body?
● The snake bite was associated with jerky movements of the body, blurring of vision, and unresponsiveness,
i.e. ‘blackout’, heightened arousal and sense of well-being, which lasted for 3–4 weeks, happiness,
grandiosity, and excessive sleepiness.
● Once the effect of the bite wore off, the person began to experience irritation and lethargy and craved drugs.
Why does snake venom give a high?
● It may be due to the neurotoxin nature of snake venom that causes analgesia, or the inability to feel pain.
● Forms of a neurotoxin found in cobra venom, particularly, bind on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs)
that are widely distributed in the human brain area and are involved in the euphoric or rewarding experience.
● Once the venom enters human blood, it releases active metabolites like serotonin that have different
psychotropic effects such as hypnotic and sedative.
Why is using snake venom as a recreational drug dangerous?
● It isn’t well known what quality of venom can be fatal for humans. Therefore, recreational use of snake venom
can lead to not only addiction but also death.
Rare dinosaur eggs found in Narmada Valley show how ancient reptiles shared traits with today’s birds:
Study
Context;
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● A group of Indian researchers found rare cases of fossilised dinosaur eggs — an egg within an egg —
among 256 newly discovered eggs from the Narmada Valley.
Details of the findings:
● The discovery relates the unique reproductive trait of Titanosaurs- one of the largest dinosaurs to have
roamed the Earth- to the modern-day birds.
● The egg has two yolks; this feature can be seen in birds, suggesting they share similar reproductive traits.
● The unique feature of an egg within the egg has not been reported from any other dinosaur or even in other
reptiles.
● The eggs belonged to six species, suggesting a higher diversity of these extinct giants in India.
● Fossilised eggs provide clues on reproductive biology, nesting behaviour and parental care
Similarities with modern-day birds:
● Titanosaurs buried their eggs in shallow pits, a behaviour seen in modern-day crocodiles.
● They nested in colonies, a feature found in about 13 per cent of modern-day birds. They also laid eggs in
sequential order like avian species.
Where is the fossil eggs found?
● This region falls between the easternmost Lameta exposures at Jabalpur in the upper Narmada Valley
(central India) and Balasinor in the west in the lower Narmada Valley (western central India).
● Lameta exposure is a sedimentary rock formation known for its dinosaur fossils.
● These sedimentary rocks are mostly exposed along the Narmada Valley.
● The fossil records here are largely concealed by Deccan volcanic flows, which prevents their removal by
erosion.
Spot-Bellied Eagle Owl (Bubo Nipalensis):
● They are known to be spotted in dense wet lowland and hilly forests.
● They are large and very powerful nocturnal predatory bird species, but occasionally hunt in the day. They are
also known to hunt larger prey such as small deers, golden jackals, hares, civets and chevrotains.
● These species are found to be distributed across India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
● In India, the bird species is distributed in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram.
● The bird makes a strange scream similar to humans because of which it is referred to as the “ghost of the
forest” in India and “devil bird” in Sri Lanka.
● IUCN red list status: Least Concern
● WPA, 1972: Schedule IV protection
● CITES: Appendix II protection
Where fossils meet faith in a Madhya Pradesh district
In the news:
● In Madhya Pradesh's Dhar district, scientists recently confirmed that a revered Bhil deity, Kakad Bhairav,
worshipped as a sun-baked stone, is actually a 66-million-year-old fossilized egg of a titanosaur, a
herbivorous dinosaur. The discovery challenges long-standing local beliefs.
Details:
● The region has been rich in prehistoric discoveries since the 1980s, with fossils of sauropods, dinosaur eggs,
and extinct marine creatures indicating an ancient past.
● Eminent palaeontologist Ashok Sahni describes this area as hosting the largest dinosaur hatchery on Earth,
spreading across Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
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● Over 256 fossilised dinosaur eggs, including recent discoveries of 20 nests, have been found in Madhya
Pradesh's Bagh region.
● There's hope that this latest confirmation could aid in obtaining UNESCO's Global Geopark status for the Bagh
site, further enhancing its scientific significance.
● Vishal Verma, a physics teacher, has played a pivotal role in safeguarding over 100 fossilized dinosaur eggs
and various other ancient treasures in the region.
● The scientists and local community are acknowledging the vital role of the Bhil community in protecting this
significant heritage site.
Historical aspect:
● Research indicates that dinosaurs existed in India from the Late Triassic (200 Mn years) to the Cretaceous
Period (65 Mn years ago).
● Historical discoveries of dinosaur remains in India date back to the 19th century, with the country witnessing
significant fossil excavations, including the identification of a new species of carnivorous dinosaur named
Rajasaurus narmadensis.
● Captain William Sleeman, posted in the Narmada Valley, discovered the skeletal remains in Jabalpur
cantonment’s Bara Simla Hill in 1828. As a tribute, a town in MP, 40 km away from Bagh, was rechristened as
Sleemanabad.
● The region's fossilized treasures, including ammonites, shark teeth, and titanosaurs' eggs, provide crucial
insights into ancient marine life and geological evolution, shedding light on the cataclysmic forces that
shaped the planet millions of years ago.
Godavari estuary in Andhra Pradesh has become prime habitat for Indian Skimmer, says expert
Section Species in news
Context:
● Indian skimmer (Rynchopsalbicollis), Great Knot and Caspian Terns were sighted in the Godavari estuary
(Mahanadi area and Chambal area) in Andhra Pradesh.
About Indian Skimmer (Rynchopsalbicollis):
● Also known as the Indian scissors bill.
● They are more widespread in winter; the Indian skimmer is found in the coastal estuaries of western and
eastern India.
● The species can be sighted near the Chambal River in Central India, in few parts of Odisha and in Andhra
Pradesh.
Major Threats:
● Habitat degradation, excessive and widespread increases in disturbances near the rivers.
Protection Status:
● IUCN Red List Status: Endangered
● CITES: Not listed
Asian Waterbird Census:
● Every January, thousands of volunteers across Asia and Australasia visit wetlands in their country and count
waterbirds.
● This citizen-science programme supports the conservation and management of wetlands and waterbirds
worldwide.
● The AWC is an integral part of the global waterbird monitoring programme, the International Waterbird
Census (IWC), coordinated by Wetlands International.
Birders’ network finds rare pelagic birds on Karnataka’s coast
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Context:
● Some 180 birdwatchers from across India were able to document rare ‘pelagic’birds throughout 2023 just off
the Karnataka coast.
About Pelagic Birds:
● These are seabirds that live on open seas and oceans rather than inland or around more restricted waters
such as lakes and rivers.
● They can be found thousands of miles offshore but can get blown onto land during high winds and storms.
● The only other time they come inland is to breed.
● The most familiar types of pelagic birds include albatrosses, frigatebirds, fulmars, petrels, shearwaters, and
tropicbirds.
● Example: Sooty Shearwater, Brown Skua, Brown Booby, Streaked Shearwater and Masked Booby.
● Features:
o They feed on planktonic crustaceans and squid and hunt fish far from the land.
o Generally, they have dense, waterproof feathers and layers of fat to keep them warm.
o They have exceptionally long and thin wings that allow them to fly effortlessly for long periods
without rest.
o Many pelagic birds have special salt glands. This allows them to drink seawater and discard extra salt
accidentally ingested by their oceanic prey.
o Some have webbed or partially webbed feet for swimming, plucking fish from the shallows, or
executing precise, plunging dives.
o In general, seabirds live longer than other wild birds; most have an average lifespan of 50 years.
o Almost all seabirds live in colonies, migrate annually, and mate for life.
Great Indian Bustard
Section : Species in news
Concept :
● A Supreme Court appointed committee has recommended that to protect the endangered great Indian
bustard, close to 800 km of proposed power lines in the Thar and Kutch deserts of Rajasthan and Gujarat
should be rerouted or made to go underground.
● Only some 150 of these birds are still left, most of them in Jaisalmer of Rajasthan.
Great Indian Bustard
● One of the heaviest flying birds endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
● State Bird of Rajasthan.
Habitat:
● Untamed, Arid grasslands.
● GIBs prefer grasslands as their habitats
● A Maximum number of GIBs were found in Jaisalmer and the Indian Army-controlled field firing range near
Pokhran, Rajasthan.
● Other areas: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Population:
● There are around 150 Great Indian Bustards left across the country which includes about 128 birds in
Rajasthan and less than 10 birds each in the States of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka.
● While the GIBs’ historic range included much of the Indian sub-continent, it has now shrunk to just 10 per
cent of that.
Protection Status:
● IUCN Status: Critically Endangered.
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● Listed in Wildlife Protection Act’s Schedule 1.
● Significance of GIBs in the ecosystem:
o Terrestrial birds spend most of their time on the ground, feeding on insects, lizards, grass seeds, etc.
GIBs are considered the flagship bird species of grassland and hence barometers of the health of
grassland ecosystems.
Why is the Great Indian Bustard endangered?
● Power transmission lines are one of the biggest threat to their survival.
● Due to their poor frontal vision, the birds can’t spot the power lines from a distance, and are too heavy to
change course when close. Thus, they collide with the cables and die.
● In Rajasthan, 18 GIBs die every year after colliding with overhead power lines.
Great Indian Bustard: Conservation efforts
● Supreme Court directed to made the overhead power transmission lines, underground.
● Installation of bird diverters (reflector-like structures strung on power cables) in priority areas.
● In 2015, the Centre launched the GIB species recovery programme. Under this, the WII and Rajasthan forest
department jointly set up breeding centres where GIB eggs harvested from the wild were incubated
artificially.
Vultures in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve depending on cattle carcasses for food are at risk of poisoning
Context: The study by a researcher from the Centre for Wildlife Studies, said the availability of Non-Steroidal Anti
Inflammatory Drugs near vulture nesting areas, and the birds’ dependence on cattle carcasses as food sources
placed them at great risk; more action is needed for the protection of vulture species.
Vultures
● It is one of the 22 species of large carrion-eating birds that live predominantly in the tropics and subtropics.
● India is home to 9 species of Vulture namely the Oriental white-backed, Long-billed, Slender-billed,
Himalayan, Red-headed, Egyptian, Bearded, Cinereous and the Eurasian Griffon.
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● Habitat: The preferred habitats of the
Vulture are deserts, savannas and
grassland near a water source. It also
inhabits open mountain ranges up to
3,000 metres above sea level.
● Distribution: Vultures are widely
distributed, but they are absent from
Australia and most oceanic islands.
Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus)
● Critically Endangered [IUCN]
● Long-billed Vulture, The Indian
Vulture, which is closely related to the
European Griffon, is typically found
in woods, grasslands, and shrub lands.
● It is seen close to human-occupied
regions like cities, towns, and
agricultural areas, just like many other
vulture species. This vulture can be
found all over the Indian subcontinent
and its neighboring nations, as its name
suggests.
Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus)
● Other names: Pondicherry Vulture,
Indian Black Vulture, Asian King Vulture
● Red-headed Vultures are found all over India, though in small numbers with the exception of the western
Himalayas. These vultures favor vast spaces, semi-deserts, and scrublands that are far from populated areas.
● They are distinct, medium-sized raptors with dark plumage, red legs, and red necks.
● They typically appear alone or in pairs rather than in vast groups, in contrast to many other vultures. They
construct nests in large trees.
White-Rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)
● Known as: Indian White-backed Vulture, White-backed Vultures.
● White-rumped Vultures, a medium-sized vulture, are frequently spotted close to areas where people are
present. They have black and brown plumage with white neck ruffs.
● They frequently appear in groups with different vulture species. White-rumped Vultures consume carrion, like
the majority of vultures.
● However, they have also been seen eating trash and abattoir waste as they dwell close to populated areas.
They erect nests atop cliffs and trees.
Significance:
● Their habit of eating carrion is extremely beneficial to humans. As it has a considerable effect on reducing the
spread of diseases. Some of which can be fatal.
Conservation Initiatives:
● National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) has approved an Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2020-2025. Key
highlights of the plan include,
o Vulture Conservation Centre: Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu will get
a vulture conservation and breeding centre.
o Vulture Safe zone: Establishment of at least one vulture-safe zone in each state for the conservation
of the remnant populations in that state.
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o
Rescue Centres: Establishment of four rescue centres, in Pinjore (Haryana), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh),
Guwahati (Assam) and Hyderabad (Telangana). There are currently no dedicated rescue centres for
treating vultures.
o Toxic Drugs: A system to automatically remove a drug from veterinary use if it is found to be toxic to
vultures with the help of the Drugs Controller General of India.
o Vultures Census: Coordinated nationwide vulture counting involving forest departments, the Bombay
Natural History Society, research institutes, nonprofits and members of the public. This would be for
getting a more accurate estimate of the size of vulture populations in the country.
o Database on Threats to Vulture: A database on emerging threats to vulture conservation including
collision and electrocution, unintentional poisoning.
Conservation efforts by Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS):
● The BNHS and Royal Society for Protection of Birds (RSPB) have been managing four Jatayu conservation
breeding centres across the country in partnership with the State governments of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
West Bengal, and Assam.
● BNHS has started the construction of soft release centres in Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Rajasthan, and at three
tiger reserves in Maharashtra.
● The Drug Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) in its meeting on May 10, 2023, agreed to prohibit the
manufacture, sale and distribution of the drugs Ketoprofen and Aceclofenac, and their formulations for
animal use.
o The DTAB also suggested that a list of all drugs which affect animal health or the environment be
prepared for further action.
Ban on more drugs harmful for vultures welcome move, but more stringent steps needed
Context:
● Vulture conservationists and experts have welcomed the central government’s move to ban veterinary drugs
aceclofenac and ketoprofen which are fatal for vultures, but suggest more needs to be done for creating a
safe environment for the bird.
Details:
● Ban on three drugs —aceclofenac, nimesulide and ketoprofen- had been requested.
● The decision taken on the ban by the Drugs Technical Advisory Board in May is the second big step towards
vulture conservation since the banning of Diclofenac in 2006.
● Nimesulide continues to possess a threat and should be banned soon
● Ketoprofen and aceclofenac in cattle are equally toxic as Diclofenac and can kill vultures.
● Studies showed that aceclofenac was rapidly metabolised into diclofenac and ketoprofen is toxic to Gyps
vultures.
Captive-bred vultures flying high in forest expanses
Section: Species
Why in news:
● In 2020, eight critically endangered Oriental white-backed captive-bred vultures were released into the wild
for the first time ever in India from the Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre in Pinjore, Haryana.
● Close to three years later, five survive and two have paired and successfully nested, in the untamed habitat
of the Shivalik range in the foothills of the Himalayas.
Details:
● There has been no report of veterinary non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) related mortality.
● There is a concern over the uncontrolled veterinary use of NSAIDs especially the illegal use of the banned drug
diclofenac that has caused vulture deaths.
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● 3 drugs fatal for vultures are: Diclofenac, Ketoprofen and Aceclofenac.
About the Himalayan vulture:

● The Himalayan Griffon Vulture, Gyps himalayensis, is an Old World vulture in the family Accipitridae, which also includes
eagles, kites, buzzards and hawks.
● It is closely related to the European Griffon Vulture, G. fulvus.
● Categorized as ‘Near Threatened’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of threatened
species.
Distribution Range:
● The Himalayan vulture mostly lives in the Himalayas on the Tibetan plateau (India, Nepal and Bhutan, central China and
Mongolia).
● It is also found in the Central Asian mountains (from Kazakhstan and Afghanistan in the west to western China and Mongolia
in the east).
● Occasionally it migrates to northern India but migration usually only occurs altitudinally.
Breeding of himalayan vultures:
● The Himalayan vultures successfully bred at the zoo were rescued in 2011-2012 from different poisonings and accidents.
● The conservation breeding of the Himalayan vulture at Vulture Conservation Breeding Centre (VCBC) at Rani in Assam is the
second such instance in the world, after France, where the species has been bred in captivity.
SAVE (Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction)
● The consortium of like-minded, regional and international organizations, created to oversee and coordinate conservation,
campaigning and fundraising activities to help the plight of south Asia’s vultures.
● Objective: To save three critically important species from extinction through a single programme.
● SAVE partners: Bombay Natural History Society, Bird Conservation Nepal, RSPB (UK), National Trust for Nature Conservation
(Nepal), and International Centre for Birds of Prey (UK) and Zoological Society of London.
How the American bald eagle ‘returned’ from the brink of extinction
Context: The American bald eagle was removed from the United States list of endangered species on June 28, 2007.
Details:
● A 2021 report by the US Fish and Wildlife Service said that the number of bald eagles in the wild has
quadrupled since 2009. Few decades back the bird was on the verge of extinction.
About the Bald Eagle:
● The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey found in North America.
● Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of the contiguous United States, and northern Mexico.
● The bald eagle is an opportunistic feeder which subsists mainly on fish.
● The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States of America and appears on its seal.
Threats include:
● Hunting, Habitat destruction, and Widespread use of DDT led to their population decline.
Protection efforts:
● Silent Spring, the ban on DDT and the Endangered Species Act
o A nationwide ban on the use of DDT for agricultural use was introduced in 1972.
▪ In 1962, Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring was published. This book, for the first time,
documented the detrimental effects of chemical pesticides on the environment and
meticulously described how DDT was the prime cause behind the decline in bald eagle
populations.
o In 1973, the Endangered Species Act was enacted.
▪ The bald eagle was one of the original species listed for protection under this act.
● Captive breeding programmes were launched in the 1970s.
o A practice known as hacking was commonly used by conservationists. Hacking is a controlled way to
raise and release bald eagles into a wild viable environment from artificial nesting towers.
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o This method simulates a wild eagle nesting site and aids in recovery in an area where re-population is
desirable.
o Any construction activity was barred within a radius of roughly 100 m of a bald eagle nesting site.
