Examiners’ commentaries 2021

Examiners’ commentaries 2021

IS1060 Introduction to information systems

Important note
This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements for
this course in the academic year 2020–2021. THE FORMAT AND STRUCTURE
OF THE EXAMINATION WILL CHANGE IN 2021–2022 FROM THE CURRENT
EIGHT QUESTIONS ON THE PAPER TO SIX. This change will be publicized
on the virtual learning environment (VLE).
Information about the subject guide and the Essential reading references
Unless otherwise stated, all cross-references will be to the latest version of the
subject guide (2019). You should always attempt to use the most recent edition
of any Essential reading textbook, even if the commentary and/or online reading
list and/or subject guide refer to an earlier edition. If different editions of
Essential reading are listed, please check the VLE for reading supplements – if
none are available, please use the contents list and index of the new edition to
find the relevant section.

General remarks

Learning outcomes
At the end of this course and having completed the Essential reading and Activities,
you should be able to:
• Explain fundamental assumptions made in studying information and
communications technologies in organisations as socio-technical systems
in contrast to purely technical or managerial views
• Debate the relevance of the sociotechnical approach and demonstrate this
through the study of a number of practical business and administrative
information systems within real organisations
• Express a logical understanding of how the technical parts of computer-
based information systems work, their principal structures and components
including contemporary technologies for information processing and
communications
• Explain the various functions of systems and network software and various
classes of business-oriented application packages
• Describe fundamental principles that can be applied to ensure that security
and personal privacy is respected in information systems

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 • Explain the tasks required when undertaking the establishment of a new
information system and be able to contrast alternative approaches to
development
• Describe and justify a range of professional roles in information systems
development activity, and their changing nature reflecting in part changes in
technology use in and between organisations
• Discuss the social, organisational, legal and economic context of computer
use and be able to debate the significance of information and
communications technologies on the economy and society
• Demonstrate, through project work, understanding of the analysis and
design of small projects using database and spreadsheet programs, and
the ability to write brief but informative reports on such work.
This set of learning outcomes provides a useful benchmark against which you can
assess your progress throughout the subject and will help you to balance your
workload of study and revision.

What the examiners are looking for

In 2021 the examination for this subject was once again in the form of a take-away
assessment based on the usual exam format. For 2021 students had 6 hours to
complete this, and had various materials available including the Subject Guide,
textbooks and the Internet. The take-away paper worked reasonably well, and
students were able to answer questions to varying degrees of attainment. That said
students were too often unclear as to where their distinct contribution should be
focused e.g. the extra insights, opinions or information that could lead to a strong
65+ answer. Often this seemed to result from the easy availability of standard
information in notes, Subject Guide, or a textbook, which short circuited any
sensible thinking about the question.
Thus we received a significant proportion of answers that clung quite closely to the
course materials e.g. the Laudon and Laudon text book, the course Subject Guide
and individual teaching centers lecturer’s own notes. Students who obtained better
marks were able to see beyond such materials, were careful to cite them correctly
when they were used, and could then critique them in distinct and thoughtful ways.
As ever, the strongest students understood the need to show both their
understanding of the focus of the question, the core ideas introduced in the
syllabus, and their wider knowledge and understanding of IS issues. They did not
just identify and precis a relevant page in the Subject Guide. Our suspicion is that
those who attained a 65+ marks did so with very little reference to any course
material during the exam because they knew their subject well and were confident
in shaping their own answers.
The overall results showed, a similar mean score to last year, about 54%. This is a
little higher than that usually obtained in the years of unseen three-hour
examinations. The rise is explained in part by the back-up that weaker students
have from access to the course materials when they undertake the assessment.
Equally, for a second year it was apparent that some good students were under-
performing in the exam. What seemed to be occurring is that students who, in an
exam hall, would have been spurred on to think a bit more and construct and
defend their own arguments, rather turned to their materials – Course Guide,
Textbook or Internet searches – and cobbled together an answer which was
probably factually correct, but lacking a clear line of argument or close attention to
the specific question. Similarly, a number of candidates seemed to want to always
reinterpret the questions, often towards a more ‘computer science’ approach, and

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

wrote about what they wanted to write about, ignoring the core questions we had
set or the wider focus of the syllabus on sociotechnical perspectives and
information systems in organisational settings.

Meeting examiners expectations

Whatever the form of examination or assessment examiners want evidence of what
you know about information systems but also evidence that you can think, reason
and argue about the subject and take ownership of your answer and not rely on
standard accounts. In an open book exam this is even more important because
showing standard knowledge, definitions, descriptions, in an answer proves nothing
other than that you can use Google.
The questions we set in these examinations, and the project work, are intended to
have multiple possible answers and we want you each to craft your own distinct
version. A good answer to almost any examination activity will require you to exhibit
some understanding to allow you to decode the question set, then some ‘facts’ to
allow you to set out the basics. But, more importantly, a good answer will be one
that expresses an opinion or develops a specific line of argument, backed by
evidence. In this way, you demonstrate your ability to make a judgement, select a
particular emphasis, or present your own evaluation of relevant ideas.
As suggested above, this all starts with your interpretation of the question or
assignment itself. Have you actually read it? Or have you just made a reflex
reaction to some keywords that kick your mental photocopier into action? Do you
understand the question as a question – what is there to explain, discuss, weigh
up or judge? Are there alternative ways to understand it? What is it actually asking
you to do in your answer? Could it be answered in different ways? How are you
going to interpret it and which way will you set out to answer it?
To work through this list of questions takes some time, so do allow for thinking and
planning in any assessment activity. This applies equally to a three-hour unseen
exam, to any form to open book or take away exam as in 2021, and to project work.
Thinking comes first, your brain should be fully engaged in decoding and exploring
the question. This will really pay off when you get to writing something down. It is far
better to take a bit of time to think, and then write a shorter answer that is well
targeted and insightful, rather than a longer one that rambles, repeats and lacks
structure and focus.

Key steps to improvement

If you want to do well in your examinations and project work then there are some
key ideas that you can use to improve your performance:
1. The most important and the most effective step you can take is to revise
what you know about writing essays and reports in English. What is a paragraph
for? How do you structure a paragraph? How do you lay it out on the page? When
are sub headings useful? How and when should you write a list? How do you cite
work that you quote from?
We strongly suggest that you take time out to identify both your strengths and
weaknesses as writer and then work to emphasise the former but, more importantly,
to address the latter. For many candidates, time spent in efforts to improve your
written English and your ability to use it to communicate complex ideas, will reap
great benefits in this examination. Best of all, the effort will be transferable to every
other examination you take from now onwards as well as to the world of work.

