WAIT: Workshop on the Advances in Information Technology, Budapest, 2021

Effects of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations on Electricity

Grid: Challenges and Possible Solutions

Shahab Sabzi,1† and Vajta Laszlo1

1 Department of Control Engineering and Information Technology,

Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

Abstract
Today, the number of registered Electric Vehicles (EV) worldwide is increasing rapidly, and they introduce new
challenges to the grid as they affect the load profile. This additional energy required for new EVs needs to be
provided by the network; thus, electricity companies must find solutions to provide the vehicles with adequate
power and prevent loads from unbalancing. Various solutions can be employed by electricity companies, such
as construction of new charging stations, establishing energy storage systems to charge the EVs, introducing
limitations on the consumption of the users, and presenting optimal solutions and algorithms to distribute the
power between EVs based on different parameters, such as dynamic pricing and load sharing. In this paper,
issues regarding the charging of EVs are studied, possible solutions will be proposed, and the advantages and
disadvantages of each one are investigated. Finally, some suggestions for future research will be made.
Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): I.3.3 [Computer Graphics]: Line and Curve Genera-
tion

1. Introduction
In recent years, with the reduction of manufacturing costs,
increasing the number of charging stations, and raising the
awareness toward pollution of conventional fossil fuel-based
vehicles, the popularity of EVs is proliferating around the
world and specifically in Europe. In 2020, Europe had the
second share of EVs after China, and there are more EVs in
Europe than in the USA. An important reason for this growth
in the number of EVs is new CO2 emission standards intro-
duced by the European Union and infrastructure investments
across the region [1].
Moreover, some economic and environmental problems
related to fossil fuel-based transportation will keep motivat-
ing the electrification of vehicles. By 2022, the number of
EVs worldwide is expected to surpass 35 million [2]. It is a
well-known fact that combustion engine-based cars are asso-
ciated with many environmental problems such as air qual-
ity, ozone depletion, water quality, and produce emissions
† email:shahab.sabzi@gmail.com
such as CO, CO2, CH4, NO, and N2O [3]. Most importantly,
fuel-based vehicles are responsible for about 30% of CO2
emissions worldwide, while personal transportation systems
account for 10% of this pollution. On the other hand, only
less than 5% of the cars are compatible with corporate aver-
age fuel economy (CAFE) standards in the US [4]. Regard-
ing the European Union standards, vehicles must produce 95
g of CO2 emissions per kg in 2020 to be considered clean,
when only 5% of existing cars comply with this standard.
Although some claims are indicating that EVs may not be
as clean as they are believed to be [5], [6], recently authors
in [7] indicated that electrification of transportation systems
would eventually lead to many environmental benefits, even
if they are power by fossil fuels plant and not green energies.
It is also noted that by using EVs instead of conventional ve-
hicles, the level of harmful emissions would decrease, which
will be regarded as more healthy for citizens.
As it is targeted for global EVs number to approach a 30%
share by 2030, it is expected to see an exponential increase
in the number every year [8]. In Hungary, EVs share was
1.9% in 2019, 50% more than its 2018 share. This shows the
 Sabzi et al / Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

such as injecting harmonics and changing the grid’s power

factor [18]-[23]. Figure 2 shows the different impacts of EV
charging stations in the grid, divided by energy-related and
power quality issues.

Figure 1: EV penetration rate in leading countries [10]