● In 1995, the bald eagle was moved from “endangered” to “threatened” status and in 2007, it was delisted
completely.
World Sparrow Day
Context: A citywide enumeration of the house sparrow population undertaken recently by the Travancore Nature
History Society a few days ago recorded only nearly 130 birds.
House Sparrow (Passer domesticus):
● It is a small bird belonging to the family Passeridae.
● Distribution: Found across Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is also found in North America, South America, and
Australia, where it was introduced by humans.
● Habitat: The House Sparrow is a common bird found in urban and rural areas, and is often seen around
human habitation, such as houses, buildings, and parks.
● Diet: It is an omnivorous bird and feeds on a variety of food, including seeds, insects, and scraps of food from
humans.
● Conservation status:
● IUCN Status: Least Concern
● The Wildlife Protection Act,1972: Schedule IV
● They are considered a pest in some agricultural areas due to its habit of feeding on crops such as wheat and
rice.
● Threats: Despite its large population size, the House Sparrow has experienced declines in some areas,
particularly in urban areas, due to habitat loss, pesticides, and other factors.
KFRI on a clear-the-air campaign for bats
Section: Species in new
Bats:
● Bats are the only mammals capable of sustained flight.
● They belong to the order Chiroptera, which means “hand-wing” in Greek.
● There are over 1,400 species of bats, comprising around 20% of all mammal species.
● Bats are found worldwide, except in the polar regions and some isolated islands.
● Ecological Significance:
● Seed dispersal– The diet of fruit-eating bats consists largely of flowers and fruits such as mangoes, bananas,
guavas, custard apples, figs, tamarind and many species of forest trees.
● Pollination– Studies have found that bats play a vital role in pollination, mainly of large-flowered plants, and
in crop protection.
● Production boost– Some large insectivorous bats are also reported to feed on small rodents.
● Soil fertility– Bat droppings provide organic input to soil and facilitate nutrient transfer, contributing to soil
fertility and agricultural productivity.
● Health benefits– contribute to human health by reducing populations of mosquitoes and other insect vectors
that spread malaria, dengue, chikungunya and other diseases.
Threats
● Anthropogenic factors such as habitat loss, poaching, environmental pollution, climate change,
and biological invasions have caused the decline of bat population worldwide.
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● Due to their low reproductive rate, gregarious lifestyle, and high metabolic rate, most bat species cannot
withstand anthropogenic pressures.
Echolocation: what goes around comes around
Context: Bats, dolphins and submarines all use the same technique to get a sense of their surroundings: Echolocation.
What is echolocation?
● Nature’s own sonar system, echolocation, occurs when an animal or an object emits a sound wave that
bounces off an object, returning an echo that provides information about the object’s distance and size.
Which species can echolocate?
● Over a thousand species echolocate, including most bats, all toothed whales, and small mammals.
● Many are nocturnal, burrowing, and ocean-dwelling animals that rely on echolocation to find food in an
environment with little to no light.
● Animals have several methods for echolocation, from vibrating their throats to flapping their wings.
● Nocturnal oilbirds and some swiftlets, some of which hunt in dark cave environments, produce short clicks
with their syrinx, the vocal organ of birds.
● Some people can also echolocate by clicking their tongues, a behavior shared by only a few other animals,
including tenrecs, a shrew-like animal from Madagascar, and the Vietnamese pygmy dormouse, which is
effectively blind.
Defense against echolocation:
● Some moths have evolved their own What is Phonotaxis?
defenses against echolocating bats. The tiger ● Phonotaxis is the movement by an animal in response to a
sound. It has mostly been observed among crickets, moths,
moth flexes the tymbal organ on either side frogs, toads, and a few other creatures.
of its thorax to produce clicks, which jams ● There are two types of phonotaxis: positive and negative.
bat sonar and keeps the predators at bay. ● Positive phonotaxis:
Applications of Echolocation technique: o The purpose of positive phonotaxis is attraction.
o It usually happens when the females of a particular
● Humans have harnessed the principles of species are attracted to the sounds made by the
this ingenious technique to create devices males.
like sonar and Radar. ● Negative phonotaxis
o It serves to repel or warn, such as when the sound
● SONAR is an acronym of 'Sound navigation of a predator nearby signals to an animal that it
and ranging'. needs to move away.
o It is widely used for underwater
navigation, communications, and to find fish.
● RADAR: an acronym for 'Radio detection and ranging'.
o It is used in aviation, weather forecasting, and military applications to detect and track objects by
bouncing radio waves off them.
● More recently engineer's have used echolocation to develop smartphone apps that can create a map of a
room to help people with visual impairments navigate their environs better.
How do animals see in the dark?
Photoreception:
● Photoreception is the activation of a biological process by light.
● Most organisms, including humans, respond to light. Some animals react to light waves not perceived by
humans.
● Vertebrates have two types of photosensitive cells, rods and cones, so called because of their shape.
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o The rods, which are long and fat, contain large amounts of visual pigment and they mediate vision
under dim illumination (scotopic vision).
o The cone cells, which are relatively small, mediate daylight vision (photopic vision) and colour
sensation.
Vision of Human Eyes:
● The retinas of animals active both day and night, as are those of humans, contain both rods and cones.
● In parts of the human retina, the rods and cones are intermingled and the nervous system provides a
switching mechanism that permits adjustment for light conditions.
Vision in nocturnal and diurnal animals:
● In diurnal animals, the lens is smaller and the front surface is flatter. Thus the focal length is longer and so
the image on the retina is larger and dimmer than in the nocturnal eye. As a result, the resolution is higher.
● The retinas of diurnal animals have localised areas with a high density of cone cells. (The eyes of most birds
have two such areas.)
● In nocturnal animals, the optical arrangement of the eyes suggests that resolution is sacrificed for high light-
gathering power.
● In nocturnal animals, the retina is mainly made up of rod cells.Rhodopsin, a photosensitive pigment present
in rods, is decolourised by photons (light particles) and slowly regenerated in the dark. This ensures better
vision for them in dim light.
Why are migratory birds giving India a miss?
Section :Species in news
Context:
● Harriers, hawk-like birds, are not visiting the grasslands of India as they were used to in the past. The reason
is shrinking grasslands and the grasslands being replaced by trees and agriculture.
Migratory birds:
● Thousands of birds migrate between their breeding and non-breeding grounds twice a year.
● Some migratory birds are the Amur falcon, wandering albatross, Arctic terns, and the bar-tailed
godwits(undertake sea-crossings of more than 11,000 km non-stop).
● Reason for their migration:
o The reduction in day length and temperatures in temperate regions during winter lowers food
availability, making the birds move southwards to the warmer tropical regions for food.
o Another reason is to reduce competition with other related species.
The flyways:
● Long-distance migratory birds have evolved to use certain flight paths for their journeys: called flyways, these
span continents and oceans.
● A flyway includes not just migratory pathways
but also breeding and wintering ranges.
● Broadly, there are eight migration flyways across
the world.
● They were initially classified on the basis of the
migration of the waterfowl, which journey in
large flocks, but these paths are also used by
other birds ranging from small songbirds
(passerines) and tiny warblers to large birds of
prey (raptors).
● There are three major flyways in Asia: The West
Pacific Flyway, The East Asian Australasian
Flyway, The Central Asian Flyway (CAF)
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● India falls within the CAF, which is spread across Eurasia from the Arctic Ocean to the Indian Ocean, and
geographically spans 30 countries.
● This flyway is used by at least 400 species of birds, which breed in the central Asian region and migrate down
south to the Indian subcontinent during winter.
● The topography and ecosystem diversity along the flyway include the high-altitude Himalayan plateau,
deserts, lakes and marshes, and steppe/grassland habitats.
Central Asian Flyways (CAF):
● According to the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), a United Nations initiative, the CAF has the least
available information on migratory birds compared with the other major flyways.
● Precise tracking information is available for less than 1 per cent of the bird species using the CAF.
● Threats affect the birds on this route: habitat loss, prevalent practices of hunting, intensive agriculture, and
lack of pesticide management.
A comprehensive study on birds:
● The State of India’s Birds Report (SoIB), published in 2020, was the first comprehensive study on the
distribution range, trends in abundance, and conservation status of most of the bird species that commonly
occur in India.
● Based on crowd sourced and citizen science data, uploaded in the eBird platform.
● Analysis of the report:
o 52 per cent of the 867 species assessed are on the decline. This includes long-distance migratory birds
and birds associated with open ecosystems such as grasslands.
Intercepting the illegal capture of migratory birds in south-central West Bengal
Illegal trapping and trading of migratory birds:
● Migratory birds are poached during their winter stop at wetlands (beel in Bengali) and open fields in the
central-south Bengal districts of Murshidabad, Malda, Birbhum and Bardhaman.
● Exotic birds are those that are bred in captivity. According to the Wild Life Protection Act in 2022, people can
sell exotic birds after obtaining a breeder’s license. But the wild birdscannot be caught, sold, bought or
killed. The migratory birds, including short-toed larks, fall under the wild category.
o Larks, which resemble sparrows are called bogari or math chorui in Bengali.
● The majority of the rescued birds were short-toed larks, a migratory species that arrive in India to escape the
harsh winters of their native habitats in Mongolia, China and Russia.
● Unprotected wetlands and agricultural fields are the main trapping points for these birds.
● Poaching is mainly from Kandi, Murshidabad, Purba Bardhaman, Kurul, Patan Beel, Khargram and Bharatpur
areas. They were booked under various sections of the Wild Life Protection Act, of 1972.
Migratory birds and habitats in south-central West Bengal:
● The highest number (3,715) of migratory birds in West Bengal was recorded at Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary
in Birbhum district.
● Patan beel, a wetland sprawling over more than 100 hectares, in Murshidabad district in central West Bengal.
Black-headed ibis and Asian woolly neck were found in Patan beel.
● Belun Beel is in Kandi.
● Karul beel, also called Sahapur beel, attracts 5,000-10,000 migratory ducks in the winter and is the largest
wintering population of garganey in West Bengal.
Avian hotspot Murshidabad:
● Murshidabad is one of the epicentres of poaching of migratory birds. The ferruginous duck, black-headed
ibis, hen harrier and Asian woolly neck are a few of them.
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● Most of the rescued birds are Mongolian short-toed larks or Skyes’s short-toed larks, there also were other
migratory birds such as oriental skylark, olive-backed pipit, rosy pipit, red-throated pipit, common snipe and
cotton pygmy-goose.
● These birds are listed as ‘least concern’ by the IUCN.
Larks:
● Larks are passerine birds of the family Alaudidae.
● Larks have a cosmopolitan distribution with the largest number of species occurring in Africa.
● Only a single species, the horned lark, occurs in North America, and only Horsfield's bush lark occurs in
Australia.
● Habitats vary widely, but many species live in dry regions. When the word "lark" is used without specification,
it often refers to the Eurasian skylark (Alauda arvensis).
Kolkata-based Human & Environment Alliance League (HEAL):
● It is a non-profit organization established as a charitable trust in January 2017.
● Our work is focused on biodiversity conservation, mitigation of human-animal conflict and enforcement of
wildlife and environmental laws. Our current area of work is South Bengal.
5% of birds in India are endemic, reveals Zoological Survey of India publication
In the news:
● A recent publication by the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) points out that about 5% of birds found in the
country are endemic and are not reported in other parts of the world.
Details of the report:
● The publication, titled 75 Endemic Birds of India, was recently released on the 108th foundation day of the
ZSI.
● The 75 bird species belong to 11 different orders, 31 families, and 55 genera, and exhibit remarkable
distribution patterns across various regions in India.
● The highest number of endemic species have been recorded in the Western Ghats, with 28 bird species.
● Some of the interesting species recorded in the country’s bio-geographic hotspot are the:Malabar Grey
Hornbill (Ocyceros griseus);Malabar Parakeet (Psittaculacolumboides);Ashambu Laughing Thrush
(Montecinclameridionalis); andWhite-bellied Sholakili (Sholicolaalbiventris).
● 25 bird species are endemic to theAndaman and Nicobar Islands:
o Endemism in the Andaman group of islands must have developed because of the geographical
isolation of the region.
o Some interesting bird species which are only found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islandsare:Nicobar
Megapode (Megapodius nicobariensis);Nicobar Serpent Eagle (Spilornisklossi);Andaman Crake
(Rallinacanningi); andAndaman Barn Owl (Tyto deroepstorffi).
● Four species of birds are endemic to the Eastern Himalayas, and one each to the Southern Deccan plateau
and central Indian forest.
Bird diversity in India:
● India is home to 1,353 bird species. Of these 78 (5%) are endemic to the country.Of the 78 species,three
species have not been recorded in the last few decades.
● They are the:
o Manipur Bush Quail (Perdiculamanipurensis), listed as ‘Endangered’ by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species with its last recorded sighting in 1907;
o Himalayan Quail (Ophrysiasuperciliosa), listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ with its last recorded sighting
in 1876; and
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o Jerdon’s Courser (Rhinoptilusbitorquatus), listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ with its last confirmed
sighting in 2009.
State of Birds: Most species dip, India Peafowl among those flourishing
Context:There is a general decline in numbers in most bird species in the country - some recording current decline and
others projected to decline in the long term, according to a report based on data from about 30,000 birdwatchers.
About the Report:
● Report title: The State of India’s Birds 2023
● Released after three years.
● The report is an assessment of distribution range, trends in abundance and conservation status of 942 of
India's 1,200 bird species.
● The survey has been carried out by 13 partner organisations, including the Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
and Zoological Survey of India (ZSI).
● The assessments rely on three indices.
o Two of them are related to change in abundance -- long-term trend (change over 30 years) and current
annual trend (change over past seven years) -- and the third is a measure of distribution range size
in India.
● According to the report, long-term trends as well as current annual trends could not be established for many
of the 942 species.
Key findings of the Report:
● Raptors, migratory shorebirds and ducks have declined the most.
● Of the 338 species, for which long-term trends have been identified:204 or 60% have declined in the long
term,98 species are stable, 36 have increased.
● Current annual trends could be determined for 359 species, of which:142 species or 39% are declining,64 are
in rapid decline,189 are stable and28 bird species are increasing.
● The range size, or measurement of a bird species' territory and home range, was assessed for all 942 bird
species. The range size of 39% bird species is moderate,33% is very large, 28% species inhabit a "restricted
and very restricted" area.
Birds that are declined are:
● Specialist birds (having narrow range),Shorebirds (migratory birds),Raptors (due to agro-chemicals),Vultures
(White-rumped Vulture, Indian Vulture, and Red-headed Vulture),Birds that feed on invertebrates and insects,
Woodpecker, Birds endemic to western ghats and Sri-Lanka biodiversity hotspots, Bustard species of birds
(Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican and Bengal Florican).
Birds with stable population:
● Resident birds, Birds that feed on fruits and nectars, Generalist birds (having wide ranging habitats).
Birds with increasing populations:
● Several bird species such as the Indian Peafowl, Rock Pigeon, Asian Koel and House Crow are not healthy in
both abundance and distribution, but showing "increasing trend".
● Indian Peafowl:
o The Peafowl, India's national bird, is one of the most rapidly increasing species in the country today.
o It is expanding into habitats where it has never occurred previously.
o In the last 20 years, Indian Peafowl has expanded into high Himalaya and the rainforests of the
Western Ghats.
o It now occurs in every district in Kerala, a state where it was once extremely rare.
o Apart from expanding its range, it also appears to be increasing in population density in areas where
it occurred earlier.
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● The Asian Koel has shown a rapid increase in abundance of 75%, with an annual current increase of 2.7% per
year.
● Similar increase is seen in the populations of House Crow, Rock Pigeon and the Alexandrine Parakeet.
India’s iconic raptors are declining fast, warns new report
Context:
● India’s raptors (birds of prey) are declining fast and the reasons for the decline are poorly understood,
according to the State of India’s Birds 2023: Range, trends, and conservation status released on August 25,
2023.
What does the report say?
● Raptors are in decline globally due to:
o loss of habitat,
o pesticide accumulation
▪ Harriers have declined in their breeding range in Europe due to pesticide use. Harriers winter
in India and some, like the Pallid Harrier have shown a 70 per cent decline.
o targeted killing.
● All woodland species, and White-eyed Buzzard and Common Kestrel among generalists continue to decline
at a lower rate than earlier.
● In contrast, open country specialists show a particularly strong decline both in the long term and currently,
although Black-winged Kite and Western Marsh Harrier show trends that are roughly stable in the long term.
● Some raptors in India are on the decline as they need large tracts of high-quality habitat to serve their dietary
needs which the country no longer has.
o An example of this is the Tawny Eagle. It is becoming increasingly difficult to see today and is of High
Conservation Concern like many other large raptors.
Positive trends in the report:
● There are some positive trends too.
● Generalist species like Shikra, Booted Eagle, Greater Spotted Eagle, and Brahminy Kite (which occupy a range
of habitats, including human habitats) and woodland species appear to have suffered the least declines in the
long term.
Cats are killing India’s birds. Are we paying attention?
Context:
● The State of Birds in India 2023 report highlighted that the bird population in India is declining. And one of
the reasons is a silent bird-killer in urban areas of India- Cat.
Landscape of fear:
● One study found that cats may be the single greatest source of anthropogenic mortality for birds and
mammals in the U.S.
● Worldwide, free-ranging domestic cats have caused or contributed to dozens of extinctions of bird species
recorded in the IUCN Red List.
● A survey found that pet cats hunted birds the most, followed by reptiles, insects, rodents, and amphibians.
● Due to their ability to climb, they hunt the nests of birds also.
● Cat saliva is also more likely to contain bacteria (Pasteurella multocida) that are lethal to birds.