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In particular, it is quite common to see scripts that make no use of paragraphs, sub-
headings, underlined key words or sensible lists. We see too many candidates who
write answers as one big block of undistinguished text – a stream of semi-
consciousness. This happens in three-hour formal exams and makes an answer
very hard to understand. To our surprise it also occurred in the 2020 and 2021
examinations when almost all students wrote on computers and had more time to
edit and check their work. A minimal use of paragraphs (one idea, one paragraph),
sub-headings, simple figures, together with short and direct Introductions and
Conclusions, can raise a modest answer to become a good answer. Their lack,
similarly, can reduce a good answer to a borderline one.
Remember, all styles of examination or assessment are an exercise in
communication. So you need to develop your ability not just to write down things
that you feel are relevant but to organise your thoughts on the page and to
communicate them clearly and persuasively to your reader. For traditional hand-
written examinations we have always urged students to ask themselves and other
people: ‘Honestly, is my handwriting legible?’ If the answer is ‘No!’ then do
something to make it legible otherwise you will not communicate. Similarly, for
exams and assessments written on the computer ask yourself if you are doing
enough to make your text accessible and readable and to maximise the
communication – too many scripts this year failed this test.
2. Read about each topic that you study in at least two different textbooks and
make use of good online references such as Wikipedia or the Free Online
Dictionary of Computing (http://foldoc.org/) to crosscheck your understanding and
build up your knowledge. When you consult two or more sources they will, in all
probability, not say exactly the same things, they will use different examples, and
perhaps different technical language and jargon. You then have to judge and
combine the various accounts, and become an active learner. The result is that you
will understand more and you will remember more too. Certainly, you should never
ever rely on just the subject guide or your lecture notes to give you an adequate
understanding of any topic.
3. Talk about information systems issues with your friends and fellow
candidates. Keep on talking. If you cannot talk about a topic then you are unlikely to
be able to write about it in an examination. Best of all is when you can make jokes
about the subject or engage in sharp debate arguing for specific points. To be able
to construct a good plausible line of argument or to joke about something requires
that you really know it.
4. Take your learning out into the world. Visit organisations and talk to people
who work with information systems both as professionals and as users (see subject
guide Chapter 12). Ask lots of questions and test your ‘book learning’ against what
people in responsible jobs actually say and do. Keep a scrapbook of newspaper
and magazine stories that relate to the various parts of the syllabus. Try to find one
such story each week during the course and share it with fellow candidates so you
can practice talking about information systems.

Preparing for the examination

You need to approach the examination, whatever its format may be, feeling
confident in your knowledge of information systems and in your ability to use that
knowledge on the day. To achieve this, you need to have studied across quite a
wide range of topics and become an active learner, doing that little bit extra and
practising ‘thinking and talking about’ information systems, not just memorising
information. What you should not do is try to rely on memorisation or mental
photocopying. The reason we say this is two-fold.

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

First, such memorisation often means that you do not actually learn anything, so
you waste your time and money. Second, even if you succeed in memorising some
topics for a few weeks, you are very likely to repeat what you know in an
inappropriate place or an inappropriate way.
As examiners, we often see obviously ‘pre-prepared’ and memorised text being
written on the page in a way that fails to answer the question that is asked. The
classic example of this is the kind of candidate who cannot answer a question about
some part of the lifecycle of an information systems project (e.g. focused on
analysis or on changeover) without describing the whole lifecycle in minute detail.
This kind of ‘mental photocopying’ examination technique is a really good way to
gain low marks. If the question is, for example, about changeover or evaluation,
then all your writing about systems analysis or feasibility studies will gain you no
marks - unless you build a strong link to the focal topic. Furthermore, it shows the
examiners that you lack an ability to even try to identify and present the most
appropriate knowledge you have to answer the specific question in front of you.
In 2020 and 2021, with open book examinations, we saw a slightly different version
of this same problem. Students, even good students, faced with a particular
question on a given topic, stopped thinking for themselves and turned to their other
materials, internet, textbook or Subject Guide, and then repeated what they found
about the topic there. While doing this they often forgot about the specific question
that had been asked. What they managed to write related to the topic, but not to the
question. Our view as examiners was that these people would have achieved more
marks if they had ignored the materials available to them, given the specific
question five minutes careful thought, trusted their own understanding and then
started to write. Of course, some aspects could be checked later, but the core of the
answer would belong to the student.

Reading advice
We have given chapter references to the 2019 subject guide for each question –
following those suggestions will also lead you to relevant activities and readings in
the course textbooks. We also very positively encourage candidates to use the
VLE, the wider internet and other textbooks, magazines, and newspapers as a
source of information and understanding. When you work through the Examiners’
commentaries for this year’s examination papers use these kinds of extra resources
as a way to confirm and develop your understanding of the topics covered, and to
find specific arguments or details for each question. We have also this year
emphasised the core ideas in the questions asked. This should help you develop
your skills of interpreting questions and shaping a focused answer.
We regularly set questions that ask you to apply your understanding of information
systems to contemporary developments in the use of IT in government and
business. Reading newspapers and viewing online content to keep abreast of
issues that have an information systems dimension should form part of your work
for this course and is important as preparation for the examinations. You should find
that your study of the course makes these kinds of news stories particularly
interesting and gives you a better understanding of events.

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Project work
We need to remind students once again that 2019 subject guide includes
revised requirements for the project work. In particular, we now require a use
case diagram (UCD) for each element of the work. See Chapters 2, 18 and 19
in the new guide.
As advised in Chapter 2 of the 2019 edition of the subject guide, it is important that
you prepare your project work systematically and use it both to gain specific skills
and as a way to build up your understanding of other issues of information systems
development that are addressed in the wider course. For example, undertaking the
project work should help you to develop your understanding of issues of project
planning and management, of what a database approach entails, and of the design
and use of decision support systems.
One important element of these projects is that you have to think up, develop and
execute your own projects in areas of interest to you. Projects thus can draw on and
address many areas, including sport, leisure activities, business, economics,
sociology or any other aspect of the world around you that you find interesting and
relevant. The examiners positively reward creative and individual projects that show
that a candidate has applied their knowledge to the world around them and is using
real situations, real examples and real data. We also appreciate and reward
candidates who own up to and reflect on the errors they make along the way or the
limitations of their projects.
In contrast, examiners are not impressed by standard, obviously textbook derived
projects for either the database or spreadsheet work. Nor do they view favourably
projects from individual institutions that all have very similarly structured reports in
terms of sections but also similar basic data models, DSS domains and linking text.
We are particularly unimpressed by database projects that are narrowly based on
the concepts of a customer who places an order for a number of items (see, for
example, Laudon, K.C. and J.P. Laudon Management information systems:
managing the digital firm. (Boston, London: Pearson, 2018) 15th edition
[ISBN9781292211756], Chapter 6, Figure 6.11, and Curtis, G. and D. Cobham
Business information systems: analysis, design and practice. (London: Prentice
Hall, 2008) 6th edition [ISBN 9780273713821], Chapter 13).
This customer – order - order-line model is a very standard textbook example of a
database design. It has been carefully worked out already and, as such, offers a
candidate no opportunity to demonstrate his or her skills at undertaking the basic
analysis needed for solving database problems, for identifying classes or in
normalisation and ER diagramming. If these essential skills cannot be
demonstrated, you cannot obtain marks for them. So it is in your interest to choose
your own problems and to develop your own solutions.
More generally, a lack of imagination, creativity or demonstrated skills mean that
projects based on standard textbook examples cannot gain high marks. Please
remember, candidates who turn their attention to some novel or personally
interesting application area, and do the work to develop a distinct and individual
database or spreadsheet, can and do achieve really high marks, including marks for
noting problems, errors, and limitations.
We do understand that teachers need to use well-known examples to teach about
class diagrams and data models and the uses of database and spreadsheet
software. Equally, you probably need help to learn how to structure and write
succinct and informative reports. However, your data models and spreadsheet
models should be your own and your report should be written in your own words
and based on your own ideas and activities. In summary, the work you submit must