Figure 2: Different impacts of EV on the grid parameters

growing interest among casual users toward EVs. In some

2.1. Impacts on the grid’s energy
other European countries, the share is higher. For example,
the EV market share has already reached more than 50% in The most critical issue concerning EV charging stations,
Norway, and around 50% in Iceland. Also, while the num- which is the main focus of this paper, is that they increase
ber of EVs compared to conventional vehicles in China is the demand by a considerable amount and unflatten the load
about 5%, many countries have targeted 100% EV usage in profile on different feeders.
a not-so-far future [9]. Figure 1 compares the EVs penetra-
Figure 3 illustrates a sample daily load curve in the res-
tion rate in Q4 2019 and Q1 2020 in the countries with the
idential distribution grid with large shares of PV and EVs
most number of EVs [10].
[24]. As observed, the scenario with the only baseload has
As stated in the literature, although EVs are beneficial to the most flattened curve, while adding EV can move the peak
urban society by reducing green gas pollution, the challenges to the highest amount. In lines specified by red and green, the
raised followed by them must be understood and addressed consumption is lowered in noon because the radiation is the
to clarify the path for electrification of vehicular traffic. In highest, and PVs supply a share of the demand. Furthermore,
this paper, the main focus will be on the challenges regarding when PVs are combined with EVs, the peak will decrease.
charging stations of EVs and solutions for charging the EVs
in the future. The paper is organized as follows: in section
2, challenges regarding the electric vehicle charging process
and the impact on the grid are investigated. In section 3, sev-
eral solutions for addressing these challenges are proposed,
and finally in section 4, conclusions and future works are
discussed.

2. Impacts of EV charging on the electric grid

EV integration into the electricity grid comes with many
positive effects, such as power management and V/f regu-
lation [11]. However, since this paper deals with the solu-
tions to compensate of EVs negative impacts, only adverse
effects are noted and investigated. Electric charging stations
must supply the load with continuous power at the desired
time and in the dispersed locations; therefore, they are not Figure 3: Load curves of different scenarios in a residential
favorable for utility companies as utilities try to have a ho- distribution grid [24]
mogenous load profile, and otherwise, they will face future
issues implied on the grid, such as local power shortages.
The effect of EV charging stations on load profile in trans- In [25], [26], the effect of charging in two different sce-
mission systems has been investigated in [12]-[15], and the narios (uncontrolled and indirect controlled) on a low volt-
effects of EV charging stations on load profile in distribution age network (transformer loading, feeders loading, and volt-
systems have been investigated in [16], [17]. Also, charging ages at the endpoints of the feeders) used as a case study
stations can imply some impacts on the grid’s power quality, by the EU project Microgrids was investigated. The authors
 Sabzi et al / Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

showed that the detrimental effect of the uncontrolled charg-

ing on the grid is much larger than the indirect scenario. It
was concluded that a high share of EVs that use indirect
controlled charging method (smart) could be beneficial in
the network. However, the network could not serve for un-
controlled charging, and in this case, other solutions such as
upgrading the network’s capacity must be implemented.
In [27] technical challenges resulted from uncoordinated Figure 4: Solutions to compensate the effects of EV charging
in-home and public charging stations are investigated in a stations on the grid
wide area of the capital city of Iran, Tehran. It is noted
that the charging of EVs has the most impact on the dis-
tribution grid, and it can also negatively affect the reliability
of the network. As a solution, the authors propose a con- 3.1. Energy storage and generation installment
trolled charging strategy for EVs to minimize the network’s Energy storage device technologies are advancing quickly,
daily power losses considering operation constraints. Also, a so the concept of self-storage charging stations has been in-
stochastic algorithm based on the Monte Carlo simulation is troduced [29]. In this method, energy storage devices are in-
presented considering the uncertainty of EV owners’ com- stalled on-site of charging stations capable of storing energy
muting behavior. The proposed algorithm eventually helps that will later be used to charge the vehicles. Sometimes,
the utility company to achieve a smooth load profile. this energy storage system comes with a renewable energy
source or another energy storage device (hybrid energy stor-
age systems) to increase the charging system’s reliability
2.2. Impacts on grid’s power quality
[30]-[33]. Figure 5 shows a simple diagram of such a sys-
Due to EV’s dynamic characteristics, they have a natural tem. While there is an ordinary charging station to charge
effect on the grid’s e power quality, such as harmonics, the vehicle in the off-peak period, the battery can also be
sag, swell, voltage, and phase imbalance. However, com- charged during off-peak hours and consequently charge the
panies follow power quality standards while manufacturing electric vehicle during peak hours. While this method will
EVs to prevent devastating impacts on the grid. As indi- help the utility keep the demand in acceptable range, there is
cated in the literature, power electronics devices are sources still the need to install new devices to increase the average
of harmonics and other power quality issues in the grid. capacity. The new investment will increase the costs of the
Therefore, since EV chargers use power electronics devices systems. Moreover, the problem related to sizing and place-
that include switching semiconductor-based elements, har- ment of the battery must be considered too [34], making the
monics are produced when converting power is carried out solution not optimal.
[28]. Harmful sequence components in the load currents are
also produced in EV charging stations, impacting the con-
verter’s performance. These harmful sequence components
produce a second-order harmonic ripple in the DC link volt-
age, which results distortions in the grid’s currents [23].