Trap, neuter, return:
● Domestic cats (Felis catus) are one of the world’s 100 worst invasive alien species.
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● ‘Trap-neuter-return’ (TNR) policy is adopted to control the population of cats and dogs.
● There is no definite data of how many birds are being killed by cats annually or a specific time-period.
What makes Domestic cats a good hunter?
● Its night vision and sense of smell are well developed.
● It has a strong flexible body, quick reflexes, sharp teeth, and retractable claws adapted to killing small prey
like mice and rats.
● Although the cat is a social species, it is a solitary hunter.
● As a predator, it is crepuscular, i.e. most active at dawn and dusk.
● It can hear sounds too faint or too high in frequency for human ears, such as those made by mice and other
small mammals.
● It also secretes and perceives pheromones.
The Tokhü Emong Bird Count (TEBC)
Context: The TokhüEmong Bird Count (TEBC) event took place over four days from November 4 to 7, 2022, and
involved 18 e-birders from four districts of Nagaland – Dimapur, Kohima, Peren, and Wokh
Concept:
Events for Bird of count across the nation:
● The Tokhü Emong Bird Count (TEBC) is a citizen science ● The organisers took the example of bird count
initiative with an aim to celebrate the birds of the state of events in other states conducted during
Nagaland. festivals, such as the Onam Bird Count
(Kerala), the Pongal Bird Count (Tamil Nadu)
● The event has been hailed as Nagaland’s first bird and the Bihu Bird Count (Assam).
documentation event by Bird Count India, a bird ● Accordingly, the TokhüEmong Bird
monitoring and documentation collective and one of the Count event took place during one of the
organising groups. festivals of the Lotha Nagas, the
TokhuEmong festival. TokhuEmong is
● The aim was to help nurture a love for birding and celebrated post-harvest, in the first week of
conservation amongst young participants. November.
Bird records in Nagaland: ● The term ‘TokhuEmong’ means to rest
from field work for feasting after harvest
● There are three other species of hornbills in the state: the season. Notably, during this festival, villagers
oriental pied hornbill, the wreathed hornbill, and the are restricted from hunting, fishing, trading,
great hornbill. or travelling.
● Some notable birds that were sighted include the brown shrike, black-tailed crake, blue-napped pitta, brown
bush warbler, spot-breasted scimitar babbler, brown-capped laughing thrush, eye-browed laughing thrush
and the flagship species, Amur falcon.
Threats to Birds in Nagaland:
● The major contributing factors to wildlife and biodiversity loss in the state include jhum cultivation, hunting,
felling and logging of trees, and more recently, developmental activities like road construction and widening,
and monoculture, amongst others.
The enigmatic Indian eagle-owl
Context: The Indian eagle-owl was classified as a species only in recent years, thus distinguishing it from the Eurasian
eagle-owl.
Indian eagle-owl:
● The Indian species is an imposing bird.
● The slightly larger female can reach a total length of two and a half feet, with a wingspan of six feet.
● Prominent ear tufts that look like horns are seen to project from its head.
● One theory holds that these have evolved to impart a threatening look that keeps away predators.
● It is nocturnal in nature.
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● It is native to hilly and rocky scrub forests in the Indian Subcontinent.
● The widespread range — the entire Indian peninsula — indicates that it is a stable population.
● It is usually seen in pairs. It has a deep resonant booming call that may be heard at dawn and dusk.
● The Indian eagle-owl does not have a dependency on forests as their diet includes rats, bandicoots, and even
bats and doves which are found in open scrubland and agricultural tracts.
● It nests on rocky perches and crags of those scrublands.
● Near human settlements, they prefer mango trees.
Benefits to farmers:
● Indian eagle-owls nesting near agricultural lands had more, and healthier, owlets than scrubland nesters.
● It controls the rodent populations in agricultural tracts thus preventing the loss.
Flying fox bats for vigilance while day-roosting, finds study
Context: India’s largest species of bats, named after a canine fabled to be sly, spends 7% of its day-roosting time being
environmentally vigilant, a new study has said.
Flying fox bats:
● Pteropus (suborder Yinpterochiroptera) is a genus of megabats which are among the largest bats in the world.
● They are commonly known as fruit bats or flying foxes, among other colloquial names.
● They live in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, East Africa, and some oceanic islands in the Indian and
Pacific Oceans.
● Flying foxes eat fruit and other plant matter, and occasionally consume insects as well.
● They locate resources with their keen sense of smell. Most, but not all, are nocturnal. They navigate with keen
eyesight, as they cannot echolocate.
● They are generally considered a vermin as they raid orchards.
● It had a similar official status under the Schedule V of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 until it was put on
the Schedule II list, entailing a higher degree of protection.
● Ecological role:
o It is a keystone species.
▪ A keystone species is one that has a disproportionately large effect on its natural environment
relative to its abundance, impacting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to
determine the types and numbers of other species in an ecological community.
o It causes seed dispersals of many plants in tropical systems.
o Vigilance behaviour.
o Being external roosters, the flying fox is exposed to predators and disturbances apart from
environmental indicators such as heat and light.
● Threats:
o The biggest threat to the flying fox is from humans.
o Hunting for meat and medicine and probable threats like the felling of roost trees have contributed
to the dramatic decrease in the population of the species.
Coastal raptors make power towers their home
Context:
● White-bellied sea eagles in India are beginning to emulate their counterparts in Australia and Thailand by
making their homes on power towers holding high-tension wires.
White-bellied sea eagle:
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● The white-bellied sea eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) is a resident raptor belonging to the family Accipitridae.
● It has a wide distribution range on the sea coast of Indiafrom Mumbai to the eastern coast of Bangladesh,
and Sri Lanka in southern Asia, through all coastal south-eastern Asia, southern China to Australia.
● The raptor, a diurnal monogamous bird of prey, is categorised as being of ‘least concern’ on the Red List of
the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
● Feeding mainly on sea snakes and fish, the bird is occasionally seen in inland waters along tidal rivers and in
freshwater lakes. It occupies the same localities for years and generally builds nests in tall trees near the
seacoast, tidal creeks, and estuaries.
Bizarre’ bird-like dinosaur has scientists enthralled
Context:
● Scientists said they unearthed in Fujian Province the fossil of a Jurassic Period dinosaur they named
Fujianvenatorprodigiosus - a creature that sheds light on a critical evolutionary stage in the origin of birds.
Details:
● A pheasant-sized and bird-like dinosaur with elongated legs and arms (like wings) inhabited southern China
about 140-150 million years ago. The anatomy indicated that it either was a fast runner or a wader (shorebird)
bird.
● Around 150 million years ago in Germany, the oldest known bird Archaeopteryx- a crow-sized bird with
teeth, a long bony tail, and no beak- rose from a lineage in late Jurassic period, of
small feathered two-legged dinosaurs known as Theropods.
● Birds survived the asteroid strike 66 million years ago that doomed their non-avian
dinosaur comrades.
Fujianventorprodigiosus:
● Member of a grouping called avialans that includes all birds and their closest non-
avian dinosaur relatives.
● The fossil is fairly complete but lacks the animal’s skull and parts of its feet, making
it hard to interpret its diet and lifestyle.
● Fujianvenator’s lower leg bone - the tibia - was twice as long as its thigh bone - the femur. Such dimensions
are unique among theropods; it also had a long bony tail.
● The forelimb is built like a bird’s wing, but with three claws on the fingers, which are absent from modern
birds. So it can be called a wing but it is impossible to determine whether it could fly or not.
Enthusiasm among birdwatchers as orange-headed thrush sighting recorded in Gujarat in a first
Context:
● The orange-headed thrush (Geokichlacitrinacitrina), usually spotted in the
Himalayas, Eastern Ghats, and Sri Lanka, was seen in Ahmedabad early this
year.
Details:
● The number of species of birds recorded in Gujarat has gone up to 117.
● This is also the first record of this species in Gujarat, taking the species count
to 618.
About Orange-headed thrush (Geokichlacitrinacitrina):
● Geokichlacitrinacyanotus, a subspecies of orange-headed thrush, is a resident bird in forests of north and
south Gujarat regions and there are scattered records of this subspecies in the Saurashtra region also.
● The orange-headed thrush is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms and fruit. It nests in
trees but does not form flocks.
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● Geokichla c cyanotus can be distinguished from Geokichla c. cintrina by its black vertical stripes across the
eye and the ear coverts.
● They forage on the foliage on the forest floor and their range extends into south-east Asia.
● Birds of this species are known to migrate from their breeding grounds in the Himalayas to their wintering
grounds in the Eastern Ghats and Sri Lanka.
Ibisbill
section: Protected araes in news
Context: Ibisbill, the poorly understood Himalayan waterbird faces threats, finds study.
Ibisbill:
● Ibisbill is a medium-sized bird found in mountain streams and rivers in South Asia.
● It is considered to be a “living fossil” because it is the only surviving member of its family, which dates back
to the Paleogene period, about 60 million years ago.
● Ibisbill has a distinct appearance with a long, down-curved bill, grey-brown plumage, and a white belly. It
has a striking black and white pattern on its wings and tail, and its legs are pinkish.
● Habitat: Ibisbill is a bird of high-altitude mountain streams and rivers. It is found in the Himalayan region,
from Afghanistan to Bhutan, and also in the mountainous areas of central and western China.
● Ibisbills have several adaptations that enable them to live in their high-altitude riverine habitat. For example,
their long, down-curved bill helps them to forage for food among the rocks and pebbles, while their pinkish
legs provide good camouflage against the rocky streambeds.
● Feeding habits: Ibisbill feeds on aquatic invertebrates such as insects, snails, and crustaceans, which it picks
from the rocks and pebbles in the riverbeds. It is also known to feed on fish and small amphibians.
● Ibisbills are solitary birds and are usually seen alone or in pairs. They are active during the day and are known
for their distinctive calls, which are loud and far-carrying.
● Conservation status: they are listed as a species of ‘Least Concern’ in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Spot-Billed Pelican
Context: The island of Sriharikota serves as a barrier that shields a brackish water lagoon that we call the Pulicat lake.
Being mostly off-limits to tourists because it is an ISRO launch site, this area is teeming with 76 species of water birds.
Spot-Billed Pelican:
● Also known as grey pelicans, are large waterbirds that are found in South and Southeast Asia. They are one
of the eight species of pelicans found around the world.
● They are found in a variety of habitats including large rivers, lakes, swamps, and estuaries. They prefer
areas with tall trees for nesting and shallow water for feeding.
● These pelicans are large birds, measuring around 140-160 cm in length with a wingspan of 230-350 cm. They
have grey and white feathers with a distinctive bright red spot on their bills.
● It is a social species, living and travelling mainly in flocks.
● They feed primarily on fish, but may also eat crustaceans and amphibians.
○ They are listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN. Habitat loss, hunting, and pollution are major threats
to their population.
○ They are protected under the Wildlife Protection Act of India, and is also listed under Appendix II of
CITES.
De-extincting the dodo: Why scientists are planning to bring back the bird to Mauritius
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Section: Biodiversity
Context:
● An ambitious new project promises to bring the extinct dodo back to life and re-introduce it in its once-native
habitat in Mauritius. It is a collaboration between genetic engineering company Colossal Biosciences and the
Mauritian Wildlife Foundation.
About Dodo:
● The dodo (Raphus cucullatus) is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Mauritius, which
is east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean.
● The dodo's closest relative was the also-extinct and flightless Rodrigues
solitaire.
● The two formed the subfamily Raphinae, a clade of extinct flightless birds that
were a part of the family which includes pigeons and doves.
● The closest living relative of the dodo is the Nicobar pigeon.
Why dodos went extinct?

● They became extinct mainly due to humans and animals introduced by them
in Dodo’s native environment.
● Dutch colonists first landed in Mauritius in 1598. Dodos disappeared around
80 years later. Not only did the Dutch hunt the meaty bird, but the animals they brought with them — dogs,
cats, rats, etc.— wreaked havoc on the defenceless dodos and their eggs.
How geneticists plan to bring the Dodo back:
● Accurate and complete genetic information is required to re-introduce an extinct species. This is known as a
species’ genome — each genome contains all of the information needed to build that organism and allow it
to grow and develop.
● Scientists have successfully sequenced the entire genome of the dodo.
● Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are basically embryonic precursors of a species’ sperm and egg.
● Why reintroducing Dodo?
o Reintroducing the dodo to Mauritius can help restore its fragile ecosystem. The bird’s large beak
indicates that it consumed large-seeded fruits, and thus played a role in the seeds’ dispersal.
o The technology would also help to conserve and restore other avian populations.
● Challenge in re-introduction- For dodos to survive, invasive species including rats, feral cats, pigs and dogs,
monkeys, mongooses, and crows may need to be “excluded, rehomed or even controlled.
Albatrosses are threatened with extinction — and climate change could put their nesting sites at risk
Wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans):
● The wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans) is the world's largest flying bird, known for its immense
wingspan of up to 3.5 meters. These birds, which can live up to 60 years, are oceanic nomads (pelagic birds),
spending most of their life at sea and only coming ashore to breed roughly every two years after reaching
sexual maturity. Their habitat is primarily the Southern Ocean and nearby islands, where they nest.
● Notably, Marion Island and Prince Edward Island, located south of South Africa, are critical for these birds,
hosting about half of the global wandering albatross breeding population, estimated at around 20,000
mature individuals.
● The wandering albatross is currently listed as vulnerable due to risks like bycatch from longline fishing,
climate change and shrinking habitat.
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● The environmental factors influencing their nesting choices on
Marion Island:
o Elevation was a key factor, with albatrosses preferring lower,
warmer sites with coastal vegetation for nesting.
o However, this preference indicates potential threats from
climate change.
Variables influencing nest site selection:
● The study on Marion Island, a volcanic island with challenging terrain, aimed to understand the factors
influencing nest site selection by wandering albatrosses.
● Key variables examined included elevation, terrain ruggedness, slope, distance to the coast, vegetation type,
wind speed, wind turbulence, and underlying geology.
● Elevation was found to be the most critical factor, with most nests located near the coast at lower elevations,
providing warmer conditions less harsh for the chicks. Proximity to the coast was also essential, as suitable
habitats were more abundant there.
Delicate balance:
● The study on Marion Island reveals how the delicate balance of the wandering albatross' habitat is
threatened by climate change.
● Over the past decades, the island has experienced a significant increase in temperature, decrease in
precipitation, reduced cloud cover, and disappearance of the permanent snowline. These changes have led
to shifts in vegetation and species distribution patterns.
Places in news:
● Marion Island and Prince Edwards Island: Two small uninhabited islands in the sub-Antarctic Indian Ocean
that are part of South Africa.
Study reveals evolutionary history, biogeographic origins of butterflies
Context:
● An international team of researchers sequenced 391 genes from nearly 2,300 butterfly species from 90
countries to help reconstruct a new phylogenomic tree of butterflies representing 92% of all general.
Details:
● While the earlier classification was based more on butterfly morphology, the latest attempt has been based
on genome sequencing.
Origin of butterflies:
● Butterflies originated in the Americas in the late Cretaceous, about 100 million years after the origin of
flowering plants.
● There is no adaptive reason for butterflies to originate in North America.
● While butterflies dispersed from North America to Europe relatively quickly about 75 million years ago due
to the landmass then being nearly contiguous, the dispersal from North America to Asia was through colder
northern regions and happened around 60 million years ago.
● North America largely being a temperate region has far less diversity compared with the tropical region in
South America and Asia.
● Speciation is far higher in the tropics than in the temperate region.
o A suitable climate that allows butterflies to live through the year, the greater diversity of habitats,
and the far higher diversity and an absolute number of plant species that serve as a source of food
for butterflies serves as the main drivers for higher speciation of butterflies in the tropics.
● The dispersal of butterflies never followed a single direction.
o The dispersal has been seen in both directions, which has been the case in other animal species.
Role of butterflies in the ecosystem:
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● They are the indicator of a healthy environment.
● Their primary role in the ecosystem is that of a pollinator.
● Some species (monarch butterfly) help in reducing air pollution by absorbing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
Noble’s Helen: Arunachal Pradesh yields India’s newest butterfly
Section : Species In News
Context: The Noble’s Helen, recorded for the first time in India, from the Namdapha National Park, is disappearing
from its previously known ranges in Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
About Noble’s Helen butterfly (Papilio noblei):
● It is a swallowtail butterfly with a wingspan of 100–120 mm.
● It has an extra white spot in the dorsum of the forewing.
● Distribution: Found in Myanmar, Yunnan, Hubai (China), North Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam.
o It was once common in the montane forest at moderate elevations in northern Thailand.
Rare White Tufted Royal Butterfly found in Kannur
Section: Species
Context:
● White Tufted Royal Butterfly, a rare butterfly species, was being
observed at Kalliyad in Kannur.
About White Tufted Butterfly:
● It is a rare species.
● The wingspan of the butterfly is just 32-40 mm.
● Its larvae feed on Scurrulaparasitica, a plant belonging to the Loranthaceae family.
● The butterfly is protected under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Protection Act.
● The species had been spotted in Agasthyakoodam in 2017 and the Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary in 2018.
Significance:
● Rich Biodiversity: The abundance of butterflies in any area represents rich biodiversity.
● Indicator Species: The butterfly acts as an indicator species.
o An indicator species provides information on the overall condition of the ecosystem and of other
species in that ecosystem. They reflect the quality and changes in environmental conditions as well as
aspects of community composition.
● Pollinator: It acts as a pollinator by helping in pollination and conserving several species of plants.
New butterfly species discovered in Kerala
Context: Caltorisbromussadasiva is the first Bromus swift butterfly to be documented in the Western Ghats.