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

be your own and not a cut-and-paste job based on a standard textbook model or a
pro forma report developed by a teacher and used by a whole class.
Projects are assessed based on a report written by the student. The report
therefore needs to be well structured and informative, conveying the essence of the
work that you have done. Nevertheless, too many candidates submit reports for
both the database and spreadsheet work that are weak, with minimal explanation of
the work and poorly structured. The most common and irritating case is the
candidate who provides no introduction or justification of the overall database
project, a rough set of un-normalised tables, and then magically, and with no
explanation or examples, provides a normalised version. Similar problems are
found in spreadsheet projects that have no discussion of design decisions, users or
data sources, but moves directly to present an often confused and poor quality
spreadsheet. In both cases, to get marks you must ‘show your working’. Another
example of poor practice and failure to explain is where database reports mention
tables, reports and queries in the text and then just say ‘see attached’ or similar.
The report then ends with pages and pages of seemingly random printouts of
almost everything. This is not good practice. Your report has a page limit of 8
pages, and in these 8 pages we expect to see a small number of relevant sample
data tables and selected screen shots that are integrated into the main body of your
report – just as you see in a book chapter. Putting screenshots, tables, figures and
reports in an appendix, rather than where they naturally occur in the explanation of
the project, makes it far more difficult to understand how the spreadsheet/database
is constructed and used. There may be valid uses for tables and figures in
appendices, but these should be for reference as needed, not core information.
We also still see screenshots that are too small to be legible – more thumbnails
than real images. If the examiners cannot read them, they cannot give any marks
for them. Good screenshots are legible, properly cropped and then annotated so as
to indicate the key aspects being illustrated. This is particularly true with
spreadsheets where it too easy to imagine that a figure of a whole sheet will be
legible and informative when the opposite is the case.
Finally, please remember that we do assess both elements of project work in
respect of your use of word processing and document preparation skills, so take
time to get the presentation right including layout on the page, positioning of
graphics, spelling, grammar and the use of paragraphs.

Database project work

To succeed you must work on a real-world database idea that you understand and
of which you can give a realistic account. Too many students start their projects
with an obviously fictional scenario. Too often we read an opening statement such
as: ‘The Jumbo Bakery needs a database to keep track of the orders for cakes and
pies… ’. It does not sound as though you are actually telling your own story (even if
you are). Far better to be able to start out saying truthfully: ‘The idea for this
database came from my part-time job working in the Jumbo Bakery. Here I have
observed that orders for cakes and pies come in all day long, and sometimes get
lost or delivered to the wrong customers. There is also no way to check if we have
the right ingredients in stock to do the baking for the following week. This suggested
to me two possible areas to use for this project. After thought and discussion, I
decided to focus on the ingredient stocks problem.’ You can build further on the
credibility of your project by showing some real credible data.
You are required to produce use case diagrams (UCD) for both the database and
spreadsheet project. This is a way to give the context of your system and the
potential users/roles it can serve. However, we still see too few examples that refer

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creatively to the UCD in the report. For example, a good UCD can frame the
selection of forms, queries and reports in a database, or the distinctions between a
user entering and modelling independent variables, and a manager setting policy
and parameters in a decision support system. A good database project report will
describe briefly how reports and forms enable the use cases shown in the UCD,
and which actors they are intended for. Your database or spreadsheet does not
need to address all the needs and use cases of all the actors shown in the UCD but
you should very clearly identify those that are part of the project. So remember, you
will get more credit for your UCD if you use it to show which use cases your
database or spreadsheet supports. You may even suggest what developments or
amendments to your database or spreadsheet would enable other use cases or
actors’ needs to be met.
Still, the central idea for a database is a well-developed class diagram and then a
data model documented in the UML style. Most candidates do attempt this but in
many cases the work is rushed and incomplete. To fully achieve this requires that
you first develop the database idea and identify the minimal set of classes that fit
the problem. Then you need to undertake the normalisation and this may well
increase the number of classes you need (e.g. as *..* associations are worked out).
Remember that if a data model is not normalised this will inevitably lead to
problems in implementing it (e.g. in identifying appropriate foreign keys). The
examiners really do need you to show them that you have seriously considered
your initial class diagram, have done normalisation, and produced a final ER
diagram for implementation. Too many candidates try to skip this key aspect, or do
not document it. (For more reading, see the subject guide, Chapters 16 and 18).
You must also understand that a screenshot from your database software (e.g.
Access) cannot be adequate as a class diagram. Rather, you must do the analysis
and design work before you implement using the software.
We also see good class diagrams that have not subsequently been faithfully
implemented in the database software. This is often apparent when we compare the
class diagram with a screenshot of the model as implemented – e.g. as taken from
Access. This suggests that candidates need to take more care in implementing their
developed model and need to cross-check that the associations specified in the
class diagram are implemented when the database is created. If you do have
subsequent problems, then describe them in the report – do not try to hide them.
Remember too that well-designed queries underpin all reports and forms and allow
you to show your understanding of how tables can be linked. Good project reports
show query by example (QBE) forms that access more than one table. Some
candidates show this by annotating the data model and indicating the tables
involved. Queries and reports that only use one table (maybe with a selection
criterion, maybe not) are less impressive. We therefore recommend that you include
a QBE form screenshot or a structured query language (SQL) code if you are not
using Access or other database software with a graphical interface.