3. Solutions to compensate the negative impacts of EVs

on the grid
As illustrated in figure 3, the integration of EVs into the grid
can significantly increase the demand for the utility com-
pany. Therefore, proper economical solutions must be found
to deal with this growth. While there are software-based
and hardware-based solutions, utilities usually install new
electric energy storage systems at different locations to get
charged in off-peak hours and charge the EVs in peak hours,
or PVs to cover the peak demand, invest in new infrastruc-
tures such as new charging stations, parallel lines, new trans- Figure 5: Using a stationary battery to charge EVs
formers, etc. They can also concentrate on smart charging
solutions that rely mostly on regulating of the charging of
EVs, dynamic pricing, offering different charging patterns, Some publications consider the effect of EV charging sta-
etc. Solutions to compensate for the adverse effects of EV tions along with other elements on the grid. In [35] distri-
charging stations are summarized in figure 4. bution generators are combined with EVs, and an existing
 Sabzi et al / Electric Vehicle Charging Stations
network is analyzed. Although the method is implemented
on a small network (YTU Davutpasa Campus), the results
show that the voltage levels can be restored and regulated as
planned by using a solar power plant. EV charging stations
can be operated at maximum capacity without any harm on
the network, where the optimally sized solar power plants
can be operated in accordance with solar radiation variation
safely. Authors in [36], [37] presented a method for optimal
placement of charging stations to help the load profile’s ho-
mogeneity. While in [36] the effect of installing the PV is
also included in the network, an particle swarm optimization
(PSO) is used to solve the constrained nonlinear stochastic
problem, and the designed system is claimed to reduce the
costs effectively.
3.2. Developing new infrastructures
The need for charging stations is more evident as the num-
ber of EVs is increasing, and they require electric energy.
Increasing the number of charging stations will also lead
to market acceptance of EVs [38]. There are several EU
projects with a goal to grow the charging infrastructures
to support new EVs that are brought to the grid [39]-[42].
In [40], [41], which are EU projects conducted in Austria,
Matrix charging stations are introduced, where there are
no moving parts outside the vehicle. This method that was
evaluated in BMW cars is provided with 99% transmission
efficiency, at 30% lower cost than the nearest competitor.
British company ZPN has proposed new charging infrastruc-
tures that are easily deployable, stored energy based EV fast-
charging system; just like a power bank for a mobile phone,
but bigger and faster [42].
If EV owners charge the vehicle whenever and wherever
they wish, utilities will have no choice but to expand the
charging capacity and grow the number of charging stations
[43]. Since this usually comes with uncontrolled charging,
the energy will not be optimized, and the load profile will
not be flattened, leading to many issues brought on the grid.
Therefore, it is suggested for the utilities to invest in smart
charging rather than installing new infrastructures. Develop-
ing new charging stations may be required for areas facing
a few numbers of charging stations. However, the grid’s ca-
pacity must be accounted for if a new station is planned to
be installed. Besides, developing a new charging station re-
quires financial investment. Therefore, there must be a trade-
off between developing new charging stations and energy
optimization.
3.3. Smart charging
The best way to optimize the distribution of electrical energy
in a grid with the integration of EVs is the utilization of smart
charging methods. Smart charging can be carried out pursu-
ing several goals such as technical and financial objectives.
Technical objectives can include balancing load power, V2G
scheme realization, V/f regulation reducing losses. More-
over, financial objectives can contain reducing energy costs
and increasing profits for charging providers [44]. In this pa-
per, any possible solution that does not require additional
energy storage devices or developing charging stations will
be considered as smart charging and will be included in this
section, which is the main focus of this survey.
In a smart charging scheme, EVs cannot be connected to
chargers anytime or anywhere the driver wishes; instead,
some mechanisms should be realized for the EVs fleet’s
charging operation. In [45], a centrally coordinated strat-
egy to link the EVs to the distribution network is designed,