More on the News:
● The newly-described taxon Caltorisbromussadasiva has been discovered by Travancore Nature History
Society research associate KaleshSadasivan.
● It is also the first record of the species Bromus swift( Caltorisbromus).
Caltorisbromussadasiva
● Caltorisbromussadasiva is the first Bromus swift butterfly to be documented in the Western Ghats.
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● The species Bromus swift (CaltorisBromus), is a skipper butterfly belonging to the Hesperiidae family of
Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), from the Western Ghats and
Peninsular India.
● Caltoris is an Indo-Australian genus has over 15 species distributed across
southeast Asia.
● CaltorisBromus is one of them and has two other
subspecies Caltorisbromusbromus and Caltorisbromusyanuca.
● The butterfly has a wingspan of around 3-4 cm and has a dark brown
colour with a purple gloss. It has a distinctive thin, curved, purple line on the upper surface of its wings.
● The Indian Purple Line is usually found in moist deciduous forests and in degraded forests with a dense
undergrowth of shrubs and herbs. It is also found in tea plantations and along streams in hilly areas. The
butterfly feeds on the nectar of various plants including the Flame-of-the-forest, wild flowers, and lantana.
Studies on migration patterns of milkweed butterflies
Context: Studies on migration patterns of milkweed butterflies and their feeding habits can help protect them, say
researchers
More on the Research Findings:
● Millions of Milkweed butterflies undertake a migration between the Eastern and Western Ghats in southern
India, seeking refuge from the harsh summer.
● After southwest monsoon, they migrate westward from the Eastern Ghats and plains to the Western
Ghats, becoming active for more than two months upon their arrival.
● When the summer rain cools southern India, the butterflies migrate eastwards into the Eastern Ghats and
the plains.
● The dominant species involved in the migration, Dark blue tiger and Double-branded crow, are not found
breeding in the mid and high-altitude evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Western Ghats.
● The migration of Milkweed butterflies also plays a vital ecological role during the migration. As pollinators,
their movements can impact entire ecosy
● Their migration is threatened by habitat destruction and climate change.
Milkweed Butterflies:
● They are any of a group of butterflies in the brush-footed butterfly family (Nymphalidae).
● There are some 300 species in the group, including the iconic Monarch butterfly.
● Distribution:
● The majority of species are found in both Old and New World
tropics (Old World refers to Europe, Africa, and Asia, while New World
refers to North America, South America, and the Caribbean).
● However, some well-known members of the group, such as the
monarch butterfly and the queen butterfly, live in temperate regions.
● Features:
● The large, colourful adults have long, usually brownish or orange
wings marked by black-and-white patterns.
● They fly slowly, and some, such as the monarch butterfly, migrate great distances.
● They feed chiefly on milkweed and sometimes on nightshade.
● These plants contain acrid, milky juices that probably make the larva and its subsequent stages
distasteful to predators. This, combined with a conspicuous colouration, protects them.
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Butterfly makes a rare call in Himachal
Context:
● A butterfly that is rare in the western Himalayas, the paintbrush swift, has
been photographed and documented for the first time in Himachal
Pradesh’s Chamba district.
Details:
● This butterfly species is sighted at lower hills of the Dhauladhar mountain range.
● Himachal Pradesh is home to about 25% of the total number of butterfly species found in India.
● Other butterfly species sighted in H.P. are: Anomalous nawab, blank swift, tailed jay, siren, etc.
Paintbrush swift (Baorisfarri):
● A butterfly species of the Hesperiidae family.
● It is identified based on two separated spots in the upper forewing cell.
● Other closely related species like the blank swift have no cell spot while the figure-of-eight swift has two
conjoined cell spots.
● The species’ larvae feed on bamboo and some other grass species.
● Paintbrush swift’s habitat distribution is common in northeast, central and south India, and rare in
Uttarakhand.
New butterfly species endemic to Western Ghats discovered in Karnataka
Cigaritis conjuncta or the Conjoined Silverline butterfly:
● Researchers from the National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS-TIFR) in Bengaluru, in collaboration with
the Indian Foundation for Butterflies Trust, have identified a new species of silverline butterfly in India's
Western Ghats biodiversity hotspots.
● Named Cigaritis conjuncta or the "conjoined silverline," the butterfly was initially spotted in 2008 at the
Honey valley, Kodagu district of Karnataka.
● The discovery includes distinctive features such as a black upper wing with shiny blue on the lower wings, an
orange patch with two
black spots, and unique
patterns on the underside,
including fused bands and
silver lines.
● The conjoined silverline is
the second endemic species
discovered in the Western
Ghats and prefers dense
mid-elevation evergreen
forests.
● The researchers identified 30 individuals during their field research, highlighting its specialized habitat
preferences.
● In India, there are 16 species of silverline butterflies, with 11 of them found in both peninsular India and Sri
Lanka.
Commonly-found cicada species sheds its foreign tag to embrace an Indian identity
Context:
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● A ‘foreign’cicada that is commonly found in several parts of South India has assumed an Indian identity.
Details:
● The insect species that has now been christened Purana cheeveeda (after its
Malayalam name Cheeveedu) used to be mistaken for Purana tigrina, a species
that was first described in Malaysia in 1850.
● The distribution of P. cheeveeda could extend across the tropical evergreen
forests ranging from Goa to Kanyakumari.
About Cicadas:
● The cicadas are a superfamily, the Cicadoidea, of insects in the order Hemiptera
(true bugs).
● The superfamily is divided into two families, theTettigarctidae, with two species in Australia, and the
Cicadidae, with more than 3,000 species described from around the world; many species remain
undescribed.
● Cicadas have prominent eyes set wide apart, short antennae, and membranous front wings. They have an
exceptionally loud song, produced in most species by the rapid buckling and unbuckling of drumlike tymbals.
● They typically live in trees,feeding on watery sap from xylem tissue, and laying their eggs in a slit in the bark.
● The vast majority of species are active during the day as adults, with some calling at dawn or dusk. Only a
rare few species are known to be nocturnal.
Silent fields: a cocktail of pesticides is stunting bumblebee colonies across Europe, study shows
In the news:
● In November 2023, the European Parliament voted against a proposal to limit the use of agricultural
pesticides. These chemicals, which are crucial for protecting crops from pests, also pose a risk of
contaminating air and water, potentially harming people and wildlife.
● This decision contrasts with Europe's reputation for leading in sustainability and its commitments to
international environmental pledges.
● Research indicates that efficient pesticide use is critical for the health of bumblebees, key pollinators for
both crops and wildflowers.
Lab results v the real world:
● Decades of laboratory experiments have shown that individual pesticides can be fatal to bees, and these tests
are used to inform pesticide regulations.
● However, these laboratory tests often examine single compounds, which doesn't reflect the real-world
scenario where bees are exposed to multiple pesticides in agricultural landscapes.
● Field-based tests, which are rare, also usually focus on single compounds, despite evidence that bees
encounter various pesticides in their environment, including in their food and nesting materials.
● While it's logical to think that chemicals toxic in the lab would be similarly harmful in the field, the actual
impact on bees varies due to environmental persistence and various ecological factors.
● Recent research has revealed that real-world exposure to multiple pesticides across landscapes significantly
harms the health of bumblebees, affecting their growth, survival, and reproduction.
Colonies at risk:
● Researchers placed over 300 commercially-reared bumblebee colonies at 106 sites across eight European
countries and analyzed the pollen they collected for 267 pesticides.
● Colonies with higher pesticide risk showed lower growth and produced fewer offspring, especially in
landscapes with extensive cropland.
● This underscores the importance of semi-natural habitats for pollinator populations.
● The European Food Safety Authority has proposed that bumblebee colonies should not lose more than 10%
of their strength due to pesticides.
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Monitor pesticides like drugs:
● Learning from pharmaceutical regulations, there's a call for post-approval monitoring of pesticides under
real-world conditions, in addition to pre-approval testing.
● This is crucial because harmful effects of pesticides, like neonicotinoids, are often only revealed through post-
approval field testing, especially on non-honeybee species.
● A major initiative, with partners like The Nature Conservancy, Google, and the Brazilian state of Para, aims
to promote regenerative farming practices, such as reduced tillage and lower pesticide use.
Mayurbhanj’s red ant chutney receives GI tag. Why this is important for nutritional security of tribals
In the news:
● Similipal kai chutney, made with red weaver ants by tribal people in Odisha's Mayurbhanj district, received
the geographical identity tag.
Details:
● The Mayurbhanj Kai Society Ltd applied in 2020 under the Geographical Indications of Goods Act, of 1999.
● Scientists analyzed the red weaver ants, revealing nutritional benefits like proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
Similipal kai chutney:
● Ants are gathered, cleaned, and mixed with ingredients like salt, ginger, garlic, and chillies to make the
chutney. Additionally, they're used in soups and consumed as a functional ingredient for health issues.
● Consumption is linked to improved appetite, eyesight, brain health, and natural remedies against
depression, fatigue, and memory loss.
● Kai pimpudi is used in medicinal oil for rheumatism, gout, etc. It's also consumed for health benefits, aiding
immunity and disease prevention.
● Indigenous people collect kai pimpudi (red weaver ants) from nearby forests, selling them and the chutney
at high demand and profitable rates.
Kai pimpudi (Red weaver ants):
● Red weaver ants create nests in trees, forming colonies with various nests, providing protection, and serving
as bio-control agents against pests.
Legal Framework:
● Geographical indications assign products to the place of their origin. It conveys an assurance of quality and
distinctiveness for such goods.
● Under Articles 1 (2) and 10 of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property,geographical
indications are covered as an element of Intellectual Property Rights.
● They are also covered under Articles 22-24 of the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS) Agreement.
How does a GI tag affect the community based dish?
A Geographical Indications (GI) tag will help put the savoury dish to the global food table. The tag will bring about the
uniqueness in the dish's identity- meaning- it will be recognised as the one dish found in a particular country.
This will patent Kai Chutney and therefore make it harder for anyone else to misuse the identity of kai or mislead
customers.
Simlipal National Park:
● Simlipal is a tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district in the Odisha.
● It is part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three protected areas -Similipal Tiger Reserve,
Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary.
● It derives its name from the abundance of red silk cotton trees growing in the area.
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● The vast terrain of Similipal with wide altitudinal, climatic and topographic variations, criss-crossed by a large
number of perennial streams, harbours a unique blend of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats and Sub-Himalayan
plant species.
● The floristic composition indicates a connecting link between South Indian and North Eastern Sub-Himalayan
Specie
● Forest is predominantly moist mixed deciduous forest with tropical semi-evergreen forest in areas with
suitable microclimatic conditions and sporadic patches of dry deciduous forests and grasslands. It forms the
largest watershed of northern Odisha.
● It holds the highest tiger population in Odisha and harbours the only population of melanistic tigers in the
world.
● Other carnivores found here are leopards, leopard cats, fishing cats, jungle cats and wolves. The active
management of muggers has revived its population on the banks of the rivers Khairi and Deo.
● It is also home to the largest population of elephants in Odisha.
● This protected area has been part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009.
The Underappreciated Benefits of Wild Bees
Context:
● A species of plasterer bee in the New Jersey Pine Barrens, not seen in 50 years and suspected to have gone
extinct, was found again.
Native bees are crucial as:
● They are an important pollinators
● Their presence is crucial for various agricultural crops.
● Native bees are essential to flourishing ecosystems and farms.
● Domestic honey bee colonies are vulnerable to collapse due to a combination of poor nutrition, pesticides
and pathogens.
● Loss of pollinators could lead to lower availability of crops and wild plants that provide essential micronutrients
for human diets, impacting health and nutritional security and risking increased numbers of people suffering
from vitamin A, iron and folate deficiency.
Benefits of Wild Bees:
● There are about 20,000 wild bee species globally.
● More than 80% of flowering plants depend on insect pollinators to reproduce.
● In a 2013 study covering 27 types of crops it was found that the wild insects increased the rate at which
flowers turn to fruit.
● In a study in 2020 it is found that, for seven crops, including apples and pumpkins, wild bees were responsible
for over $1.5 billion in annual production.
● The wild insects land on flowers and isolate their flight muscles from their wings, allowing the muscles to
vibrate their thorax as their wings stay still, making them by far the most effective pollinators for these plants.
● They provide high-quality food—honey, royal jelly and pollen — and other products such as beeswax,
propolis and honey bee venom.
● According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, a third of the world’s food
production depends on bees.
Declining Bee species:
● The number of bee species documented in a yearly survey from 2006 to 2015 had dropped by a fourth
compared to similar tallies before 1990.
● Some causes for their decline are:
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o Habitat loss, Disease and pesticides, Climate change, Forest fires, Invasive Alien Species, and Public
land management.
o Competition for food: Dense herds of cattle can graze away food for native bees.
o Monocuture: In large fields concentrated with one fruit or
vegetable, natural habitat tends to be minimal, and pesticide
use maximal, leaving less food for insects while degrading
their health.
Waggle Dance:
● Waggle dance is a term used in beekeeping and ethology for a
particular figure-eight dance of the honey bee.
● By performing this dance, successful foragers can share information
about the direction and distance to patches of flowers yielding
nectar and pollen, to water sources, or to new nest-site locations
with other members of the colony.
● The waggle dance and the round dance are two forms of dance
behaviour that are part of a continuous transition.
o As the distance between the resource and the hive increases, the round dance transforms into
variations of a transitional dance, which, when communicating resources at even greater distances,
becomes the waggle dance.
● The image presents the waggle dance - the direction the bee moves in relation to the hive indicates direction;
if it moves vertically the direction to the source is directly towards the Sun. The duration of the waggle part of
the dance signifies the distance.
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD):
● It is an abnormal phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a honey bee colony disappear,
leaving behind a queen, plenty of
food, and a few nurse bees to care
for the remaining immature bees.
● Several possible causes for CCD
have been proposed, but no
single proposal has gained
widespread acceptance among
the scientific community.
● Suggested causes include:
o Pesticides; Infections
with various pathogens
especially those
transmitted by Varroa
and Acarapis mites; Malnutrition; Genetic factors; Immunodeficiencies; Loss of habitat; Changing
beekeeping practices; or a combination of factors.
● A large amount of speculation has surrounded the contributions of the neonicotinoid family of pesticides to
CCD, but many collapsing apiaries show no trace of neonicotinoids.
World’s first vaccine for honeybees gets conditional nod in US
Context:
● The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has granted a conditional licence for a vaccine for
honeybees to curb American foulbrood (AFB), a fatal bacterial disease for the insect.
American foulbrood (AFB):
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● AFB is caused by the spore-forming bacterium Paenibacillus larvae, according to bee information website Bee
Aware.
● Infected broods usually die at the pre-pupal or pupal stage.
● It is not a stress-related disease and can infect the strongest to the weakest colony in an apiary.
● Heavy infections can affect most of the brood, severely weakening the colony and eventually killing it.
● The disease cannot be cured, meaning that the destruction of infected colonies and hives or irradiation of
infected material is the only way to manage AFB.
● The bacteria Melissococcusplutonius causes another similar disease, European foulbrood. However, the
incidence of EFB is generally higher when the colony is under stress.
Vaccine:
● The first such vaccine, developed by biotechnology company Dalan Animal Health.
● The vaccine technology exposes queen bees to inactive (ie, “dead”) bacteria, which enables the larvae
hatched in the hive to resist infection.
Effectiveness of the vaccine:
● The immune priming showed no negative impact on queen fitness in tests.
● Tests also showed no negative impact on honey.
● The company claims their products to be chemical free, non-GMO and organic.
Damselfly species found in Western Ghats named after climate impact on insects
Context:
● A new damselfly species has been discovered in Kerala’s southern Western
Ghats.
Details Of the species:
● Researchers from MIT-World Peace University in Pune named the insect ‘Armageddon reedtail’ or
protostictaarmageddonia, to draw attention to the global decline of insect populations due to rampant
habitat loss and climate change.
● The species was discovered northeast of Thiruvananthapuram. It has a captivating dark brown to black body
with vibrant greenish-blue eyes, and half of its eight abdominal segments are marked with delicate pale blue
markings.
● The new species is distinct from other damselflies.
● Its only habitat is primary montane streams, where it thrives beneath dense canopy cover.
Ecological armageddon:
● The term ‘ecological armageddon’ is used to describe the devastating decline of insect populations around
the world.
● This phenomenon, also called insect apocalypse, affects entire ecosystems because insects pollinate, cycle
nutrients and provide food for other animals.
● Odonatology: The study of insects, such as dragonflies, that belong to the zoological group Odonata.
Critically endangered Yangtze finless porpoise return to lost lake
stretches after sand mining ban: Report
Context:
● Checking sand mining can help the population of the critically
endangered Yangtze finless porpoise to rebound.
About the Yangtze finless porpoise:
● It belongs to the group of animals which also includes dolphins and
whales.
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● It is a species of toothless whale.
● It is endemic to the Yangtze River in China, making it the country’s only known freshwater
cetacean following the possible extinction of the baiji (Lipotesvexillifer).
● It is also the only freshwater porpoise in the world and breeds just once in 18 months.
● It is the most critically endangered of its taxonomic group and the species has an 86 per cent chance of
becoming extinct in the next century.
● Earlier, the Yangtze river dolphin has declared extinct.
● Threats include Overfishing, increased shipping traffic and noise pollution.
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Muggers of Rapti: Anthropogenic threats pose risk to saurians in Nepal’s Chitwan National Park, says
study
Context:
Mugger
● The mugger or marsh crocodile is one of the 24 extant species of crocodilians found It is found India, Pakistan,
Nepal and Iran.
● The species is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ in the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List. It has
been enlisted on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora since 1975.