Spreadsheet project work

Spreadsheets, like databases, should come out of your own experience and interest
in the world. Every sentiment that is expressed in the opening two paragraphs of
the section above on databases is equally relevant to spreadsheets including using
a UCD to provide the context of your work. Remember that, just as with a database,
you must select and choose your topic – no standard textbook problems, no
shortcuts – do your own thing, do your own thinking and impress the examiners!
Lack of engagement with the problem also leads to another issue: spreadsheet
projects that are essentially trivial in their modelling – just adding up rows of

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

numbers, or calculating simple percentages. Candidates need to be creative in

developing their spreadsheet projects and step beyond using simple functions such
as = SUM(x, y). Please also remember that, in order to give good marks, we need
to see a properly documented design of the spreadsheet with a justification for the
principal decisions you make. If you do this then you are helping us to give you
marks – if you do not, we cannot! In a similar way, you should pay some attention to
data validation and testing. Your spreadsheet will not be of much use if you can
enter any data into any cell.
We also see many ill-considered charts and figures generated by spreadsheets. For
example, 3D charts that show no more than 2D equivalents but look confusing and
messy. Remember, just because the software can do such flashy things does not
mean you have to use them. Even worse, many projects present charts that have
no underlying meaning; for example, line graphs of non-continuous data and pie
charts of items that are not allocations of 100 per cent of anything. Note also that
the default pie chart in some versions of Excel creates a legend in a box away from
the chart. Pie charts are far easier to interpret if the data labels are placed next to
the appropriate segment along with either a percentage figure or number of items.
Other graphs we see sometimes present five or six parallel columns per item and
are so thin and poorly printed that they cannot be read. When marking this work, we
can only give credit for meaningful charts that we can read and decipher. You
should also remember that it is a good idea to describe briefly why you have chosen
a particular type of chart and perhaps what other options you considered and
rejected, and why.

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Examination revision strategy
Many candidates are disappointed to find that their examination performance is
poorer than they expected. This can be due to a number of different reasons and
the Examiners’ commentaries suggest ways of addressing common problems
and improving your performance. We want to draw your attention to one
particular failing – ‘question spotting’, that is, confining your examination
preparation to a few question topics which have come up in past papers for the
course. This can have very serious consequences.
We recognise that candidates may not cover all topics in the syllabus in the
same depth, but you need to be aware that examiners are free to set questions
on any aspect of the syllabus. This means that you need to study enough of the
syllabus to enable you to answer the required number of examination questions.
The syllabus can be found in the Course information sheet in the section of the
VLE dedicated to this course. You should read the syllabus very carefully and
ensure that you cover sufficient material in preparation for the examination.
Examiners will vary the topics and questions from year to year and may well set
questions that have not appeared in past papers – every topic on the syllabus is
a legitimate examination target. So although past papers can be helpful in
revision, you cannot assume that topics or specific questions that have come up
in past examinations will occur again.
If you rely on a question spotting strategy, it is likely you will find yourself in
difficulties when you sit the examination paper. We strongly advise you not to
adopt this strategy.

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

Examiners’ commentaries 2021

IS1060 Introduction to information systems – Zone A

Important note
This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements for
this course in the academic year 2020–2021. THE FORMAT AND STRUCTURE
OF THE EXAMINATION WILL CHANGE FROM 2021–2022 FROM THE
CURRENT 8 QUESTIONS ON THE PAPER TO SIX. This change will be
publicised on the virtual learning environment (VLE).
Information about the subject guide and the Essential reading references
Unless otherwise stated, all cross-references will be to the latest version of the
subject guide (2019). You should always attempt to use the most recent edition
of any Essential reading textbook, even if the commentary and/or online reading
list and/or subject guide refer to an earlier edition. If different editions of
Essential reading are listed, please check the VLE for reading supplements – if
none are available, please use the contents list and index of the new edition to
find the relevant section.

Comments on specific questions

Candidates should answer THREE of the following EIGHT questions. All questions
carry equal marks.

We advise that each answer starts with a short introduction, indicating the
sequence of the main ideas in the answer. The answer to each question must
not exceed 1,000 words. Anything beyond 1,000 words will not be read.
However, you do not have to use all the 1,000 words. It is possible to answer the
questions well in less than 1,000 words. The word limit is to discourage spending
more than the 3 hours expected time/effort by producing excessively lengthy
responses. Any citations, references and direct quotations are included in the word
count. Any figures, graphs or tables are excluded from the word count.

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Question 1
Why are information systems described as ‘systems’?
In your answer explain the general properties of a system and apply them to
business information systems using examples including informal information
systems, Supply Chain Management systems (SCM), and Decision Support
Systems (DSS).
Reading for this question
Chapter 5 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas for this question: systems concepts, well explained and creatively
applied.
The term ‘system’ implies complex purposive activity operating in a dynamic and
changing environment. There is interaction with the environment and consequences
for the environment - inputs lead to outputs and thereby to change in the
environment. So an answer needs to frame information systems at minimum in
terms of inputs, processing and storage, and outputs, and add the concept of
feedback to maintain and control purposive actions. The subject guide also makes a
contrast between a ‘systems view’ of information systems as connected and
heterogeneous (e.g. socio technical), and a ‘tool’ view’ narrowly technical and
functional. The guide also mentions the ‘ensemble’ view as a synonym for a
systems view.
A stronger answer will show how using these ‘systems’ concept helps us to see
information activities as looking beyond technology, narrow communication and
data to include people (users/stakeholders) of various types. This complicates our
understanding of how information systems are designed, operate and perform in
organisations, but it does help us to better understand them.
The second part of the question turns to specific types of information systems and
invites an answer that discuss them in systems terms. SCM and DSS are fairly easy
to explain in general (e.g. their role and function in a business organisation) and to
identify inputs, some processing of data and feedback loops, and some subsequent
consequences in their environment (e.g. changed behaviours). Good answers will
be framed using systems concepts such as heterogeneity, feedback and
purposiveness. Both DSS and SCM need to be addressed to get a high mark, using
each to highlight different aspects of a system e.g. SCM are purposive in so far as
they try to coordinate and manage sequential activities perhaps as a fairly closed
technical endeavour (but really??). DSS is usually smaller in scale but integrative,
linking together disparate data (inputs) , modelling potential actions and outcomes,
so as to steer future action in the environment – generally action (decisions) made
by better informed humans.

Question 2
Describe the work to be undertaken by a project team when preparing for and
during the changeover to using a new information system.
In your answer explain the possible strategies for changeover, the specific
tasks that need to be undertaken by the project team, and the kind of support
that they may need to give to users during this period.