while EVs are also considered as mobile energy storage de-
vices that can reduce load fluctuations. As the target is to
coordinate the flexible charging demand with the varying
renewable energy capacity in consideration of the mobility
needs of EV users, the share of renewable energy sources
has been maximized. Also, EVs are charged during the day
using PV energy, concluding that there will be no additional
generation with a specific share of the flexible load. In paper
[46], charging is carried out using a smart real-time charging
scheduling to reduce grid peak demand. For the optimization
problem, dynamic programming is used to balance the en-
ergy in the grid. Although the authors succeeded in reducing
the annual grid demand by 24%, they did not witness any
significant shift in the hourly demand.
Authors in [47] indicated that random and uncontrolled
EV charging has implications on network loading and the
charging cost since time-based pricing is in effect for many
utility companies. Thus, they present a regulated charging
scheme that takes into account the charging cost, which rep-
resents both the transformer loading and the utility-level
Time of Day (ToD) tariff. In [48], the authors mentioned
that EVs could bring issues regarding power system com-
ponents overloading and power quality. As a result, to solve
these problems, they utilized EVs to fulfill peak-shaving in
peak hours and solved the optimization problem using Parti-
cle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm.
Some articles use a more sophisticated algorithm for the
optimization problem. For example, in [49] a network oper-
ator who owns multiple public charging stations presents its
customers with various options. These options include opti-
mal pricing and routing protocols. This algorithm somehow
includes the driver’s preference, where he cannot determine
his charging station; instead, he can put a priority level and
amount of energy request from the presented menu. After-
ward, the operator suggests a charging station on his way
compatible with his needs. This algorithm lets the operator
manage the approach time to charging stations based on the
user’s priority. This algorithm considers EVs’ effect on the
grid and tries to maximize the profit earned by the charging
station’s owner, where the drivers’ profit is not included in
the cost function.
Participants of the EU project [50] proposed a smart
 Sabzi et al / Electric Vehicle Charging Stations
AI-based charging assistant for Light Commercial Vehicle
fleets. First, vehicle charging data from the electric LCVs
is analyzed, and then it is combined with consumption data
from public, home, and office chargers to ensure business
continuity of eLCV fleets and save money on charging, and
reducing idle time. Authors in [51] developed an optimal
control framework incorporating transportation information
and drivers’ habits suitable for EVs’ energy management.
While slow chargers take a long time to fully charge an EV
battery (about 9 hours or more), implementing fast chargers
is difficult and costly; however, it reduces the time of charg-
ing [52]. Consequently, the task of fast charging is usually
fulfilled in the battery charger’s power electronics topology
and the designed controller and not in the optimization algo-
rithm, so it is out of the scope of this paper.
4. Conclusion
This paper dealt with introducing modern methods to com-
pensate for the effects of EV charging on the grid. It was
noted that EVs could bring negative impacts on the energy
and power quality of the system. Some methods to address
the problems associated with EVs included using energy
storage in disperse locations, expanding the networks, and
using smart charging patterns. The most optimal and cost-
effective method is smart charging that deals with finding
software-based methods to direct drivers about the time and
location of charging.
An essential factor while generating the optimization al-
gorithm would be the driver’s preferences; therefore, in our
future work, the role of driver’s behaviors as a determining
effect in charging will be considered. Using the driver’s be-
havior model will lead to a two-way method that utilizes a
cross feedback solution to create the most optimum pattern
meeting the driver and utility benefits.
Acknowledgements
This research work is supported by the project EFOP-3.6.1-
16-2016-00014 "RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
OF DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE E-
MOBILITY" (Ministry of Human Capacities), and by the
EU project H2020 ID 952684 "SECURITY BY DESIGN
IOT DEVELOPMENT AND CERTIFICATE FRAME-
WORK WITH FRONT-END ACCESS CONTROL".
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