● In Nepal, muggers are found in the Terai lowlands near the border with India. A study last year noted that the
species has become extinct locally in many parts of Nepal due to habitat loss despite being protected by law.
Threats:
● Anthropogenic threats like illegal fishing and sand mining pose a threat to the mugger
crocodiles (Crocodylusplaustris) of the Rapti river flowing along the Chitwan National Park (CNP) in south-
central Nepal, contiguous to the Valmiki Tiger Reserve in Bihar
Gharial conservation
Context:
● The collective efforts of local authorities and conservationists caused gharial nest numbers in Katarniaghat
Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS) rise to 36 in 2022, from 19 in 2019.
Details:
● The conservation efforts of critically endangered gharial in KWS were started in 1970s.
● The government launched a crocodile conservation project in 1975, with a goal to increase the numbers of
India’s three crocodilian species – the freshwater crocodile, the gharial and the saltwater crocodile.
Gharial:
● Gharials are endemic to South Asia.
● Historically, they were found in the riverine ecosystems of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and southern parts of
Bhutan and Nepal.
● According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), an estimated 5,000 gharials could
be found in the wild in the 1940s.
● By 1976, there were less than 200. In India, this fish-eating reptile was on the brink of extinction at the time,
with populations dropping by about 96% across its entire distribution range.
● Presently, In India, they are found within the tributaries of the Ganga: Girwa(Uttar Pradesh), Son (Madhya
Pradesh), Ramganga (Uttarakhand), Mahanadi (Odisha), Gandak(Bihar), and Chambal (Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan).
Conservation status:
● Under the Schedule-1 in Wildlife Protection Act 1972
● IUCN Red list: Critically endangered
Role in the ecosystem:
● Gharials are top predators and keystone species in running freshwater systems.
● They play a crucial role in bringing nutrients from the bottom of the riverbed to the surface, thus increasing
fish populations and helping maintain the aquatic ecosystem.
● Of the three crocodilian species, the gharial is the most efficient fish catcher because of its unique snout.
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Reasons for the decline of the gharial population:
● After the initial success of the conservation-cum-captive breeding project, the government stopped the
captive breeding programme, thus the gharial population falls by 58%.
● Construction of Girijapuri barrage across Girwa River.
● Vegetative growth on sandy plains in the girwa river hinders the hatching activities of gharial.
● Habitat destruction
● Pollution in river streams.
First penguin deaths in sub-Antarctic region attributed to bird flu strain
Context:
● Weeks after scientists suspected and confirmed deaths of elephant and fur seals due to bird flu (H5N1) in
the British Overseas Territory (BOT) of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands near Antarctica, there
are now reports of at least three penguin deaths from the region.
Details:
● Penguin species: King penguin, and Gentoo penguin.
● Places: South Sandwich Island, Falklands, and South Georgia.
● About 98 per cent of the global population of fur seals was found in South Georgia. The region hosted
“globally important populations of elephant and fur seals”.
● A risk assessment conducted by researchers warned about the virus ripping across densely populated
colonies of penguins by the austral (southern) spring that may lead to “one of the largest ecological disasters
of modern times”.
● So far, no suspected or confirmed case of infection has been reported from mainland Antarctica.
Avian Influenza:
● It is a highly contagious viral disease which has swept populations of birds and mammals across the world.
● Since 2021, its variant known as HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b has been dominated and caused outbreaks, leading
to the deaths of millions of birds in the United Kingdom, South America, Europe and South Africa.
● In October 2023,bird flu arrived in the sub-Antarctic region after travelling from South America through sea
birds.
o It infected elephants and fur seals, brown skua, penguins, pelicans, sea lions and kelp gulls among
others, resulting in mass infection and mortality.
● In December 2023, the first death of a polar bear due to avian flu was reported from the Arctic.
Humpback Whales
Humpback whales
● The humpback whale is one of the four species of baleen whales.
● They are large, toothless whales that have baleen plates to filter their prey from seawater.
● They have streamlined bodies ranging from 6 to 33 m in length., reaching up to 17 m in length and over 30,000
kg in weight.
● Humpback whales occur worldwide in all major oceans. While they generally demonstrate a preference for
continental shelf areas, they are also known to cross deep offshore waters, and spend time over and around
seamounts in the open ocean.
● IUCN Status: Least Concern.
Migration
● Humpback whales with the exception of the Endangered Arabian Sea population perform some of the
longest migrations of any whale species, swimming up to 10,000 km each year.
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● They migrate because they feed and breed in very different places.
● The Arabian Sea humpback whales are the only sedentary whales in the world, feeding and breeding in the
same area.
A 340-tonne whale species lived 39 million years ago
Context: The newly discovered Perucetus colossus, an ancient species of whale, is thought to be one of the largest
and heaviest animals on record.
Perucetus colossus:
● The species is discovered in Southern Peru and estimated to be approximately 39 million years old.
● Estimates of its size and weight, based on a partial skeleton, rival those of the blue whale, which was previously
thought to be the heaviest animal ever to exist.
o It is predicted that the skeletal mass would be two-three times that of a 25-metres-long blue whale.
● The findings suggest that the trend towards gigantism in marine mammals may have begun earlier than
previously thought.
● The ancient whale species displays the highest degree of bone mass increase known to date, an adaptation
associated with shallow diving.
● The estimated skeletal mass of P. colossus exceeds that of any known mammal or aquatic vertebrate.
Elephant seals enter ‘sleep spiral’ during deep ocean dives
Context: Northern elephant seals might be masters of multitasking in the animal kingdom because they’ve learned
how to sleep and dive at the same time — all while avoiding predators.
Elephant Seal:
● Elephant seals are large marine mammals that belong to the family Phocidae, also known as “true seals.”
● There are two species of elephant seals, the northern elephant seal and the southern elephant seal, both of
which are found in the Pacific Ocean.
● Northern Elephant Seals:
● Northern elephant seals are found across the Pacific coast of the United States, Canada and Mexico.
● They generally breed and give birth in California and Baja California. That too usually on offshore
islands from December to March. They fast during mating season, losing perhaps a third of their body
weight.
● Southern Elephant Seals:
● Southern elephant seals are the largest of all seals. They live in sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters that
feature brutally cold conditions.
● Southern elephant seals breed on land but spend their winters in the frigid Antarctic waters near the
Antarctic pack ice.
● These seals are known for their large size, with adult males weighing up to 4,500 kg and reaching lengths of
up to 6.5 meters.
● Elephant seals are known for their unique lifestyle, spending most of their lives at sea and only coming ashore
for breeding and molting.
● These seals play an important role in the marine ecosystem, as they are a key predator of squid and
fish. Additionally, their nutrient-rich feces contribute to the growth of phytoplankton, which form the base
of the marine food chain.
What is whale stranding and why does it happen?
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In the news:
● Earlier in February, 14 pilot whales were stranded near the shore of Kalpitiya, a town located on Sri Lanka’s
west coast.
● Apart from Sri Lanka, Australia’s Tasmania has also seen mass beaching of whales.
Whale stranding:
● Whale stranding is a phenomenon in which whales are stuck on land, usually on a beach.
● Other aquatic animals like dolphins and porpoises are also known to beach.
● Most of the stranding events involve single animals but sometimes, mass strandings, consisting of hundreds
of marine animals at a time, can happen.
● This is not a new phenomenon and have been occurring since the times of Aristotle
● Reason: No clear reason has been established yet. The reasons for mass strandings are several including:
● the topography of the region,
● Illness,
● Rising temperature in the ocean
● Human activities and
● Increasing noise pollution in the oceans.
● Hotspot regions: Tasmania, New Zealand‘s Golden Bay and Massachusetts’s Cape Cod in the United States.
Shark & ray meat consumption no longer restricted to India’s tribal & coastal peoples: Paper
Context: According to a new study he meat of sharks and rays, for long consumed by tribal and coastal people in
India, has found favour among new demographic categories such as foreign tourists and Indian middle- and upper
classes. This could lead to more unsustainable fishing of shark species, imperiling them in what is already the world’s
third biggest exploiter of sharks and rays.
Sharks in India
● Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish that are characterised by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven-gill
slits on the sides of the head and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head.
● They are ancient fish, the earliest known sharks date back to more than 420 million years. They range widely
in size, from 17 centimetres to nearly 12 metres. There are about 500 different species of sharks in the world.
● Sharks live long. They grow and sexually mature slowly. Unlike most bony fish, they reproduce fewer pups at
a time.
● Many shark species are apex predators, essential for the ecosystem they thrive in
● India’s waters have about 160 species of sharks, out of which ten are legally protected, listed under Schedule
1 of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 – whale shark which was the first fish species to be protected in India,
Pondicherry shark which is on the brink of extinction, Gangetic shark which is one of the few freshwater and
estuarine sharks in the world (now extinct), speartooth shark, freshwater sawfish, green sawfish, and the giant
guitarfish which is becoming rare as it is caught for shark fin soup popular in south-east Asia.
● Sharks have especially been targeted for their fins to make ‘shark fin soup’, considered a delicacy in East Asian
cuisine. The process involves cutting the fins of a live shark on board a fishing vessel and then throwing it
overboard to die a painful death.
● Over a third of shark and ray species are threatened with extinction globally and overfishing driven by human
consumption is a key threat to over 95 per cent of these threatened species, the authors added.
● Sharks and rays have been consumed for centuries by communities living on India’s long coastline as well as
tribal groups.
● The study enumerates a number of species that are eaten in the country:
o Spadenose shark (Scoliodon laticaudus; Near Threatened)
o Milk shark (Rhizoprionodon acutus; Vulnerable)
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o Gray sharpnose shark (R. oligolinx; Near Threatened)
o Reticulate whipray (Himantura uarnak; Endangered)
o Reticulate whipray
● Shark finning and shark fin exports are banned in India, but there are no restrictions on consuming shark
meat, except for the species that are protected
To protect endangered sharks and rays, scientists are mapping these species’ most important locations
Important Shark and Ray Areas Project:
● The Earth's saltwater bodies collectively form a vast ocean with diverse ecosystems. Specific locations, like the
Fuvahmulah Atoll in the Maldives, are highlighted for their rich marine life, including tiger sharks, thresher
sharks, scalloped hammerheads, and oceanic manta rays.
● The Important Shark and Ray Areas project, led by marine conservation scientists, aims to identify key areas
crucial for the conservation of sharks and rays.
● The project involves collaboration among hundreds of scientists and experts to identify and prioritize areas
crucial for the survival ofsharks and their relatives.
● By recognizing and protecting these zones, the project seeks to implement measures for fisheries
management and ensure the well-being of these marine species.
● They've developed technical criteria modelled after successful approaches for other marine animals and are
conducting regional workshops worldwide.
● After expert reviews, designated areas will be added to an online e-atlas which can be seen online, with a
formal compendium published for each region.
● This process, repeated every 10 years, allows for adjustments based on new research and changing
environmental factors.
Significance of the project:
● The Important Shark and Ray Areas project has published compendiums for the Mediterranean and Black
Seas region, featuring 65 identified crucial areas, and the western Indian Ocean with over 125 areas.
● These zones vary in size and habitat and play a vital role for species like the blackchin guitarfish and the
common smooth hound shark.
o Examples include Benidorm Island in the Mediterranean and the Cocos-Galapagos Swimway in Costa
Rica and Ecuador.
● Ranging from the smallest area, Israel's Palmahim brine pools, to the largest, the Strait of Sicily and Tunisian
Plateau, these zones support diverse shark, ray, and chimaera species.
● While designation as an Important Shark and Ray Area doesn't ensure automatic protection, the project aims
to influence existing spatial planning, fisheries management, and conservation efforts, with the potential for
incorporation into marine protected areas or other preserves.
Overfishing is driving coral reef sharks toward extinction
Context:
● Five of the most common shark species living in coral reefs have declined 60% to 73%, according to a massive
global study by Colin Simpfendorfer and colleagues.
Details of the study:
● Some individual shark species were not found at 34% to 47% of the reefs in the survey.
o The likely cause is overfishing, which has removed both the sharks themselves and the prey they
depend on.
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● As shark numbers decline, ray species are increasing on the reefs, suggesting a shift in the top elasmobranch
species in the communities.
● 391 coral reefs in 67 nations and territories using 22,756 remote underwater video stations.
o They show that shark-dominated reefs persist in wealthy, well-governed nations and in protected
marine sanctuaries.
o In areas of poverty and limited governance, rays dominate the reef communities.
● The estimated declines of these resident reef shark species meet the IUCN Red List criteria for Endangered
status.
● As the top predators of the reef and indicator species for marine ecosystems, they help maintain the delicate
balance of marine life in reef environments. Reef sharks are highly valued for their meat, leather, liver oil, and
fishmeal, which make them prone to overfishing and targeting. Yet, their importance for the tourism industry
makes them more valuable alive than dead. In 2011, Honduras declared its waters to be a permanent
sanctuary for sharks, making fishing for these species completely forbidden.
● It focused on five key species of reef sharks — the Caribbean reef shark, nurse shark, grey reef shark, blacktip
reef shark and whitetip reef shark — by collecting and analysing 22,000 hours of video footage.
● The study showed that the five species would qualify as endangered on The International Union for
Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. The IUCN is the global authority on nature
conservation.
North Atlantic right whale

Context:
● Hundreds of dead whales have washed up on the Atlantic coast of the US since 2017, including the critically
endangered north Atlantic right whale.
North Atlantic right whale:
● North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) is a species of large baleen whale found in the North Atlantic
Ocean.
● Habitat: North Atlantic right whales are found primarily in coastal waters along the eastern coast of North
America, from Florida to Canada, as well as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They are known for their slow, graceful
swimming and distinctive V-shaped blow.
● Diet: North Atlantic right whales are baleen whales, meaning they feed on small organisms like zooplankton
and krill. They use baleen plates in their mouths to filter food from the water as they swim.
● Conservation status: The North Atlantic right whale is one of the most endangered large whale species in the
world.It is listed as “Critically Endangered” by the IUCN Red Lis
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● Threats: The North Atlantic right whale faces a number of threats, including entanglement in fishing gear,
ship strikes, and habitat loss due to human activities. Climate change may also be affecting their food sources,
leading to declines in populations.
New species of Moray eel discovered off Cuddalore coast named after Tamil Nadu
Context: This is the first ever record of this species and has been named after Tamil Nadu as tamilnaduensis with
common name as Tamil Nadu brown moray.
More on the News:
● Researchers have discovered a new species of Moray eel at the Mudasalodai fish landing centre off the
Cuddalore coast. The species has been named after Tamil Nadu as Gymnothoraxtamilnaduensis with
common name as Tamil Nadu brown moray.
● About 28 species of Gymnothorax have been documented in Indian waters so far. The species discovered off
the Cuddalore coast represents India and increases the total amount of species of Gymnothorax to 29.
Gymnothoraxtamilnaduensis:
● A new species of short brown unpatterned moray, is described, based on four specimens ranging from 272–
487 mm total length.
● The new species is distinguished by the following combination of characters:
● origin of dorsal fin at middle of rictus and gill opening,
● anus just before mid-body,
● series of lines of small dark spots present on head and
● a single line of black spot-on mid-line of body, jaw pores with white rim, anal-fin margin whitish, 3 pre-
dorsal vertebrae, 56–59 pre-anal vertebrae and 139–150 total vertebrae.
● The new species differs from its known Indian water congeners by having series of lines of small dark
spots present on the head and a single line of black spots on the mid-line of the body (vs. absent in all the
three congeners in India), serrated teeth (vs. smooth), jaw pores with white rim (vs. black to brown in others)
and higher vertebral count (139–150 vs. 134–138 in others).
● Distribution: Indian Ocean: off Cuddalore Coast, Bay of Bengal, southeast coast of India. The species
were collected at a depth of about 25–30 metres.
Seahorse
Context: Extensive fishing off the Coromandel coast could be forcing the great seahorse to migrate laboriously toward
Odisha.
Seahorse
● There are 46 species of seahorses reported worldwide.
● They are known for their unique appearance, with a horse-like head, long snout, and a curled tail that they
use to cling onto seagrasses, corals, and other underwater structures.
● Seahorses are unique in that the males carry and give birth to the young.
● After mating, the female seahorse transfers her eggs to a pouch on the male’s belly, where they are fertilized
and develop until they are ready to be born. The male can carry hundreds of eggs at once, depending on the
species.
● Seahorses are also known for their ability to change color and blend in with their surroundings, which helps
them to avoid predators.
● They feed on small crustaceans and plankton, which they suck up through their snouts.
● They live in sheltered areas such as seagrass beds, estuaries, coral reefs, and mangroves.
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● Seahorses are poor swimmers but migrate by rafting, clinging to floating substrata such as macroalgae or
plastic debris for dispersal by ocean currents – to new habitats for successful maintenance of their population.
● Seahorses are mainly found in shallow tropical and temperate salt water throughout the world, from about
45°S to 45°N.
● These nine species are distributed along the coasts of eight States and five Union Territories from Gujarat to
Odisha, apart from Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
● The population of the great seahorse, which is among the eight species tagged ‘vulnerable’.
● Declining is due to its overexploitation for traditional Chinese medicines and as ornamental fish, combined
with general destructive fishing and fisheries bycatch, the study said.
Conservation status
● IUCN: Vulnerable
● CITES: Appendix II
Phytoplankton blooms see two-decade surge along world’s coastlines
Context: Huge blooms of phytoplankton microscopic algae floating on the ocean’s surface have become larger and
more frequent along the world’s coastlines, according to new research.
Phytoplankton:
● Phytoplankton are the autotrophic (self-feeding) components of the plankton community and a key part of
ocean and freshwater ecosystems.
● Phytoplankton obtain their energy through photosynthesis, as do trees and other plants on land. This
means phytoplankton must have light from the sun, so they live in the well-lit surface layers (euphotic zone)
of oceans and lakes.