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

Reading for this question

Chapter 14 and 17 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: work done in preparation for and in achieving
changeover: strategies, tasks, user support.
This question is about the implementation/changeover stage of the life cycle. Better
answers will recognize that ‘preparing’ for changeover begins earlier in the life
cycle. Such answers may emphasise early phase of problem definition and
requirements when users might first be taken seriously thus making the changeover
stage less risky, better informed, and more credible to users. The question asks you
to explain possible strategies for changeover. In the Subject Guide these are
presented and discussed as big bang, parallel, pilot, and phased – though it is also
noted that blended versions may be used in practice. Answers should not just
explain these choices but show an understanding of the risks and costs involved
with each approach. It is often a question of crafting a strategy to particular
circumstances and particular assessment of risk.
Answers should also consider the key players in the project team who will be
involved in the changeover activity, what they do and why e.g. technical installation
and testing, data transfer and database management, trainers, ‘floor walkers’, help
points, problem logs and RFIs (Request for Improvement) cataloguing etc. The
support for users will definitely include training and answers may well cover the
different types of training – though this has to be part of a broader answer – there is
not much value in a simple list taken straight from notes or subject guide. But
beyond training there are many other ways to support users such as on-site support
(‘floor walkers’), help desks, request and bug logs etc.
To distinguish better answers, examiners look for a wholistic view of the problems
of changeover. One way to achieve this is by taking an explicit sociotechnical
perspective, and balancing technical concerns, with human/user concerns and
organisational issues.

Question 3
Explain the purpose of the UML Use Case Diagram (UCD) when it is used in
the early stages of an information systems development project. In what ways
are sociotechnical issues addressed as a Use Case Diagram is being
developed?
In your answer consider the role of UCDs in: i) helping people negotiate the
goals and boundaries for a new system, ii) establishing consensus as to
needed functionality, and iii) structuring and managing the development
effort.
Reading for this question
Chapter 16 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: UML as design tool; Use Case Diagram (UCD); UCD
support for sociotechnical views, debate and consensus, project workflow
This is an easy question to get started on if you know about UML and the UCD. A
surprising number of students it seems do not, even though they choose this
question and it is a required part of the course project work. A UCD is a specific

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type of diagram for a specific purpose – you cannot write about any other kind of
diagram or flowchart and expect many marks.
Answers can at the start explain that a UCD is a diagrammatic tool that allows an
analyst/designer, working with potential users of a new system, to depict the main
Actors (stakeholders) and data sources and sinks, as well as the core functionality
that these people (or other technical systems) desire or provide. The UCD shows
Actors (people or machines that ‘act’) and Use Cases – ‘chunks of functionality’ that
will benefit one or more actors and will (probably) need some technical support in
software.
The sociotechnical aspects are seen in the ideas of people (Actors) who want to
interact with the technical apparatus to achieve things they value or need. By
modelling chunks of functionality (always more about ‘what’ than ‘how’), and the
constellation of actors involved, there is a strong bias toward a sociotechnical
perspective. Design in this style is not just conceived as revolving around a
technical solution or tool, but people in various roles, the tasks they undertake, in a
collective (organisation) effort.
A good answer needs discussion of the purpose of the diagram e.g. as a debatable
scoping of a new system (e.g. boundary), as a high level and sharable view among
users, managers and specialists promoting consensus, and as depicting a system
as a sociotechnical ensemble. From the perspective of a development team it offers
a useful modularisation of the technical work – e.g. taking each Use Case as a sub
project and enabling early versions of a system encompassing some but not all use
cases. Thus the UCD can support iterative and evolutionary development.

Question 4
a) What are the defining characteristics of a ‘knowledge worker’? Illustrate
your answer with relevant examples of knowledge workers, the kinds of
knowledge they use, and the knowledge work systems that support them.
b) How serious is the threat to the jobs of today’s knowledge workers from
the new generation of knowledge work systems that rely on AI and Big
Data? Justify your answer.
Reading for this question
Chapter 4 and 8 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: characteristics of knowledge work and knowledge
worker; Contrasting examples of knowledge needs; working with knowledge work
systems (KWS); Impact of AI and big data on knowledge workers.
Knowledge workers are experts. They have the ability (skills, training, experience,
qualifications) to not only problem-solve but to define what the problem is in the first
place. Examples of knowledge workers includes accountants, analysts, doctors,
physicists, designers etc. A good argument can be made that almost all of us do
some kind of knowledge work, say a taxi driver knowing the way round a city, or a
cook knowing how to make succulent stews, but the term is generally used for
people with more specific formal training and academic qualifications.
Knowledge workers are creative and generally work with a quite high level of
autonomy – (in contrast perhaps to ‘data workers’ as rule followers.) Knowledge
workers are often part of a team, working with other specialists to integrate different
areas of knowledge into any given project or task. Answers need to talk about

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

knowledge workers using knowledge work systems (KWS) tailored to their area of
expertise, but also organisation-wide knowledge management systems (KMS) to
store and share knowledge.
For part B of the question an answer needs to tap into the many current debates
about how the labour market will change with new AI techniques allied with big
data, in particular for traditional knowledge workers – will they loose their jobs? The
question is probably best answered assuming that AI and big data are closely allied
and can be taken as together changing how organisations work, how tasks are
undertaken, and critically who does the work.
As sketched out above, there are different ways to answer this question. And good
answers are not simple statements of the inevitability of some specified outcome.
Markers are rather looking for a good level of engagement with the question, and
some subtlety and nuance in the discussion, rather than ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ type answers.

Question 5
How can you measure the success of a new information system development
project, both the system that is produced and the organisational outcomes?
Your answer should consider different measures of success that might be
appropriate at the start of changeover, three months after changeover and
then after three years of use.
Reading for this question
Chapter 14 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: evaluation; success measures for new systems; project
success vs organisational success; when and how success might be defined and
assessed.
How can you ever know if a systems development project has been worth the effort
and expenditure? What have we learned along the way? This is the area of
evaluation.
How and when to undertake evaluation is an age-old problem and there are no
easy answers. A narrow view of (summative) evaluation sees it as just a
comparison of actual project deliverable vs what was proposed, or actual project
outcomes against those agreed at the outset plus some cost versus benefits
calculation. But such simple perspectives might reveal very different findings. For
example, ‘Yes we have built all the technical elements and requested functionality
and they worked to specification, but by using them we have not achieve the
organisational outcomes desired and predicted.’ Evaluations may also focus on how
you organise the work, and how well the techniques or approaches used worked in
a specific case. For example, many organisations have tried out the agile approach
in projects and then tried to evaluate the benefits and costs agile approaches offer.
However, evaluation can have a wider role asking overall how and to what extent
the project has contributed benefits. Remember, a project might deliver unexpected
benefits even as it fails to deliver the original goal. This is one example of where the
distinction between project outcomes and organisational outcomes may become
very apparent.

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Question 6
‘Cloud computing has radically changed how organisations build and manage
their information systems. By choosing to use cloud services organisations
have more freedom to develop and support the systems they really need,
rather than having to accept the ones that are available in common enterprise
software packages.’
Critically assess this statement.
Note that you are not being asked to define cloud computing or to explain in
detail the concept of enterprise systems, rather to explore the relations
between them.
Reading for this question
Chapter 3 and 6 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: critical assessment; well-argued opinion; relationship of
cloud and enterprise systems
This question is in a specific form – a statement and an invitation to provide a
critical response to it. Answers must respond to the quotation giving a reasoned
response to what is being said. A good answer is NOT found in detailed
descriptions or definitions of either cloud computing or enterprise systems – as
stated in the last paragraph. It must be in the form of a well argued and coherent
opinion.
The focus here should be on how organisations choose to build their enterprise
systems, and the potential of the new opportunities that Cloud has brought. A
general argument could be that the advent of cloud (PaaS, SaaS or IaaS) allows for
a more flexible set of systems and services, chosen from the market. This means
that specific enterprise scaled tasks can have their own devoted IS resources
developed and adapted over time to meet needs. Cloud services may offer more
reliable, robust, and flexible opportunities when contrasted to in-house IT matched
to traditional ERP mega-packages. Good answers use examples to make the
points, including examples of cloud services (e.g. Salesforce), and of specific
companies moving to or exploiting Cloud. This may include example of rapidly
growing start-ups able to scale up their operations – e.g. COVID responses of
various kinds.
To obtain good marks an answer should offer some critique of the statement –
evaluation the ideas here. For example, is this really a ‘radical change’ or just a
evolution. Is it more about hardware and network infrastructures, or is it about better
and different systems and service in use provide better enterprise integration? An
answer might also want to argue for the evident benefits for some organisations of a
single, stable, integrated software architecture (e.g. traditional ERP), and the
enduring need for a database at the core that can serve to link up the organisation.
Finally, we repeat the warning given at the start. Take the last paragraph of the
question seriously. You will not obtain many marks for a list of various kinds of
‘XaaS’, explanations of ERP, or definitions of enterprise systems. The answer must
focus on the critical assessment of the statement.

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

Question 7
Why do organisations feel the need to appoint a person in the role of Data
Base Administrator? What tasks does a Data Base Administrator undertake?
What value does an organisation gain from having an effective Data Base
Administrator?
Reading for this question
Chapter 6 and 15 of the Subject Guide.
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: organisational need for a data base administrator, their
role and core tasks; value of data base administrator and data base approach in
general
The question asks “Why do organisations feel the need….” So it is best to start with
this need rather than with the role itself. This links to the wider idea of a database
approach – a single pool of shared data that will help ensure that an organisation is
coordinated in all its actions. This leads to the database becoming a crucial part of
the life of the organisation, a valuable asset, and needing to be carefully managed
and kept safe. It also implies that various kind of users (accountants, salespeople,
engineers, drivers etc.) do not hold their own data but give it up to the centre.
On this basis an answer can justify the role of the Data Base Administrator (DBA).
They are important, you might argue, because the quality of data and its availability
for people to do their jobs is central to the success of most organisations. Without a
person overseeing data generation, storage and sharing, and ensuring the integrity
of these activities, organisations may lose their way. In the era of big data, machine
learning and AI the importance of the collection and curation of data has become
even more central to many organisations’ future strategies and the role of the DBA
has expanded.
The tasks of the DBA should be discussed in an answer, for example database
design and implementation, data security and backups, authorising data access,
adherence to regulations such as data protection or freedom of information.
However, in a good answer this is not just a list but an opportunity to answer the
last part of the question on value, explain how the DBA adds value.

Question 8
Social media has the ability to disrupt the social order, for example by
spreading rumours and conspiracies, encouraging bullying and accentuating
disputes. Write a short report for a government policy maker that sets out
basic rules under which social media should operate.
Consider in particular the possibility of i) making social media platforms
legally liable for their content, ii) requiring all people posting messages to be
clearly identifiable, and iii) restricting the ability to share or ‘like’ posts.
Reading for this question
Chapter 10 and 11 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: Rules for social media; Government/regulator policy
perspective; report format;

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This is a question that asks for the answer in the form of a report to inform a
government policy maker. This is a bit different from a general essay – more formal
and structured. Good answers reflect this in how they are presented.
A good structure for the report might take two paragraphs to overview the problems
that social media possess for society and in particular for regulators and
governments. Good answers will probably want to offer some examples of what
might be seen as ‘disrupt the social order’ and the benefits or drawbacks of such
disruption. Disruption might indeed sometimes be good and necessary – even to be
encouraged?
The report might then move on to targeted paragraphs for each of the areas
highlighted in the question, and perhaps one or two other ideas that the student
wants to address. In each case the paragraph needs to clearly state the area
addressed and then evaluate some kind of relevant policy response. A student may
well want to argue against all three ideas presented in the question. This is fine as
far as the examiners are concerned as long as you make relevant arguments. We
know that different students will have different opinions, we focus on the quality of
the arguments and evidence used.

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

Examiners’ commentaries 2021

IS1060 Introduction to information systems – Zone B

Comments on specific questions

Candidates should answer THREE of the following EIGHT questions. All

questions carry equal marks.
We advise that each answer starts with a short introduction, indicating the
sequence of the main ideas in the answer. The answer to each question must
not exceed 1,000 words. Anything beyond 1,000 words will not be read.
However, you do not have to use all the 1,000 words. It is possible to answer
the questions well in less than 1,000 words. The word limit is to discourage
spending more than the 3 hours expected time/effort by producing
excessively lengthy responses. Any citations, references and direct
quotations are included in the word count. Any figures, graphs or tables are
excluded from the word count.

Question 1
Why are information systems described as ‘systems’?
In your answer consider the general properties of a system and apply them to
business information systems using examples of informal information
systems, Customer Relationship Management systems (CRM), and Decision
Support Systems (DSS).
Reading for this question
Chapter 5 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas for this question: systems concepts, well explained and creatively applied.
The term ‘system’ implies complex purposive activity operating in a dynamic and
changing environment. There is interaction with the environment and consequences
for the environment - inputs lead to outputs and thereby to change in the
environment. So an answer needs to frame information systems at minimum in
terms of inputs, processing and storage, and outputs, and add the concept of
feedback to maintain and control purposive actions. The subject guide also makes a
contrast between a ‘systems view’ of information systems as connected and
heterogeneous (e.g. socio technical), and a ‘tool’ view’ narrowly technical and
functional. The guide also mentions the ‘ensemble’ view as a synonym for a
systems view.
A stronger answer will show how using these ‘systems’ concept helps us to see
information activities as looking beyond technology, narrow communication and

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data to include people (users/stakeholders) of various types. This complicates our
understanding of how information systems are designed, operate and perform in
organisations, but it does help us to better understand them.
The second part of the question turns to specific types of information systems and
invites an answer that discuss them in systems terms. CRM and DSS are fairly
easy to explain in general (e.g. their role and function in a business organisation)
and to identify their inputs, some processing of data and feedback loops, and some
subsequent consequences in their environment (e.g. changed behaviours). Good
answers, in the spirit of the question, will be framed using systems concepts such
as heterogeneity, feedback and purposiveness. Both DSS and CRM need to be
explicitly addressed to get a high mark, using each to highlight different aspects of a
system e.g. CRM are purposive in so far as they try to ensure that interactions with
those beyond the organisational boundary are well coordinated. DSS is usually
smaller in scale but integrative, linking together disparate data (inputs) , modelling
potential actions and outcomes, so as to steer future action in the environment –
generally action (decisions) made by better informed humans.