● In comparison with terrestrial plants, phytoplankton are distributed over a larger surface area, are exposed
to less seasonal variation and have markedly faster turnover rates than trees.
● Phytoplankton form the base of marine and freshwater food webs and are key players in the global carbon
cycle.
● They account for about half of global photosynthetic activity and at least half of the oxygen production,
despite amounting to only about 1% of the global plant biomass.
● Phytoplankton are very diverse, varying from photosynthesizing bacteria to plant-like algae to armour-plated
coccolithophores. Important groups of phytoplankton include the diatoms, cyanobacteria and
dinoflagellates, although many other groups are represented.
Significance of Phytoplanktons:
● They contribute more than half of the oxygen in the environment.
● They reduce global warming by absorbing human-induced carbon dioxide.
● They also serve as the base of the ocean food chain.
● They are important bioindicators regulating life in oceans. Their abundance determines the overall health of
the ocean ecosystem.
● The productive fisheries in the world’s ocean are driven by Phytoplankton blooms.
Causes of Phytoplankton Bloom:
● Primary cause is an increase in nutrient availability, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.
● Other factors that can contribute to phytoplankton blooms include warm water temperatures, high light
levels, and calm water conditions, which can allow the phytoplankton to remain near the surface and access
the light they need for photosynthesis.
Impacts of Phytoplankton bloom:
● Phytoplankton blooms can have both positive and negative impacts on the environment.
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● In some cases, they can support the growth of other organisms in the food chain and improve water
quality by absorbing excess nutrients.
● However, in other cases, blooms can deplete oxygen levels in the water, leading to fish kills and other
negative impacts on aquatic life.
● Some phytoplankton species can also produce toxins that can harm human health and the health of other
animals that consume them.
Horseshoe crab decline sparks urgent conservation plea
About Horseshoe crab:
● Horseshoe crabs are marine and brackish water arthropods of the family Limulidae and the only living
members of the order Xiphosura.
● Despite their name, they are not true crabs or crustaceans: they are chelicerates, most closely related to
arachnids such as spiders, ticks, and scorpions.
● Tetrodotoxin (a form of neurotoxin) may be present in one horseshoe crab species,
Carcinoscorpiusrotundicauda.
● They live primarily in and around shallow coastal waters on soft, sandy or muddy bottoms. They are generally
found in the intertidal zone at spring high tides.
● In recent years, population declines have occurred as a consequence of coastal habitat destruction and
overharvesting.
● Species of Horseshoe crabs and their conservation status:
o Tri-spine horseshoe crab (Tachypleustridentatus)- Endangered in IUCN Red list
o American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus)- Vulnerable
o Coastal horseshoe crab (Tachypleus gigas) and Mangrove horseshoe crab
(Carcinoscorpiusrotundicauda) are not yet included in the IUCN Red List.
Horseshoe crabs in India:

● The coast of Odisha is home to two of the three horseshoe crab species found in Asia — the coastal horseshoe crab
(Tachypleus gigas) and the mangrove horseshoe crab (Carcinoscorpiusrotundicauda).
● Globally recognised as living fossils (as their basic form has remained nearly unchanged over millions of years).
● Medicinal properties of Horseshoe crabs.
o These blue-blooded crabs play a vital role in medical sciences and biomedicine.
o The blood of horseshoe crabs can clot in the presence of bacteria, rendering them harmless. This clotting ability
has been extensively utilised in testing injectable medicines, vaccines, and sterile medical equipment, including its
recent use in COVID-19 vaccines.
o Their outer layer consists of chitin, enhancing wound healing and serving as a crucial component in treating severe
wounds like burns.
o In India, the species is included in Schedule IV of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
● Threats:
o Shoreline alterations, sea level rise that affects their spawning habitats, and destructive fishing practices that lead
to the crabs becoming bycatch, threaten the population of the species. Only a few remaining populations might be
left in West Bengal and some parts of Andaman and Nicobar.
● Conservation measures:
o The IUCN Horseshoe Crab Specialist Group (SSG) is pursuing the possibility of designating horseshoe crabs as the
first “World Heritage Species” under the UNESCO World Heritage Programme.
o In 2020, the IUCN SSC Horseshoe Crab Specialist Group formally designated June 20 as International Horseshoe
Crab Day annually.
o The Beibu Gulf Declaration on Global Horseshoe Crab Conservation was declared in 2019 in Guangxi, China.
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They sense electric fields, tolerate snow and have ‘mating trains’: 4 reasons echidnas really are
remarkable
Echidnas:
● Australia has just one species, the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus), which roams virtually the
entire continent.
● It has five subspecies.
● Tasmanian echidnas are much hairier and Kangaroo Island echidnas join long mating trains.
Four things that make echidnas remarkable:
1. They’re ancient egg-laying mammals
o Other names, such as bigibila (Gamilaraay) and yinarlingi (Warlpiri).
o Short-beaked echidnas are one of just five species of monotreme surviving in the world, alongside
the platypus.
o Three worm-eating long-beaked echidna species found on the island of New Guinea.
o These ancient mammals lay eggs through their cloacas(monotreme means one opening) and incubate
them in a pouch-like skin fold, nurturing their tiny, jellybean-sized young after hatching.
o Scientists believe echidnas began as platypuses who left the water and evolved spines. That’s
because platypus fossils go back about 60 million years and echidnas only a quarter of that.
o The echidna still has rudimentary electroreception. While platypus relies on its ability to sense
electric fields when it’s hunting at the bottom of dark rivers, given electric fields spread more easily
through water. Echidnas use this ability to sense ants and termites moving through moist soil.
2. From deserts to snow, echidnas are remarkably adaptable
o They can tolerate a broad climate ranges.
o They are being found on northern tropical savannah amid intense humidity, on coastal heaths and
forests, in arid deserts and even on snowy mountains.
o The five subspecies of short-beaked echidna have distinct geographic regions.
▪ Tachyglossus aculeatus aculeatus, widespread across Queensland, New South Wales, South
Australia and Victoria.
▪ Kangaroo Island’s T aculeatus multiaculeatus
▪ Tasmania’s T aculeatus setosus,
▪ The Northern Territory and Western Australia’s T aculeatus acanthion and
▪ The tropical subspecies T aculeatus lawesii found in Northern Queensland and Papua New
Guinea.
o Kangaroo Island echidnas have longer, thinner and paler spines — and more of them, compared to
the mainland species.
o Tasmanian echidnas are well adapted to the cold, boasting a lushness of extra hair.
3. Mating trains and hibernation games
o Pregnancy usually lasts about three weeks after mating for Kangaroo Island echidnas, followed by a
long lactation period of 30 weeks for the baby puggle.
oTasmanian echidnas have a shorter lactation period, of only 21 weeks.
4. What do marsupials and monotremes have in common?
o Monotremes branched off from other mammals early on, between 160 and 217 million years ago.
Marsupials branched off later, at around 143–178 million years ago.
o Yet despite millions of years of evolutionary pressure and change, these very different animals still hit
a key embryo milestone at the same time. This striking parallel suggests the intricate process has been
conserved for over 184 million years.
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Even platypuses aren’t safe from bushfires — a new DNA study tracks their disappearance
Context:
Environmental DNA
● Platypuses are disappearing from waterways after bushfires in ● Just as people leave traces behind as
Australia. they move through the environment
An evolutionary masterpiece- Platypus: (such as fingerprints, hair and skin
cells), so do animals. These traces
● They are a species of monotremes but lay eggs. contain genetic material that can be
● They’re one of only five species of mammals that lays egg — the analysed to identify the likely source.
These are known as the
other four are echidnas. ‘Environmental DNA’.
● They have webbed feet for swimming. And they have
electroreceptors in their bills to help them find food in rivers and streams.
● They are endemic to eastern Australia, including Tasmania.
● It is one of the few species of venomous mammals, as the male platypus has a spur on the hind foot that
delivers a venom, capable of causing severe pain to humans.
Impact of bushfire on aquatic animals:
● Research shows aquatic invertebrates (animals with no backbones) and fish can be harmed by bushfire,
especially when rain follows fire.
● Bushfires burn and kill the vegetation that stabilizes the soil around rivers or streams. When rain follows fire,
a lot of ash, soil and other debris can be washed into waterways. The water chemistry might change or there
might be big increases in sediment, which makes the river or stream inhospitable for invertebrates and fish.
● As platypuses feed on aquatic invertebrates such asyabbies, these flow on effects of fire could also impact
them.
Govt to launch Project Dolphin and Project Lion on the lines of Project Tigers
Concept:
Project dolphin
● Project Dolphin will involve conservation of Dolphins and the aquatic habitat through use of modern
technology especially in enumeration and anti-poaching activities.
● The project will engage the fishermen and other river/ ocean dependent population and will strive for
improving the livelihood of the local communities.
● The conservation of Dolphin will also envisage activities which will also help in the mitigation of pollution in
rivers and in the oceans.
● It will include oceanic as well as Gangetic river dolphins, which were declared a National Aquatic species in
2010.
● Dolphins are one of the oldest creatures in the world along with some species of turtles, crocodiles and
sharks.
● Ganges river dolphins once lived in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems
of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh. But the species is extinct from most of its early distribution ranges.
● The Ganges river dolphin can only live in freshwater and is essentially blind.
● They hunt by emitting ultrasonic sounds, which bounces off of fish and other prey, enabling them to “see” an
image in their mind.
● IUCN status of Ganges River dolphin:Endagered
Gangetic dolphins
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Context:
● Two Gangetic dolphins were found dead in Bihar in three days.
About Gangetic dolphins:
● The Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) is a species of toothed whale classified in the
family Platanistidae.
● t lives in the Ganges and related rivers of South Asia, namely in the countries of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
● It is related to the much smaller Indus river dolphin which lives in the Indus River in Pakistan and the Beas
River of northwestern India.
● It is also known by the name susu (popular name) or “Sisu” (Assamese language) and shushuk (Bengali).
● The Ganges river dolphin has been recognized by the Government of India as its National Aquatic Animal and
is the official animal of the Indian city of Guwahati.
● Its first occurrence, within the Hooghly River, was documented by William Roxburgh.
● The Gangetic river dolphin is one of four freshwater dolphin species worldwide.
● The other three are found in the Yangtze River in China (now extinct), the Indus River in Pakistan and
the Amazon River in South America.
Threats:
● Dolphins are frequently targeted by poachers for their skin and oil. There is a huge demand for this mammal’s
meat and fat.
● Other threats include:
● Natural habitat destruction
● Fishing and poaching
● Dredging and large-scale construction of dams
● Large-scale vessel movement and related pollution
● Oil spills and other river pollutants
● Lack of prey base due to large-scale fishing, entangled in fishing net, etc.
Characteristics:
● It is blind and finds its way and prey in river waters through echolocation.
● Ganges river dolphins use echolocation to find food. They eat crustaceans such as prawns and fish including
carp, mahseer, and even sharks such as the Ganges shark (Glyphisgangeticus). They may also take birds and
turtles.
● Bihar is home to around half of India’s estimated 3,000 Gangetic dolphins.
Protection status:
● Gangetic dolphin is protected under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act (WPA), 1972.
● Under WPA, special instructions are provided on how to deal with Schedule I animals.
● There are provisions for a three-year jail term and a fine of Rs 3,000-25,000 for possessing any body part of
an animal listed in Schedule I. The forest officials are accountable and responsible for this.
● IUCN red list: Endangered
Role in the ecosystem:
● The presence of dolphins was a sign of a healthy riverine ecosystem.
● Dolphins prefer water that is at least five-eight feet deep.
● They are usually found in turbulent waters, with enough fish for them to feed on.
● Gangetic dolphins live in zones with little or no current, which helps them save energy. On sensing danger,
they can dive into deep waters.
● The dolphins swim from the no-current zone to the edges to hunt for fish and return, Sharma recalled.
19 dolphins rescued alive from canals of Ganga-Ghagra basin, says study
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Context:
● A recent publication by scientists and researchers has revealed that 19 Gangetic river dolphins had been
rescued from the irrigation canals of the Ganga-Ghagra basin in Uttar Pradesh between 2013 and 2020.
Key findings:
● 24 rescue operations had been International Whaling Commission (IWC)
conducted from 2013 to 2020 (19 ● Formation: 2 December 1946
successful rescue operations) and ● Headquarters: Impington, United Kingdom
five dolphins had died. ● Membership (2020): 88 nations
● Dams and barrages had severely ● The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is a specialized regional
fishery management organisation, established under the terms of the
affected this habitat as dolphins 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW)
moved into irrigation canals where to "provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make
they were at a risk of injury or death possible the orderly development of the whaling industry".
from multiple factors, such as rapidly ● Through the "Florianópolis Declaration" of 2018, members of the
receding waters, heat stroke and organization concluded that the purpose of the IWC is the conservation
of whales and that they would now safeguard the marine mammals in
human interferences. perpetuity and would allow the recovery of all whale populations to pre-
● The dolphins may either stray into industrial whaling levels.
the canal while following prey ● In response, Japan announced on 26 December 2018, that since the
IWC failed its duty to promote sustainable hunting, which is one of its
upstream or get flushed into the
stated goals, Japan is withdrawing its membership and will resume
canal by a sudden discharge of water commercial hunting in its territorial waters and exclusive economic
from the barrage gates. zone from July 2019, but will cease whaling activities in the Southern
● Over 70% of entrapments were Hemisphere.
reported either post monsoon or during peak winter.
Global efforts to protect dolphins:
● In 2016, the International Whaling Commission’s (IWC) scientific committee recognised that both Ganges
and Indus river dolphins require prompt and coordinated action to protect them from imminent threats.
● In 2017, the IWC created the Asian River Dolphin Task Team (AR‐TT) to identify information gaps and research
priorities and develop concerted action for the protection of the Ganges and Indus river species in their range.
India one of the nine countries to sign a global pact to protect endangered river dolphins
Global Declaration for River Dolphins:
● A meeting was held in Bogotá, Colombia, around International River Dolphin Day (Oct. 24), to discuss the
political context, success stories, and collaborative efforts for river dolphin conservation.
● The global declaration aims to double river dolphin populations in Asia and halt their decline in South
America.
● A key goal was to encourage nations to sign the Global Declaration for River Dolphins, led by Colombia's
government, WWF, the Omacha Foundation, the World Bank, and the South American River Dolphin
Initiative (SARDI).
● This declaration, signed by nine of the 14 range countries, aims to reverse dolphin population declines, protect
river habitats, promote research, and address unsustainable fishing practices.
● The declaration stresses the under-recognized crisis facing river dolphins and the mutual responsibility to
save them, benefiting both rivers and wetlands.
Impact of climate change on both dolphins and human populations in Amazon:
● River dolphins inhabit major rivers in Asia and South America, impacting nearly 1 billion people living along
these rivers.
● Transport and water supply challenges due to low river levels. Nearly half a million people are affected in the
Amazonas state of Brazil alone.
● High temperatures in Lake Tefé caused algae to release a neurotoxic toxin.
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Importance of Dolphins:
● River dolphins, top predators in some of the world's largest river systems, are crucial for ecological balance
and serve as indicators of ecosystem health.
● The six species of river dolphins are: the Amazon river dolphin, the Ganges river dolphin, the Indus river
dolphin, the Irrawaddy dolphin, the tucuxi, and the Indo-Pacific finless porpoise, with the Yangtze finless
porpoise, sometimes considered a separate species. All these species are threatened, with the baiji, a Yangtze
River dolphin, declared likely extinct in 2007.
● These dolphins face numerous threats, including unsustainable fishing, climate change, pollution, illegal
mining, direct hunting, and infrastructure construction, leading to a 73% population decline since the 1980s.
● Both Asian and Amazonian river dolphin populations are decreasing.
Efforts to save dolphins:
● In China, the Yangtze finless porpoise population has increased by 23% over five years, a critical success
following the extinction of the baiji in the same river system. In Indonesia, signalling devices in fishing nets
have protected dolphins while benefiting local fish catches.
● In Pakistan and India, the Indus River dolphin population has nearly doubled in the past 20 years.
Places in news:
1. Lake Tefé- Brazil
2. Bogotá- Colombia
3. Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve and Yasuní National Park- Ecuador
A different kettle of fish: Kashmir wants Europe to taste its trout
Concept :
● Introduced in the early 1900s, trout fish has become a staple on the Valley’s menu, and an increasing number
of farmers are now eyeing opportunities to export trout to meet European demand.
● The favourable water and climatic conditions in Kashmir, similar to Europe, attracted small farmers initially,
and now educated unemployed youth are joining the sector.
Trout Farming:
● Trout are classified as oily fish and have been important food fish for humans.
● As mid-level predators, trout prey upon smaller aquatic animals including insects, crustaceans, baitfish and
tadpoles, and themselves in turn are also important staple prey items for many wildlifes including brown bears,
otters, raccoons, birds of prey (e.g. sea eagles, ospreys, fish owls), gulls, cormorants and kingfishers, and other
large aquatic predators.
● Discarded remains of trout also provide a source of nutrients for scavengers, detrivores and riparian florae,
making trout keystone species across aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
● Trout are closely related to salmon and have similar migratory life cycles.
● Most trout are strictly potamodromous, spending their entire lives exclusively in freshwater lakes, rivers and
wetlands and migrating upstream to spawn in the shallow gravel beds of smaller headwater creeks.
Mass mortality of Olive Ridley turtles
Context: Hundreds of vulnerable Olive Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) have washed ashore along the coastline
between Kakinada and Antarvedi in the Godavari region during the ongoing annual breeding season on the east
coast.