Question 2
Describe the work to be undertaken by IS staff in the period after the
changeover to using a new information system has taken place.
In your answer explain the types of support that different kinds of user or
different types of system might need, and the kinds of data that will need to
be collected to support these activities.
Reading for this question
Chapter 14 and 17 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: work done after changeover: strategies, tasks, user
support.
This question is about what happens after the implementation/changeover stage of
the life cycle and includes issues of ‘maintenance’ in its broader meaning. Better
answers recognize this from the start and focus mostly on how a system in use is
supported, rather than the changeover as such. But we do expect some spill over.
Certainly, a good answer could note that that ‘preparing’ for changeover and
maintenance begins far earlier in the life cycle, even before design and testing.
Answers can then speak of problem definition and user requirements being the
points at which users are taken seriously and issues of long-term use, changes in
task and workflow, and evolution can be considered. In other words, it worth
planning for success.
Answer should cover the key players (IS staff) that will be involved in the
maintenance task, e.g. help desks, trainers, analysts, managers and data base
administrators. An answer should also consider the major types of maintenances –
corrective, perfective, adaptive and relate them to various types of data that can be
collected and used to provide support.
The different kinds of data needed may include feedback from users on technical
problems, workflow problems and general usability, future needs, usage data,
technical feedback from the IT side, and management input in relation to meeting
goals and shifting patterns of actual or desired use. In the end (3 years perhaps)
there will need to be some judgement made about whether a system should
continue to evolve or be replaced.

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

To distinguish better answers, examiners look for a wholistic view of the active life
of a system. One way to achieve this is by taking an explicit sociotechnical
perspective, and balancing technical concerns, adaptations in tasks undertaken, the
human/user concerns and organisational issues.

Question 3
Explain the purpose of the UML Class Diagram when it is used in the early
stages of an information systems development project prior to technical
design. In what ways are sociotechnical issues addressed when a Class
Diagram is being developed?
In your answer consider both how a Class Diagram may help developers and
users to frame the activity being addressed (mapping the real world),
integrate the data needs of different users, and how it can serve as a basis for
database design
Reading for this question
Chapter 16 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: UML as design tool; Class Diagram as a design tool;
support for sociotechnical views, analysis goals, transition to design
This is an easy question to get started on if you know about UML and have done
the course work database project. But be careful! The question is about the Class
Diagram as used in analysis and design and in support of requirement
determination – the early stages of a project. The question is not only or mostly
about database design or normalization. A surprising number of students missed
this.
As is suggested in the subject guide and in the project work for the course, the
Class Diagram allows an analyst to depict the main things and activities
(transactions) that are of relevance to a new systems – in particular things and
activities that data will be held about; an order, a customer, a film, a film director, a
meeting, a class etc etc. The second element is the associations among these
elements (classes), which makes the resulting ‘map of the world’ more meaningful.
An answer should be clear that the knowledge about what these ‘things’ are and
their various associations, comes from people familiar with the task a system
supports so analysts need to ask questions and observe work being done to elicit
this information. They can then write it down in the form of a class diagram, and
share it with users or managers, asking them to comment, agree or add more detail.
The answer should acknowledge that this is not only or mostly relevant to the
design of a database later on. As the question suggests, it is also of use in helping
developers understand what happens in the world, and what is important and
relevant. It also helps to aggregate the perspectives of different types of users into a
coherent whole. The sociotechnical elements of a Class Diagram as an analysis
tool, is found it is ability to relate data to peoples’ (actors) information needs and
information inputs.
Using Leavitts diamond we might say that a class diagram as prepared and refined
during the early phases of a development project represents a mix of actor, task,
technology and organisational interests – a balance of relations among them
expressed in what is included and what is excluded – and ready to be transformed
into a specific database design.

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Question 4
a) Why are IS managers and digital start-ups now excited by the
possibilities of using Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Big Data
technologies in the information systems of organisations?
b) What kinds of changes might AI and Big Data lead to for workers
across the various sectors of the economy?
Reading for this question
Chapter 4 and 8 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: the potential of AI and Big Data for organisational
information systems; perspective of established organisations and start-ups; impact
of AI and big data on jobs and professions.
Perhaps not all IS managers are excited about the potential for AI and Big Data, but
some are! This question asks you to speak for the excited ones. But before you do
it is good to give a brief description of what kinds of new possibilities you are
referring to e.g. the potential to use big data with better smart analytical software
that can find new patters and offer deeper insights. This is often described as
Machine Learning – a combination of big data and AI technique.
The excitement could take a number of forms. Some may be excited because this
makes their own job more relevant and important; some because it offers new ways
to build and connect and manage information systems, and some because it
suggest wholly new business opportunities. Digital start-ups may have a slightly
different reason to be enthused by AI and Big Data. They are often built around the
novelty of digital and can rapidly adopt and extend newer technologies, gaining
competitive advantage leading to rapid growth and $$$$. In contrast, established
companies go through an often-painful process of digital transformation in order to
take AI/big data seriously and find uses for it.
For part B of the question an answer needs to tap into the many current debates
about how the labour market will change if and when new AI techniques allied with
big data are in widespread use. The question is probably best answered assuming
that AI and big data are allied and together are changing how organisations
operate, how tasks are undertaken, and critically who does the work.
As sketched out above, there are different ways to answer this question. Good
answers are not simple statements of the inevitability of some specified outcome.
Markers are rather looking for a good level of engagement with the question, and
some subtlety and nuance in the discussion, rather than ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ type answers.

Question 5
Can new information systems alone be used as a powerful way to bring about
change in organisations – for example to make them more efficient or more
innovative?
Your answer should consider the potential of technology to bring change, the
assumptions or theories that underlie such a view, and any limitations and
reservations.