More on the News:
● The breeding grounds – Sakhinetipalli, Malikipuram, Mamidikuduru and Allavaram – had witnessed the mass
mortality of the turtles
● Reasons
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● The effluents being released from the aqua ponds along the coastline and the discharges from the
pipelines of the onshore oil exploration facilities are also blamed for the mass mortality of the turtles.
● Mechanised boats equipped with speed engines beyond the permissible capacity are proving to be death
traps for Olive Ridley turtles on Andhra coast.
About Olive Ridley:
● They are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world.
● They are carnivores and get their name from their olive colored carapace.
● Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Scheduled 1
● IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
● CITES: Appendix I
● They are found in warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans.
● The males and females olive ridley turtles grow the same in size
● The Odisha’s Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is known as the world’s largest rookery (colony of breeding
animals) of sea turtles, followed by the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica.
● They are best known for their unique mass nesting called Arribada, where thousands of females come
together on the same beach to lay eggs.
● They lay their eggs over a period of five to
seven days in conical nests about one and a
half feet deep which they dig with their hind
flippers.
● They hatch in 45 to 60 days, depending on
the temperature of the sand and
atmosphere during the incubation period.
● Breeding Grounds of Olive Ridley in India
● Olive Ridely Turtles come to the beaches
of Odisha coast annually between
November and December and stay on until
April and May for nesting.
● The turtles choose the narrow beaches near estuaries and bays for laying their eggs.
● Three river mouths where the turtles come together for mass nesting – Dhamra River, Rushikulya
River,Devi River.
Operation Olivia :
● Operation Oliva has been launched by the Indian Coast Guard in the state of Odisha.
● It is an annual mission that aims to protect the Olive Ridley sea turtles during their breeding seasons and to
conserve their natural breeding habitats.
● The Mission has been launched this year jointly with the Odisha state forest department. Two dedicated ships
of the coast guard and some aircraft have been engaged in this novel nature conservation activity.
● The two ships will ensure that fishing vessels do not enter the major breeding sites of the turtles like
Gahirmatha marine sanctuary, Dhamara River, and Rushikulya beach.
Tortoise & hard-shell turtle smuggling network wider, more organised than that for soft-shell turtle:
Report
Context:
● Tortoise or hard-shell turtles from India are traded to more places globally and through a wider trafficking
network than soft-shell turtles, according to a new report. The former is mostly traded as pets while the latter
for meat, primarily within the country.
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Report and its findings:
● The findings were published in Oryx — The International Journal of Conservation.
● Research title: From pets to plates: Network analysis of trafficking in tortoises and freshwater turtles
representing different types of demand
● The first-of-its-kind study compared the supply networks of tortoise or hard-shell turtles and soft-shell
turtles based on 78 and 64 seizures, respectively, reported in the media during 2013 to 2019.
● Key Findings:
o The structure of the trafficking networks of tortoises and freshwater turtles varied based on
demand.
o The smuggling racket of tortoises / hard-shell turtles were found to be much wider than the soft-shell
turtles.
o The trade network for pet turtles was also observed to be more organised than that for soft-shell
turtles sold for meat.
o There is a lack of training on and awareness of illegal wildlife trade.
o The important trading stops in the case of tortoise / hard-shell turtles were all located in large, well-
connected state capitals like Chennai (most active node), Kolkata, Mumbai and Bangalore.
o Other nodes of importance included Sri Lanka, West Bengal and Delhi.
o North 24 pargana of West Bengal has emerged a key hub for illegal trade of both soft-shell turtles
and tortoise/Hard-shell turtles.
Soft-shell turtle:
● The Trionychidae are a taxonomic family of a number of turtle genera, commonly known as softshell turtles.
● The family was erected by Leopold Fitzinger in 1826.
● Softshells include some of the world's largest freshwater turtles, though many can adapt to living in highly
brackish areas.
● Members of this family occur in Africa, Asia, and North America, with extinct species known from Australia.
● Most species have traditionally been included in the genus Trionyx, but the vast majority have since been
moved to other genera. Among these are the North American Apalonesoftshells that were placed in Trionyx
until 1987.
● They are called "softshell" because their carapaces lack horny scutes (scales), though the spiny softshell,
Apalonespinifera, does have some scale-like projections, hence its name.
● The Indian Softshell turtle (Nilssoniagangetica), also known as the Ganges Softshell turtle, is a reptile found
in freshwater habitats and its distribution is restricted to the Ganges, Indus and Mahanadi rivers in northern
and eastern India.
Tortoise or Hard-shell turtles:
● Tortoises/ hard-shell turtles are reptiles of the family Testudinidae of the order Testudines (Latin for
"tortoise"). Like other turtles, tortoises have a shell to protect from predation and other threats.
● The shell in tortoises is generally hard, and like other members of the suborder Cryptodira, they retract their
necks and heads directly backward into the shell to protect them.
● Tortoises can vary in size with some species, such as the Galápagos giant tortoise, growing to more than 1.2
metres (3.9 ft) in length, whereas others like the Speckled cape tortoise have shells that measure only 6.8
centimetres (2.7 in) long.[2] Several lineages of tortoises have independently evolved very large body sizes in
excess of 100 kg, including the Galapagos giant tortoise and the Aldabra giant tortoise.
● They are usually diurnal animals with tendencies to be crepuscular depending on the ambient temperatures.
They are generally reclusive animals.
● Tortoises are the longest-living land animals in the world, although the longest-living species of tortoise is a
matter of debate.
● Galápagos tortoises are noted to live over 150 years, but an Aldabra giant tortoise named Adwaita may have
lived an estimated 255 years. In general, most tortoise species can live 80–150 years.
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● Tortoises are placid and slow-moving, with an average walking speed of 0.2–0.5 km/h.
● Tortoises are found from southern North America to southern South America, around the Mediterranean
basin, across Eurasia to Southeast Asia, in sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and some Pacific islands. They
are absent from Australasia.
● Tortoises are generally considered to be strict herbivores, feeding on grasses, weeds, leafy greens, flowers,
and some fruits. However, hunting and eating of birds has been observed on occasion.
Difference between tortoise and turtle:
Tortoise Turtle
● Tortoises have more rounded and domed shells ● Turtle shells are more
where turtles have thinner, more water-dynamic streamlined to aid in
shells. swimming.
● Turtles are adapted for life
● Tortoises spend most of their time on land
spent in water.
● Tortoises have club-like forelegs and 'elephantine' ● Turtles will have more flipper-
hind legs. Because tortoise are often larger and like legs, or webbed feet to
heavier, their elephantine hind legs help them move make it easier to cruise through
around and carry the extra weight the water.
In Varanasi, turtles help clean the Ganga
Section:Species
Concept :
● Since 2014, the Namami Gange Programme has been working to clean and rejuvenate the Ganga river
network, and marine life, particularly turtles, has played a crucial role. The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and
the Ministry of Forest, in collaboration with the National Mission for Clean Ganga, have been running a turtle
breeding and rehabilitation centre in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, since 2017.
● The Namami Gange Programmeaims to clean the Ganga River network and rejuvenate it.
Turtles’ Role in Water Quality Improvement:
● Turtles contribute to cleaning the river by consuming meat and waste products.
● Freshwater turtles are known for their ecosystem services like keeping rivers, ponds and freshwater sources
clean by eating algal blooms and scavenging on dead matter.
● Freshwater turtles play an important role in being predators as well as the prey.
● They control invasive fishes by eating them, and at the same time, they are an important source of protein for
a lot of animals that feed on turtle eggs and juvenile turtles,”
● They are scavengers, also sometimes known as “vultures of the aquatic ecosystem keeping the ecosystem
clean and an important part of the aquatic food chain. A healthy pond ecosystem usually has a flapshell or
some kind of freshwater turtle.
● River water quality checks have shown improvements in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), fecal coliform
(FC), and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels.
● pH assessments have indicated suitable water quality for bathing.
● Improved DO, BOD, and FC levels have been observed at various locations along the river.
What is Turtle Survival Alliance:
● The Turtle Survival Alliance (TSA) was formed in 2001 as an International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) partnership for sustainable captive management of freshwater turtles and tortoises.
● The TSA arose in response to the rampant and unsustainable harvest of Asian turtle populations to supply
Chinese markets, a situation known as the Asian Turtle Crisis.
● Mission: ‘Zero Turtle Extinctions in the 21st Century’.
Status of Turtle in India:
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● India has 29 species of freshwater turtles (24) and tortoises (5).
● More than half of the turtle species are threatened and 11 are protected under Schedule I of The Wildlife
Protection Act, enjoying the same protection as tigers.
● The three critically endangered turtles are being conserved as a part of TSA India’s research, conservation
breeding and education programme in different parts of the country.
o The Northern River Terrapin (Batagurbaska) is being conserved at the Sunderbans;
o The Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Batagurkachuga) at Chambal;
o The Black Softshell Turtle (Nilssonia nigricans) at different temples in
Biologists in slow and steady race to help North America's largest and rarest tortoise species
Context:
● U.S. wildlife officials finalized an agreement with Ted Turner's Endangered Species Fund for the release of
more Bolson tortoises on the media mogul's ranch in central New Mexico.
Details:
● The “safe harbor agreement” will facilitate the release of captive tortoises on the Armendaris Ranch (lies in
south central New Mexico along the Rio Grande River) to establish a free-ranging population.
● The ranch is proving to be an ideal spot. The landscape is similar to that where the tortoises are found in
Mexico, and work done on the ranch and at the Living Desert Zoo and Gardens in Carlsbad has resulted in
more than 400 tortoises being hatched since 2006.
About Bolson tortoises:
● It is the largest and rarest land reptile, as well as the rarest of the six Gopherus species native to the North
American Continent.
● Adult males are generally smaller than females in this species.
● The tortoise is a land-dwelling reptile that spends more than 95% of its time in a burrow that it constructs
with its shovel-like front feet.
● All foraging, nesting and mating activities take place during the tortoise's active season from roughly April to
October.
● The average lifespan of a Bolson tortoise is not known but probably lies upward of a century.
● Distribution: This species at present, is restricted to a relatively small area of the grasslands of north-central
Mexico in the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila and Durango, where it exists in disjunct sub-populations.
o Fossil records also show it was once present it the southern Great Plains, including parts of Texas and
Oklahoma.
● Conservation status IUCN: Critically Endangered
Green turtles nesting range expands under warming climate
Context:
● Rising global temperatures could lead to an increase in the nesting range of green turtles in the
Mediterranean Sea, as per the study.
Details:
● Under the worst-case climate scenario, the nesting range could increase by over 60% points, spreading west
from the current area to include much of the North African, Italian,Greek coastlines and Adriatic sea.
● Climate change led rising sea surface temperatures is impacting marine life including sea turtles as the sex of
their offspring is dependent on incubation temperature.
● Sea surface temperature, sea salinity, and human population density most affected the suitability of a
specific location as a nesting site.
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Green turtle (Chelonia mydas):
● Also known as the black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle.
● It is a species of large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae.
● It is the only species in the genus Chelonia.
● Its range extends throughout tropical and subtropical seas around the world, with two distinct populations in
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, but it is also found in the Indian Ocean.
● They migrate long distances between feeding grounds and hatching beaches.
● Listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List and CITES.
This newly discovered fish can change its colour like a chameleon
Context:
● Scientists have recently discovered a new fish species from the Milak river, Nagaland.
Details about the fish species:
● The newly discovered species Badis limaakumi has been named after Limaakum, assistant professor and head
of the zoology department at Fazl Ali College, Nagaland.
● Discovered in Nagaland's Mokokchung district.
o Limaakum found the fish during the project Integrated
Taxonomic Studies on The Fishes Found in The Rivers of
Nagaland.
● It belongs to the family ofBadidae, a small freshwater fish found in
streams with slow or moderate water flow.
● The fish has a rapid colour-changing ability.
● Fourteen species of Badis — six from the Brahmaputra in West Bengal and B. badis found in Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan; seven species from Brahmaputra and Kaladan river and one species B. britzi
from Sharavati river of the Western Ghats — were already been identified. The new fish species adds the
number to 15.
● Fish from the Badis family are known as chameleon fish for their ability to change colour. This helps them
blend with the surroundings when under stress.
Milak river
● Milak River is situated in Mokokchung district in Nagaland, India. The nearest town to this river is Naga Town and it has been
located 40 kms south towards Tuli. Langpangkong Range rises from above the Melak plains and is effectively marked by the
gentle and rolling plains. Tuli is one of the most populous towns that are located near to this river in Mokokchung district in
Nagaland. Main tributary of the Milak river is Tsurong.
● Doyang river is the longest and the biggest river of Nagaland.
Gujarat gets a state fish: Why ghol, the ‘fisherman’s lottery’, was chosen
Context:
● The black-spotted croaker, or the ghol fish — considered a fisherman’s lottery — was declared the state fish
of Gujarat.
● It has been chosen as the state fish because of its economic value and its uniqueness.
● Some other fish species found on the Gujarat coast: Ribbon fish, pomfret, and Bombay Duck.
About Ghol fish or Black-spotted croaker:
● The black-spotted croaker (Protonibeadiacanthus), also known in Australia as the black jewfish, is a species
of marine ray-finned fish belonging to the family Sciaenidae, the drums and croakers.
● It is the only species in the monospecific genus Protonibea.
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● The fish is usually found in the Indo-Pacific region that stretches from the Persian Gulf to the Pacific Ocean.
● It is an expensive fish and is used for medicinal purposes.
● It has a huge market in China and other countries.
o While the meat of the fish is exported as frozen fillet or whole fish to European and Middle-Eastern
countries, its air bladder — which is cut open from the stomach and dried — is mainly exported to
China, Hong Kong and other Asian countries where it is in high demand for its medicinal values.
● IUCN Red List: Near Threatened
In Mexico, ecologists going all out to save the iconic ‘water monster’
Context:
● Ecologists from Mexico’s National Autonomous University relaunched a fundraising campaign to bolster
conservation efforts for axolotls.
About Axolotls:
● It is an iconic, endangered fish-like type of salamander.
● It is a paedomorphic salamander closely related to the tiger salamander.
● It reaches adulthood without undergoing metamorphosis. Instead of taking to the land, adults remain aquatic
and gilled.
● Almost all 18 species of axolotls in Mexico are critically endangered and considered to be near extinction.
● Mexican axolotl is found in Lake Xochimilco, but other species can be found across the country, from valley
of Mexico to the Sonora desert.
● They have unique, admittedly slimy, appearance and uncanny ability to grow limbs.
● Threats- Encroaching water pollution, deadly amphibian fungus (Chrytid fungus, it is a skin-eating disease)
and non-native rainbow trout.
GI (Geographical Indication) tag for the khorasaniimli or the fruit of the baobab
Context: Madhya Pradesh seeks GI tag for the fruit of the endangered baobab in Mandu
What is Baobad?
● It is Native to mainland Africa and the island country of Madagascar
● It is a deciduous tree(baobab Adansonia digitata) and can live up to 2,000 years and is a globally threatened
species.
Why it is important?
● The resilient, endangered trees have supported tribal livelihoods for centuries. The fruits of baobabs are
known to be nutritious and used in traditional remedies.
Where it is found?
● Baobabs, while few and far in numbers across India, are considered the most abundant in Mandu town in
Madhya Pradesh, where the Bhil tribe has historically preserved them
Does MP has other GI tags?
● So far, Madhya Pradesh has at least 10 GI indicators for different products such as Kadaknath black
chicken and chanderi sarees.
India has registered a global first of a plant fungus infecting human
Context: A 61-year-old man from Kolkata has been recently diagnosed with an infection from Chondrostereum
Purpureum, a deadly plant fungus, in what is said to be the first such known case in the world.
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More on the News:
● The fungus,Chondrostereum purpureum, is known to cause Silver leaf disease in plants, especially in species
of rose families. However, there were no reported instances of this fungus infecting human beings from any
part of the world.
● Of the hundreds of millions of fungal species, only a few cause infections in humans. This may be the start of
a new phenomenon when plant fungus is adapting to invade human cells by evading the process of
‘phagocytosis’.
● The process, which means ‘cell eating’, happens when a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large
particle, giving rise to an internal compartment called the ‘phagosome’. Organisms clean and defend
themselves by this process.
● Rising temperature due to global warming is thought of as one of the major reasons for this new threat to
human beings. Most fungi thrive in the range of 12°C to 30°C. However, many species are thermotolerant and
can withstand high temperatures.
● Global warming means the narrowing of the thermal difference between the human body and its
surroundings. Every degree increase in the global average temperature reduces this gradient by about five
per cent. This increases the chance of the prevalence of fungal diseases.
Chondrostereum Purpureum:
● It is a plant fungus that causes silver leaf disease in plants, particularly those in the rose family.
● It is commonly found in temperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres.
● It attacks most species of the rose family Rosaceae, particularly the genus Prunus.
● It is often found on old stumps and dead wood, but can also be a serious parasite of living trees.
● The disease is progressive and often fatal. Once inside the plant, it grows slowly and can remain latent for
years before symptoms develop. Infected plants typically show a distinctive silvering or bluish-gray
discoloration of the leaves and a decline in vigor, which can eventually lead to death.
● It is spread by airborne spores landing on freshly exposed sapwood.
Finding gondra amid the floods
Section: Species in new
Context: Sahariya adivasis gather and treat a river sedge called ‘gondra’, the roots of which are used in manufacturing
perfume. The Sahariyas rely on gondra for subsistence.
More on the News:
● Sahariyas living in Madhya Pradesh on the banks of Sindh river were impacted by a flash flood and other
subsequent weather events.
● Changes in the river’s ecology and climate impact the accessibility of gondra, and consequently the livelihoods
of one of the most vulnerable communities in India.
River Sedge (Gondra): Sahariya Tribe
● Sahariyas are a tribe living in the border
● Locally called ‘gondra’, is a grass-like plant species that regions of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in
grows in the riverine plains of the Himalayan region. India.
● It is found in the foothills of the Himalayas, in states ● They are classified as particularly vulnerable
tribal groups.
like Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West
● The Sahariya community considers every adult
Bengal. member part of a governing council which is
● It is used by local communities for weaving traditional headed by a patel.
baskets, mats, and other handicrafts, and is ● The Sahariyas are expert woodsmen and forest
product gatherers.
an important source of livelihood for them.
● They are particularly skilled in making
● Also used for making ropes, for thatching roofs, and as catechu from Khair trees.
a biofencing material.
● The plant is drought-resistant and can grow on sandy and moist river banks.
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● Gondra is a medicinal plant that is used in Ayurvedic cures in dry or powdered form. The essential oil (0.5-
0.9%) from the tuber is used in perfumery, soap making and in insect repellents. The raw material that
remains after extracting the oil is used for making the body of incense sticks.
● Some species of gondra are used for soil stabilization and phytoremediation of contaminated sites.
Orchids are blooming earlier than usual in the northeast — and it’s not good news
Context:
● Changing climatic conditions in Assam have disrupted the blooming cycle of the foxtail orchid, traditionally
associated with the Assamese new year, causing premature flowering and wilting.
Climate and orchids migration:
● Orchids are good bioindicators of the health of an ecosystem.
● They are usually not widely spread, found only over a smaller geographical area.
● They do not tolerate pollution or change in their environment well.
● Assam has 411 recorded orchid species. In addition to the foxtail orchid (Rhynchostylisretusa) other species
such as the Dendrobium aphyllum, D. moschatum, and D. lituiflorum are also flowering early.
● Other changes that orchids are exhibiting include changes in flower colour, abnormal growth and shift to
higher altitudes.
● Orchids are mainly of three kinds:
1. Those that grow on the ground, or terrestrial;
2. Those that grow on trees, or epiphytic; and
3. Those that derive nutrients from mycorrhizal fungi, or myco-heterotrophical.
● Almost 60% of all orchids found in India are epiphytic.
● The issue of survival, especially for epiphytic orchids, is of concern.
● Orchids (usually terrestrial ones) are perennial herbs, they may begin to shift up easily. But the epiphytic ones
may not be able to find a suitable habitat, so there are chances many will perish.
● If there is no pollinator, then there will be no new recruitment through seed germination and gradually the
plants will vanish too.
● Not all orchids are pollinator-dependent so those species may survive longer than others.
● A shrinking forest cover is a major challenge when it comes to orchid conservation. Orchids don’t inhabit all
trees. The indiscriminate cutting down of trees is posing a threat to these plants.
● The illegal orchid trade:
o In India, 11 species of orchids are protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
o Orchids are high in demand for ornamental purposes, for medicinal purposes, and for research.
Resilience and evolution of orchids:
● Orchids are also known for their resilience.
● Orchids are the first ones to inhabit a new habitat.
● Although climate change is impacting the phenology of some orchids, globally scientists are not considering
it a serious problem because similar changes have happened earlier, about 100 years earlier, and orchids
have evolved.
Over 60 species of plants that can survive extreme dehydration found in Western Ghats
Context:
● In the biodiversity hotspot Western Ghats, researchers have found 62 species of plants that can withstand
harsh environments.
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Details:
● The discovery of the species, called desiccation-tolerant (DT) vascular plants, has potential applications in
agriculture, particularly in areas where water is scarce.
● Out of the 62 species identified, 16 are endemic to India while 12 are exclusive to Western Ghats outcrops.
● Hydration and desiccation-tolerance are two commonly studied strategies for plants in extreme habitats.
o Hydration is a condition where plant tissues can tolerate more than 30 percent of water content. But
in desiccation, plants undergo longer dry days during which
the moisture content of the leaves is the same as in the air.
● India now has nine new generic records for the global list. They are
identified as Pyrrosia, Aleuritopteris, Corallodiscus, Arundinella,
Bhidea, Bothriochloa, Danthonidium, Dimeria and Glyphochloa.
● The findings revealed that Indian desiccation tolerant plants are
spread mainly in rock outcrops and partially shaded tree trunks inside
the forests. Ferricretes (layers of sedimentary rock) and basaltic
plateaus seemed to be the preferred habitats.
● Glyphochloagoaensis, Glyphochloaratnagirica and
Glyphochloasantapaui were found only on ferricretes, while the rest
of the species were found in both ferricretes and basaltic plateaus.
The dominant genus was Glyphochloa, with mostly annual species
occurring on plateaus.
About the desiccation-tolerant (DT) plants:
● DT plants can withstand extreme dehydration, losing up to 95 per cent of their water content.
● They are usually found in rocky outcrops in the tropics and can recover quickly when water supplies are
restored.
● Some species were found to survive at increasing temperatures, which is crucial for the warming planet.
● DT plant varieties are found in both flowering and non-flowering species and in both temperate and tropical
climates. The global population of these species ranges between 300 and 1,500.
● Colour changes and morphological characteristics were also observed in the species.
o It was found that Tripogon species changed colours from greyish in dry conditions to green in
hydrated situations, while turning orange to brownish yellow in the beginning of greening.
o In another species, Oropetiumthomaeum, the leaf cloud changed from green in hydrated phase to
dark purple or orange and ranged from greyish to ash colour during the period of desiccation.
o Ferns (fronds) displayed a variety of characteristics, including curling inwards towards the costa,
exposing spores at the start of the dry season and during brief dry spells.
o In the case of C lanuginosus, its leaves folded and shrank inward to protect the chlorophyllous part,
not directly exposing them to sunlight during the desiccation phase.
● Utility of the discovery:
o The genes of these plants could be used to create a high-temperature tolerant variety of crops to
improve climate resilience and ensure food security for the masses.
Extremophytes:
● Some plant species — ranging from algae to angiosperms — thrive in harsh environments and are termed as
extremophytes.
● These species are found in extreme habitats, like hot and cold deserts, estuaries, rock outcrops, glaciers and
other arid and semi-arid regions.
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● Organisms living in such habitats face consistent droughts, but some experience cycles of desiccation. “To
adapt to extreme conditions, these plant species develop adaptive strategies to survive through morphological
and physiological traits.
Types of Extremophiles
● Acidophile: low pH; optimally 3 or below
● Alkaliphile: high pH; optimally 9 or above
● Anaerobe: little to no oxygen needed for growth
● Halophile: high salt, at least 0.2M, needed for growth
● Hyperthermophile: high heat, 80-122 C
● Hypolith: lives under rocks in cold deserts
● Metallotolerant: tolerating high levels of metal
concentrations
● Oligotroph: can grow in nutritionally limited
environments
● Osmophile: can grow in high sugar concentrations
● Psychrophile: very low heat, temperatures of less than -15 C
● Radioresistant: extreme radioactivity
● Xerophile: grow in very dry condition
Silver cockscomb isn’t a troublesome weed for Karnataka’s Soliga tribe
Silver cockscomb:
● Also known as lagos spinach, the weed belongs to the Amaranthaceae family, which includes economically
important plants like spinach (Spinacia oleracea), beetroot and quinoa.
● Believed to have originated in tropical Africa, Grows abundantly in South and Southeast Asia, Latin America
and parts of the US and Australia.
● The plant is known as Celosia argentea in scientific lexicon, kurdu in Marathi and pannaikeerai in Tamil.
Nutritional and medicinal value of Silver Cockscomb:
● Its stem and root extracts provide protection against microbial pathogens.
● Although it is of the same family as spinach, it does not pose the same risk to kidneys. Spinach leaves are high
in calcium, oxalates, vitamin K and potassium, which can impair kidney function and lead to formation of
kidney stones.
● In comparison, silver cockscomb leaves have lower levels of oxalic acid (0.2 per cent) and phytic acid (0.12
per cent).
● Used for treating eye diseases and ulcers.
● The seed contains an edible oil that is beneficial for treating conditions such as bloodshot eyes and cataracts.
Why is it a problem?
● It is a beautiful but troublesome weed.
● If left unchecked, it can spread quickly and suppress the growth of other crops, affecting their yield.
● It also attracts insects, caterpillars, worms and moths that can harm crops.
The World Vegetable Center:
● It is a Taiwan-based non-profit institute for vegetable research and development.
● The World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg), previously known as the Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Center (AVRDC), is an international, nonprofit institute for vegetable research and
development.
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● It was founded in 1971inShanhua, southern Taiwan, by the Asian Development Bank, Taiwan, South Korea,
Japan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United States and South Vietnam.
● WorldVeg aims to reduce malnutrition and alleviate poverty in developing nations through improving
production and consumption of vegetables.
Botanical Survey of India gets patent for bamboo based reusable straw
Context:
● The patent office of Government of India has granted a patent to Botanical Survey of India for ‘reusable straw
and its manufacturing’.
Details of Bamboo straw:
● The reusable straw is developed from a species of endemic bamboo plant.
● Bamboo species: Schizostachyumandamanicum.
● Found in the Andamans and Nicobar Islands, three decades ago.
● Work on the bamboo straw started at Dhanikhari Experimental Garden-cum-Arboretum, at the BSI Regional
Centre in 2011.
o Patent has been granted in 2023.
What makes this bamboo species suitable for making straw?
● This species of bamboo is characterized by a thin large hollow erect culm (stem) with long internodes and
has potential for developing into a straw.
● The morpho-anatomical structure of culm internodes of the endemic bamboo were identical to modern
synthetic drinking straws which led to the idea for this novel invention.
● The germplasm of the bamboo species is only found in some forested areas of Andamans and large-scale
production of the straw will be dependent on commercial cultivation of the species.
Benefit:
● It will boost the economic potential of these bamboo plants.
● Replace plastic straws with an organic alternative.
● Enhance the economy of farmers and bamboo growers of the island.
● Helps in curbing the plastic pollution.
Ready to grow roots: Saplings from 17 countries await G20 leaders
Context:
● India has imported saplings from at least 17
countries, which are to be planted by visiting G20
leaders in the national capital on occasion of the
summit this weekend.
● Saplings identified and selected by: Ministry of
Agriculture.
Ghaf tree from UAE:
● Ghaf was declared UAE's national tree in 2008.
● The Ghaf is a drought-tolerant tree, which can
remain green even in harsh desert environments.
● It is essential for the survival of animal and plant
species alike.
● Ghaf trees can live for up to 120 years on average.
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● A well-known example of the Ghaf is the 400-year-old'Tree of Life' in Bahrain, which is still growing in the
desert without any obvious sources of water.
● It is learnt that six mango plants -Amrapali and Langra varieties - have also been imported from Bangladesh.
Effect of Invasive plants
Context- Some states banning and taking steps to control invasive plants
Gujarat banned Conocarpus plants
Significance/ Background- To increase forest cover in Gujarat, Conocarpus plants was used in recent years.
Effects-
1. Harm local flora and fauna-
• Cause diseases- cold, cough, asthma
• Roots go deep inside and damage telecommunication lines and freshwater system
• Unsuitable to plant eating animals
• Kills competition (against Gause rule)- eg- Delhi- Vilayatikikar taken over native trees like- acacia, kadambetc
• Depletes water table
• Reduce fodder availability in forests for animas- chances of animals foraying into human settlements
increases- man animal conflicts (WII study )
2. Adverse impact on human health too
• Telangana banned the same plant.
Greatness of Tulasi leaves
Tulsi plant:
● Ocimum Tenuiflorum, commonly known as holy basil or tulsi, is an aromatic perennial plant in the family
Lamiaceae.
● It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of Australia, Malesia, Asia, and the western Pacific.
● It is widely cultivated throughout the Southeast Asian tropics.
● This plant has escaped from cultivation and has naturalized in many tropical regions of the Americas. It is an
agricultural and environmental weed.
● Tulasi is cultivated for religious and traditional medicine purposes, and also for its essential oil. It is widely
used as aherbal tea, commonly used in Ayurveda, and has a place within the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism,
in which devotees perform worship involving holy basil plants or leaves.
Medicinal properties:
● Tulsi properties — antibacterial, antifungal, antipyretic, antioxidant, antiseptic and anticancer.
● It has medicinal value due to the presence of phenols and flavonoids.
● It has a concentration of eugenol (anti-infective) and ursolic acid (anticancer) in both leaves and stems.
Flowering plant undoes 100 million years of evolution, shows signs of self-pollination
In the news:
● Scientists found a field pansy flower (native to Europe, western Asia, and North Africa) in Paris, France,
producing less nectar and smaller flowers to attract fewer pollinators, indicating rapid evolution.
Details:
● Researchers planted older seeds from the 1990s and 2000s against contemporary descendants, witnessing
the rapid evolution of plant behaviour within 50 years.
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● A documented 27% increase in self-pollination rates and trait evolution towards smaller, less conspicuous
flowers with reduced nectar production was observed across four populations.
Significant outcome:
● The field pansy (Viola arvensis) has evolved self-pollination behaviour, posing a threat to the plant-pollinator
relationship.
● Flowers in Paris exhibited a 20% decrease in nectar production and a 10% reduction in size, observed by
comparing contemporary and older flower varieties.
● The plant evolved to self-pollinate due to declining insect availability, disrupting the conventional reliance
on insects for pollination.
● Plants typically produce nectar to attract insects for pollination, a mutually beneficial relationship established
over millions of years.
Concerns:
● While the short-term benefit of self-pollination helps plants, it poses threats due to environmental changes,
potentially impacting plant population survival.
● Decreased nectar production may lead to food scarcity, contributing to further declines in pollinators, and
forming a cycle detrimental to both plants and pollinators.
Triple trouble for Gulf of Mannar islands, study finds
Context: An invasive plant from South America is threatening to pulverise indigenous plants across the 21 islands
where 96 species of birds have been recorded.
Prosopis chilensis:
● The Prosopis chilensis is also known as Chilean mesquite.
● It is a small to medium-sized legume tree that grows up to 12 m in height and 1 m in diameter.
● It is a drought-resistant plant native to the arid regions of four South American countries namely Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile, and Peru.
● The tree has a deep root system, which enables it to access water from underground aquifers and makes it
resistant to drought.
● Prosopis chilensis is used for several purposes, including as a source of firewood, charcoal, and tanni Its wood
is also used for making furniture and as a material for construction.
● The tree is known for its ability to fix nitrogen from the air, which makes it useful for improving soil fertility.
● In some regions, the pods of Prosopis chilensis are used as a food source for humans and livestock. The pods
are rich in protein and have a sweet flavor.
● Prosopis chilensis is also considered an invasive species in some parts of the world, including Australia and
South Africa, where it has displaced native vegetation and altered ecosystem dynamics.
Nematocyst: a cellular weapon
Nematocysts' Role in Defense and Hunting:
● Nematocysts are specialized cells found in jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, and hydras, andact as potent
weapons for defence and hunting.
● Composed of capsules containing coiled tubules and toxins, nematocysts rapidly eject these tubules with
extreme acceleration when triggered.
● Nematocysts play a crucial role in the feeding and defence strategies of cnidarians in particular. Cnidarians
are animals that contain cells called cnidocytes.
156
● When potential prey comes into contact with a cnidocyte, specialised sensory structures on the cell’s surface
trigger the release of the nematocyst. The tubule then unfurls, piercing the prey’s outer layer or injecting
toxins into its body.
Variety of Toxins:
● Toxins within nematocysts have diverse effects: some paralyze prey, while others break down cells.
● Cnidarians employ a combination of toxins for effective predation or defence.
Adaptation for Survival:
● Nematocysts' complexity contributes to cnidarians' success in diverse aquatic environments.
● This adaptation makes cnidarians formidable creatures, aiding in their survival and dominance in various
ecosystems.
Small herbivores are true victims
● India's natural areas are facing extensive threats, with land-use changes leading to fragmented, depleted,
and invaded ecosystems.
● Two-thirds of these spaces are now grappling with the invasion of alien plants, posing a significant risk to
biodiversity.
● Herbivores, both wild and domestic, are particularly vulnerable as they rely on these landscapes for survival.
● While invasive plants are not a primary food source for herbivores, some large grazers, such as rhinoceroses
and Indian bison, have been observed consuming them, especially during dry seasons.
● Megaherbivores, with their large size and varied diets, play a crucial role in controlling invasive plants in
certain regions, but in drier areas, the invasion creates challenges for native plants.
● Smaller and medium-sized herbivores, heavily reliant on vegetation decimated by invasive plants, face the
dilemma of starvation or consuming invaders, with potential health issues documented.
● Protected areas in India are implementing measures such as managed grasslands and periodic removal of
invasive plants to provide temporary havens for herbivores. However, a long-term solution requires large-
scale, science-driven restoration of native ecosystems.
Megaherbivores:
● Megaherbivores are large herbivores that can exceed 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) in weight. They first appeared 300
million years ago in the early Permian, in the form of synapsids.
● They were then replaced by megaherbivorous dinosaurs that went extinct in the Cretaceous-Paleogene
extinction event.
● After this period, small mammalian species evolved into large herbivores in the Paleogene.
● During the Quaternary Extinction Event, megaherbivores disappeared on most continents on Earth.
● Recent megaherbivores include elephants, rhinos, hippos, and giraffes.
● There are nine extant species of megaherbivores living in Africa and Asia. The African bush elephant is the
largest extant species.
● Extant megaherbivores are keystone species in their environment. They defoliate the landscape and spread
a greater number of seeds than other frugivores.
● Extant megaherbivores, like most large mammals, are K-selected species. They are characterized by their
large size, relative immunity to predation, their effect on plant species, and their dietary tolerance.
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