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

Reading for this question

Chapter 8 and 9 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: are information systems = change? are information
systems = inevitable and predictable change? are information systems changes =
efficiency and innovation?
The question says ‘alone’, and this perspective is probably the best basis for
starting a good answer e.g. taking a narrowly technical view of IS as a tool. Can
technology alone, taken as a tool, lead directly to beneficial change? Probably not
very often. But answers that build on sociotechnical ideas (an underlying theory as
asked for in the question) and go on to discuss information systems in broader
scope will probably offer better explorations of the question.
Drawing on Leavitt’s Diamond (task, structure, people and technology) as the focus
– e.g. change one , change all is appropriate. New information systems are
introduced, but they is more than just technology – to develop and implement an IS
is not all technology focused, we consider and adjust task, people and organisation
too. An answer taking this route might say that indeed technology alone (and
technical IS) is powerful and change may well occur, but it is hard to control and
may not lead to efficiency or innovation – it could do just the opposite! So we have
good reason to look further than technology, and to see information systems in
broader terms in order to achieve the change that we desire.
Often, it seems, senior managers forget this and just expect technology to work as
advertised and to deliver, as if by magic, some mix of strategic orientation,
efficiency and quality for their organisation. Interestingly, many UoL students also
seem to equate technology with efficiency as if it is an inevitable outcome:
computers = efficiency = good. A question like this asks you to look a bit more
carefully at the issues in play here.
Finally, we must emphasise that this question is not adequately answered by
describing one or two well known cases of organisations that have succeeded in
driving change forward using technology. Answers that describe Amazon, Apple,
Uber, Grab, Alibaba etc. just tell a simple story about one of the winners. This
question needs a more nuanced and theory-based answer that accounts for a wider
range of organisations.

Question 6
‘Perhaps the most significant Enterprise Systems of many organisations are
those focused on the management of their supply chain (SCM). These are
often more critical to success than other Enterprise Systems such as CRM or
ERP.’
Critically assess this statement.
Note that you are not asked to define in detail the concept of Enterprise
Systems, but rather to explore the importance of SCM as an enterprise
system.
Reading for this question
Chapter 3 and 6 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: critical assessment; well-argued opinion; specific
significance of SCM as an enterprise system

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This question is in a specific form – a statement and an invitation to provide a
critical response to it. Answers must respond to the quotation giving a reasoned
response to what is said. A good answer is NOT found in detailed descriptions or
definitions of ERP, SCM, CRM or enterprise systems – as stated in the last
paragraph of the question. Rather, the answer must be in the form of a well-argued
and coherent opinion as to the relative importance of SCM as an ES. The focus
here should be on how organisations use and benefit from their enterprise systems
in particular the benefits that derive from supply chain management systems.
Answer will probably express the idea that SCM does clearly qualify to be described
as an ‘Enterprise System’, e.g. as clearly fundamental to the organisation’s
existence and with a role to hold the whole organisation together. An argument
might be made that SCM is important for many organisations today because they
operate in complex markets to source their raw materials – inputs, and to distribute
their product or service - outputs. Increasingly these supply chains (beyond the
organisations boundaries and hard to control) are highly computerised and ‘lean’.
That is, the business only operates if the supply’s keep arriving on time and in the
right place (the just in time principle), and if customers receive rapid and reliable
delivery of outputs.
Remember that to obtain good marks an answer should offer some critique of the
statement – evaluating the ideas it contains. For example, is SCM really the most
significant ES for most organisations – is it likely to be more important for some
than for others? Or is the ‘traditional’ ERP type system still the workhorse of most
organisations?
Finally, we repeat the warning given at the start. Take the last paragraph of the
question seriously. You will not obtain many marks for a list of various kinds of
enterprise software or definitions of enterprise systems. The answer must focus on
the critical assessment of the statement.

Question 7
Explain the different ways in which information systems development
projects can be structured and managed and the issues and potential
problems that managers of development projects must address.
In your answer contrast the challenges of project management faced in
projects that take the traditional waterfall approach and the agile approach.
Reading for this question
Chapter 14 and 15 of the Subject Guide.
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: options for organising systems development; structure
and management; problems to address.
Answers to this question are expected to review the various ways that IS projects
can be organised, drawing on different categorisations. e.g. there is in-house vs
outsourced, build or buy, waterfall, Agile, End-user, perhaps Cloud too.
An answer might briefly introduce the lifecycle/waterfall approach as a basic bench-
mark – but please to do it briefly and informatively! It could then use this to explain
the potential for other approaches – how they change the possibilities.
The question asks for a particular emphasis on the challenges of project
management that arise for these approaches. Answers could do this by looking at
the degree of control that a project manager can exert, their ability to estimate and

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 Examiners’ commentaries 2021

plan, to allocate and control work, and the degree to which users and user-interests
are integrated into the management process. Thus Agile approaches may improve
the integration of users into development, giving then a stronger role, but may lead
to a weaker ability to estimate and plan, and a potential to never get to the end.
Overall markers would reward answers to a question like this that demonstrate
good understanding of the complexities of organising an IS project and keeping it
on track as well as the number of things that can go wrong or lead a project off into
unexpected or undesirable directions. This does not mean that the hard formal life
cycle model is the ‘best’. It too has terrible potential to go wrong. Nor does it mean
that only trivial projects can be managed in an agile way. All around the world rapid
COVID related projects to bring new information systems into widespread use (e.g.
phone apps, vaccination schedules and supply chains and national databases)
have been undertaken at high speed and without the full waterfall paraphernalia.

Question 8
Extensive personal data on people’s healthcare and treatments are collected
as a result of healthcare computerisation. Write a short report for a
government policy maker that sets out the basic rules under which this data
should be collected and used.
Consider in particular the case of using such data for: i) treating a patient, ii)
planning and scheduling work in healthcare organisations, iii) rapid research
evaluations of the effectiveness of new treatments, and iv) marketing health
products and services.
Reading for this question
Chapter 10 and 11 of the Subject Guide
Approaching the question
Key ideas in the question: Rules for personal health data; Government/regulator
policy perspective; report format.
This question that asks for the answer in the form of a report to inform a
government policy maker. This will be a bit different from a general essay – more
formal and structured. Good answers reflect this in how they are presented.
A suitable structure for the report might take two paragraphs to overview the issues
that health data presents for health institutions, regulators and governments. Good
answers will want to offer some specific examples of these problems and the
complexity of the issues raised.
The report can then move on to targeted paragraphs for each of the four areas
highlighted in the question, and perhaps add one or two other ideas that the student
wants to address. Each paragraph needs to clearly state the area addressed and
then set out and evaluate some kinds of relevant policy responses- their strengths
and weaknesses. There are of course no right or wrong answers here, and a policy
paper may well want to set out both sides of a given question without expressing a
strong opinion. But opinions and judgement are useful to make the work credible.
We know that different students will have different opinions, but in marking we focus
most on the quality of the arguments and evidence used.

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